Vocational education and training (VET) in transition

2. Policy tools for green VET

The green transition is driving structural changes in labour markets, requiring VET systems to adapt. This section aims to provide countries with concrete policy solutions to support this adaptation. It is organised around six key policy challenges, covering different stages of VET policy development:

• From qualifications design: skills anticipation, qualification updates and programme content (policy challenges 1, 2 and 3).

• Through the skills of those delivering education and training: VET teachers and in-company trainers (policy challenge 4).

• To reaching those in need: adult training and career guidance (policy challenges 5 and 6).

For each issue, the section introduces the challenge and outlines relevant policy tools, illustrated with concrete country examples. The tools are presented in their specific contexts of application (e.g. upper-secondary versus HVET) and, where relevant, their limitations are also highlighted. Taking into account differences in VET system design, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of challenges and a broad range of policy solutions applicable to diverse contexts.

2.1. Policy challenge 1: Skills anticipation for the green transition is challenging and often insufficiently integrated into VET policy

When deciding on the content of VET qualifications policymakers and stakeholders need to consider not only short-term developments but also medium- and long-term trends, to ensure that the competences provided do not quickly become obsolete. The green transition makes the task of skills anticipation even more complex, as changes driven by green innovation can rapidly alter work processes and are often strongly influenced by policy decisions. For example, subsidies for solar panel installations are likely to quickly increase demand for solar panel installers but this demand may decline just as rapidly once the subsidies are withdrawn. The key challenge, therefore, is how to develop VET qualifications in a context of rapidly changing skill requirements, driven in part by the green transition.

VET systems need mechanisms to anticipate changing skill demands driven by green technologies. Countries can use both institutionalised forecasting (regular, system-wide projections) and thematic studies (targeted sectoral analyses) and apply a combination of quantitative data (e.g. labour statistics, vacancy data) and qualitative inputs (e.g. employer consultations, expert panels) to assess labour market and education needs. Integrating forecasting results into VET decision-making strengthen their use in policy.

2.1.1. Policy tool: Use institutionalised and thematic skills anticipation approaches

Institutionalised approaches are based on regular, methodologically established exercises repeated over time, providing continuity and a solid basis for long-term analysis of labour market dynamics and education and training provision. These types of skills anticipation exercises often aim to provide a holistic view and typically cover multiple occupations and sectors. For example, in Germany the green transition is considered as one of several factors influencing labour demand and supply across the economy.

In Germany, QuBe project (Qualifikations- und Berufsprojektionen), conducted since 2007 and updated every two years, provides an example of a projection system that models different policy pathways, including scenarios related to the green transition. QuBe combines macroeconomic modelling with detailed labour market projections and incorporates a wide range of factors such as demographic change, productivity trends, technological developments, energy and climate policies, international trade, educational participation, migration assumptions, and labour force participation rates. It produces medium (around five years)- to long-term projections (currently up to 2040) of labour demand and supply in Germany by occupation and qualification level, based on observed trends and on how workers, firms and education systems typically respond to changes in the labour market. These projections can be used to identify potential skills shortages under varying policy scenarios, including green transition, and to assess how education and training might respond. For example, it is estimated that between 100 000-150 000 additional skilled workers will be needed for the energy transition by 2040 (Bundesagentur fur Arbeit, 2025[10]).

Since 2018, QuBe has been used to produce the Fachkräftemonitoring (skilled labour monitoring) for the Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (BMAS) (Zika et al., 2024[11]). BIBB (Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training) which is also involved in the development of QuBe relies on QuBe results in its research and policy support work on VET (BIBB, 2026[12]). Projections provided by QuBe with future shortages or surpluses are used to inform discussions on training capacities and priorities and to guide debates on apprenticeship supply. However, they do not prescribe specific numbers of training places (Mönnig et al., 2024[13]).

Skills anticipation may also take more thematic, or programme-based forms, depending on emerging needs. These approaches often focus on specific transitions or policy priorities, providing more granular analysis of sectoral labour demand and skill requirements, as in the case of Jobs and Skills Australia (JSA).

In Australia, a study by Jobs and Skills Australia (JSA), ‘The Clean Energy Generation: Workforce needs for a net zero economy’, provides an example of a capacity assessment of workforce needs linked to the country’s plans to transition to a clean energy economy (JSA, 2023[14]). Commissioned by the Australian Government, the study provides evidence to support workforce planning, policy development and programme design. It clarifies which jobs and industries make up Australia’s clean energy workforce and analyses different scenarios for achieving net zero by 2050, including the number of workers required, the availability of relevant skills and their regional distributions.

JSA’s projections and analytical outputs are used by government and industry stakeholders to guide workforce planning and align education and training systems with labour market needs, and they contribute directly to national policy development (JSA, 2023[14]; JSA, 2025[15]).

JSA has been formally evaluated and is considered a strong provider of skills intelligence informing policy, although its effectiveness depends on improving co‑operation with stakeholders, increasing the practical use of its outputs, and strengthening links between analysis and policy decisions (Australian Government and JSA, 2026[16]).

2.1.2. Policy tool: Use a mix of quantitative and qualitative methods

Methodological approaches to skills anticipation can vary combining qualitative and quantitative methods. Quantitative methods rely on a range of data including administrative data, labour force statistics, and, more and more often, job vacancy data, whereas qualitative methods involve for example interviews, consultations, and seminars. A combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches is more likely to influence policy and works best to assess the skill needs of the green economy, whereby labour market, demographic and education data are complemented by expert panels, sector dialogue and scenario analysis (OECD, 2023[17]). This mixed approach helps to contextualise quantitative projections and understand not only how employment may change, but also how tasks and skill requirements within occupations are evolving. France is among the countries applying the mixed approach in its green forecast exercises.

In France, the Observatoire national des emplois et métiers de l’économie verte (ONEMEV), created in 2010, uses a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods to analyse the impact of the ecological transition on employment and skills. Its work relies on statistical monitoring based on labour market and occupational data, while also drawing on sectoral studies, expert working groups and consultations with institutional and social partners to better understand changes in occupations, skills and training needs (Ministère de transition écologique, aménagement du territoire, transports, ville et logement, 2025[18]; Commissariat général au développement durable, 2020[19]).

ONEMEV’s work is used directly to inform policy related to the ecological transition, notably by contributing to the development of France’s national jobs and skills strategy under the Secrétariat général à la planification écologique. Its analyses support the identification of green and strategic occupations, and the alignment of training and certification systems with emerging skill needs. Recent developments such as improved classification of green jobs, better integration of training data, the use of new labour market data sources, and closer involvement in national and territorial policies have strengthened its policy relevance (Ministère de l'amènagement du territoire et de la transition écologique, 2025[20]).

There is no evidence of a formal evaluation of ONEMEV’s effectiveness; however, broader assessments of the French skills anticipation system highlight strengths in stakeholder co‑ordination and data production, alongside challenges related to fragmentation and the usability of skills intelligence outputs (Cedefop, 2023[21]).

2.1.3. Policy tool: Improve integration of forecasts into decision making

Policy forecasting results are intended to inform skills provision in VET, and ultimately, qualification updates. However, their translation into revisions of qualifications can be weakened by limited institutional co‑ordination between forecasting bodies and qualification authorities, fragmented labour market intelligence systems, and insufficient dissemination of results. This link can be strengthened through closer co‑operation between relevant institutions, incentives for VET institutions to incorporate labour market intelligence into planning, and dissemination activities. Specifically, involving qualification bodies more directly in forecast activities can further strengthen the link between skills anticipation and qualification development as in Finland and England (United Kingdom). Formal review cycles can also be complemented by flexible triggers allowing earlier updates when new green skill needs emerge, as in Belgium Flanders. Some countries, such as Sweden, have reinforced the use of labour market intelligence to make VET provision more accountable and to guide VET provision at the local level.

In Finland, skills forecasting and foresight are housed within the Finnish National Agency for Education (EDUFI), which is also responsible for the development and revision of VET qualifications. This arrangement facilitates the integration of forecasting and foresight results into development VET qualifications. To familiarise stakeholders with the new qualifications and facilitate their translation into programmes by VET institutions EDUFI organises launch events where new and revised qualifications, and the rationale behind their development, are presented.

In England (United Kingdom), Skills England produces labour market intelligence through skills needs assessments, sectoral analyses and forecasts that identify current and future skills demand across the economy. This evidence base informs its work in initiating and developing qualifications, particularly through its role in working with employers to develop, approve and review occupational standards that underpin apprenticeships and technical qualifications (House of Commons Library, 2024[22]; Skills England, 2026[23]).

The use of forecasting and foresight can also be more formally embedded in decision-making processes.

In Flanders (Belgium) skills anticipation is institutionally embedded in the update of VET qualifications through a combination of competency prognoses and monitoring dashboards. VET qualifications are periodically assessed for their continued relevance based on labour-market intelligence and monitoring of qualification performance. Monitoring data are used to identify qualifications, particularly those that have not been updated for three to five years, that may require review. In consultation with sector representatives, it is then determined whether substantive updates are needed. Particular attention is paid to the integration of digital and green competences (OECD, 2024[4]).

Sweden provides an example of a country that has recently strengthened the role of labour market intelligence in VET planning, recognising its importance both for evaluating the performance of the VET system and for improving the relevance of upper-secondary VET programmes to labour market needs.

In Sweden, since October 2023, the Swedish National Agency for Education [Skolverket] has produced regional skills intelligence reports with statistics, analyses and forecasts of future skill needs, as well as demand for upper-secondary education, to be used by education decision makers. The report will be updated every three years. While not used specifically for the green labour market this measure also contributes to better alignment between VET and green jobs (Skolverket, 2026[24]).

2.2. Policy challenge 2: Emerging green skill needs are often difficult to translate into VET qualifications

Translating emerging green skill needs into VET qualifications is challenging because existing processes are often slow and complex. In rapidly evolving or emerging sectors, such as those linked to new green technologies, traditional consultation mechanisms may not capture skills needs quickly or accurately enough. While apprenticeships and employer engagement can improve responsiveness, they are not always sufficient on their own. As a result, additional mechanisms, such as expert groups, fast-track feedback tools, and local curriculum adaptation, help to ensure VET qualifications keep pace with change.

Identifying the challenges countries face in revising VET qualifications is a first step towards developing appropriate solutions. 21 out of 27 countries or subnational territories that responded to the questionnaire circulated for this study, reported that VET qualifications are not created or updated frequently enough to keep pace with changing skills demand.

Figure 3 below shows that countries that identified bottlenecks in the process of updating and revising VET qualifications to match the green transition demands, most often pointed to difficulties in engaging employers into the creation or revision of VET qualifications. Difficulties in identifying changes occurring in the workplace with lasting effects, including those driven by green innovation, were cited as another key obstacle to keeping VET qualifications up to date. Some countries also reported that qualification development and revision processes are overly complex and involve too many iterative stages. Limited resources, either financial or in terms of staff capacity, were also mentioned as a constraint. Finally, in countries where VET providers enjoy a high degree of autonomy in selecting and adapting qualifications, VET providers may not have the capacity to introduce the changes (e.g. lack of qualified teachers) and/or be resistant to new ideas.

Updating or creating new VET qualifications typically requires at least several months, and often longer. While in some countries the pace of qualification updates is considered too slow to match changing employer needs, a minority of countries reported satisfaction with the speed of qualification development, even when their timelines are not necessarily shorter. In these cases, the duration was considered necessary to ensure the development of high-quality programmes and qualifications. This group includes countries with strong apprenticeship systems where employers can directly convey their needs during work-based training, such as Germany, Switzerland, and Luxembourg, as well as countries like Sweden, where upper-secondary VET focuses on providing a broad foundation of transferable skills rather than highly specialised occupation-specific competences, making it less sensitive to specific changes in work practices.

Figure 3. Obstacles preventing countries from having up to date qualifications

21 countries reported that VET programmes and qualifications were not updated or created frequently enough to address the demand for skills for the green transition and identified the main obstacles to their timely update. Countries could report more than one obstacle

Source: OECD (2024[4]), VET and the green transition: Background questionnaire (unpublished).

Note: The questionnaire used for data collection is reproduced in Annex B; responses are not included.

2.2.1. Policy tool: Expand apprenticeship in green occupations to keep education and training aligned with labour market needs

In apprenticeship systems, employers are responsible for providing work-based training and can therefore tailor training to the competences and skills they require. In these contexts, labour-market responsiveness is achieved through fast employer feedback embedded in training provision. Expanding apprenticeships can therefore accelerate alignment between education and training and labour market demand, including in green occupations.

Many occupations for which apprenticeships prepare learners are in skilled trades, a large share of which are classified as ‘green’, such as heat pump installation or automotive repair. Consequently, in countries where apprenticeship is a major pathway into skilled trades and a major educational pathway for young people, a significant share of apprenticeships will inherently prepare learners for green jobs, as is the case in Austria.

In Austria, out of around 217 apprenticeship occupations, 126 are classified as green (Federal Ministry for Labour and Economy (BMAWET) of Austria, 2024[25]; Federal Ministry of Social Affairs, Health, Care and Consumer Protection of Austria, 2025[26]). “Green apprenticeships” either directly contribute to environmental objectives, such as recycling and waste management occupations, or can incorporate green tasks and skills. For example, solar installation can be integrated into electrician apprenticeships, and electric vehicle servicing into automotive technician apprenticeships.

In countries such as the United Kingdom and Canada, where apprenticeships serve mainly adult population and are one of the many tools of workforce training, employers also consider apprenticeships as a suitable instrument to fill vacancies in green occupations and respond to emerging skills shortages, as reflected in vacancy data (OECD, 2026[6]). According to job vacancy data:

In Canada, 31% of apprenticeship postings are for green jobs compared to 25% of all the job ads.

In the United Kingdom, 18% of apprenticeship ads are for green jobs compared to 21% of all the ads.

This suggests that apprenticeships can function as an effective policy lever to support the green transition across countries with diverse education and training systems.

Apprenticeship experience also demonstrate that knowledge exchange is not unidirectional, flowing only from companies to learners. Employers can also benefit from the knowledge and perspectives brought by apprentices and young recruits, including on recycling practices, energy-saving techniques in specific occupations, and environmentally responsible behaviours more broadly.

In Switzerland, the government invests in the skills of future specialists and managers by ensuring that VET qualifications support the development of competences promoting sustainable practices and environmentally responsible behaviours of firms. To support this transition, the Federal Office for the Environment (FOEN), in collaboration with the organisations of the world of work (Ortra), provides financial and technical support to strengthen environmental and climate-related competences and promote their integration into VET qualifications. In addition, the practical guide ‘Every Occupation Counts!’ enables those responsible for VET to assess the environmental relevance of an occupation using a set of guiding questions (Confédération Suisse, Office fédéral de l'environnement, 2023[27]; OECD, 2024[4]).

2.2.2. Policy tool: Support public-private partnerships to identify and integrate emerging green skills into VET qualifications and programmes

Some countries have sought to accelerate the identification of emerging skills needs by establishing expert groups based on public-private partnership tasked with tracking developments in green occupations and identifying the corresponding adjustments required in VET qualifications. These groups typically bring together a broad range of stakeholders, including social partners, researchers, and education and training institutions reflecting the fact that green jobs often require a diverse mix of skills. For example, the hydrogen industry requires specialists across multiple skill levels, from researchers developing fuel technologies to technicians and plant-floor workers supervising production processes.

Estonia provides an example of such a collaborative approach to developing qualifications that upskill the adult population to meet the evolving requirements of green jobs.

Estonia established nine Green Consortia, each aligned with a key industry, to promote the green transition in companies through adult training. The initiative involves a broad set of stakeholders, including five ministries, government agencies, universities, colleges, VET schools and social partner organisations representing both large firms and SMEs. As part of the initiative, the consortia identify the skill needs associated with the green transition, review existing qualifications to determine which require updating, and develop new units or modules where necessary that are then used to create training programmes. Finally, the consortia assess the training needs of teachers and other pedagogical staff to ensure they can deliver the updated or newly created content.

The initiative resulted in at least 2 830 employees participating in trainings with the duration of training courses 40-120 school hours. The new goal is train about 6 000 employees (around 1% of the employee population). The initiative also increased enterprises and workers awareness about learning opportunities in green transition related areas (Drenkhan, n.d.[28]).

The Netherlands has various collaborative initiatives that create institutional mechanisms through which emerging skills needs can be identified and translated into curricula.

In the Netherlands, Regional Investment Fund (RIF) partnerships, the Katapult network and Centres for Innovative Craftsmanship (CIVs) collectively help VET institutions respond to rapidly changing skills needs. While differing in scope and function, these initiatives facilitate collaboration between VET providers, employers and research partners, support curriculum innovation, strengthen teachers’ links with industry, and enable the development and diffusion of emerging green skills. For example, the Regional Investment Fund (RIF) for upper-secondary vocational education and training (middelbaar beroepsonderwijs, MBO) was introduced by the Dutch government in 2014 to support long-term public-private partnerships between VET institutions and employers. Public funding leverages additional private investment as RIF projects are co-financed by education providers and employers. It operates primarily at the regional level. Applicants are typically VET institutions working in partnerships with employers and other regional stakeholders (Cedefop, 2025[29]; Dialogic & Ecorys, 2020[30]). Several RIF projects are explicitly focused on the energy transition. For example, the Sustainable Energies IJmond partnership (Nova College and Techport) developed curricula around hydrogen, wind energy, solar energy, energy storage and related technologies. The project also uses hybrid teachers from industry and supports upskilling of incumbent workers (Techport, 2026[31]; Katapult, 2026[32]).

For the January 2026 application round, the RIF budget was EUR 7 million, while the June 2026 round had EUR 10 million available. More than 180 partnerships have been funded since its launch (Katapult, 2026[32]). RIF projects reach hundreds of students and dozens of teachers annually, while some elective modules reach thousands of learners (Katapult, 2026[32]).

Public-private partnerships can be developed to promote a just green transition and improve access to high-quality green jobs for disadvantaged groups. For example, Australia is investing in collaborative approaches, which seeks to promote high-quality, culturally responsive training and strengthen pathways to employment for First Nations peoples.

In Australia, the Indigenous Centre of Vocational Excellence (ICOVE) supports partnerships between First Nations organisations, employers and training providers to strengthen workforce pathways and align skills development with local and regional employment opportunities. Among others, it aims to strengthen partnerships with industries including “net zero” sectors, alongside health, construction, and childcare. As the initiative only commenced in 2026, evidence on its effectiveness is not yet available (DEWR, 2026[33]).

2.2.3. Policy tool: Use local autonomy in content adaptation to keep VET programmes up to date

Local differences in labour market needs are a common feature of many economies, as skill requirements vary across regions depending on industrial structure and the distribution of economic activities. Similarly, the impacts of the green transition tend to be distributed unevenly across territories. For example, GHG jobs are more common in rural areas (Causa, Nguyen and Soldani, 2024[34]). To accommodate local needs, many VET systems allow for some degree of local adaptation, for example through work-based learning and partnerships between VET institutions and local employers. This approach can help address emerging green skills needs more rapidly, without necessarily requiring formal revisions to qualifications.

In apprenticeship-oriented systems such as Germany, Switzerland and Luxembourg, occupational standards and curricula are largely defined at the national level, but employers play a central role in training and can adapt work-based learning to specific skills needs. In other countries, VET institutions play a more prominent role in programme delivery and work closely with employers to respond to evolving labour market needs. For example, in the Netherlands, as described above, VET providers collaborate with employers through regional partnerships to ensure that training provision remains aligned with labour market demand.

Locally developed units or elective modules, typically account for between 7% and 30% of programme content, depending on the country (OECD, 2024[4]). Local modules and locally adapted curricula can help VET provision respond more rapidly to changing local circumstances and labour market needs. They can also serve as an early indicator of broader changes in job tasks and skill requirements, prompting a review of existing qualifications. A national overview of such local adaptations can help determine whether these developments reflect isolated local needs or more widespread trends across the economy. A potential drawback of this approach is that the monitoring and reporting of local modules may create additional administrative burdens for both VET providers and public authorities. However, these burdens can be reduced if qualifications are structured in a way that facilitates comparison and aggregation of information across programmes, as discussed in the next section.

Finland’s example illustrates how locally adjusted content can signal emerging needs.

In Finland, in VET qualifications, local units can account for up to 8% of the programme content. Local qualification units are developed by VET providers to address the specific competence needs of local working life. These units are designed to deepen the field-specific competences included in the national qualification requirements or to offer new skills in response to rapid changes in the regional labour market. For example, in the vehicle programme, ‘Electric Car Maintenance’ has been provided as a local element to quickly address the need for car mechanics to work with electric cars. The development of local units is often favoured by VET providers, as their creation bypasses the lengthy approval process required for national units. Some local units signal emerging skills need in a sector not only regionally but nationally. In such cases these units can be elevated to national ones. (Finnish National Agency for Education (OPH), 2024[35]).

The scope for local autonomy often varies by the level of VET qualification and the target audience. Upper-secondary VET programmes, particularly those aimed at young people, generally allow less flexibility in adjusting content, as they are expected to provide a broad foundation of skills, including transferable academic and soft skills. As a result, they cannot be overly narrow or tailored to the needs of individual employers. By contrast, providers of VET programmes for adults typically enjoy greater autonomy in designing their content and can adapt them more quickly to address specific employers’ needs. Insights gained from these continuing training provisions can inform broader developments of VET qualifications by signalling emerging needs.

2.2.4. Policy tool: Streamline qualification reviews using digital tools, while keeping expert judgment at the centre

Large qualification systems are resource-intensive to update. Streamlining governance, reducing overlaps, and potentially using digital tools (including AI) can accelerate revisions and reduce costs. However, automation should complement – not replace – expert judgment to maintain quality and relevance.

The organisation and governance of qualifications play an important role in ensuring that VET systems remain responsive to changing labour market needs. Although the exact number of VET qualifications varies by country, VET systems typically manage dozens to several hundred qualifications across levels. For example, Finland has around 160 vocational qualifications composed of roughly 3 400 units, Switzerland features 740 formal vocational and professional qualifications, and England has around 600 apprenticeship standards (Ofqual, 2026[36]; Cedefop, 2021[37]; OECD, 2025[3]). Maintaining and revising such large qualification portfolios is resource-intensive. Most countries require periodic reviews of qualifications, often on a five-year cycle, as in Switzerland, Finland and Flanders (Belgium), unless earlier revisions are triggered by labour market developments (VPET, 2025[38]; OECD, 2024[4]). Lack of time and resources often hinder timely revision, which can lead to obsolete qualifications, qualifications that overlap and a growing number of qualifications, if unused qualifications are not regularly removed.

Depending on the VET design this risk can vary. Where social partners are well organised and effective oversight mechanisms are in place, as in Switzerland, the risk of excessive overlap or overly narrow qualifications is reduced.

In Switzerland, for example, proposed changes to qualifications are submitted by professional organisations representing employers and employees, typically organised by sector or occupation. These proposals are reviewed by the State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation (SERI), which assesses their quality and coherence with the existing qualification landscape, including potential overlaps (VPET, 2025[38]).

Where such conditions are weaker, the risk increases. Qualifications developed by individual employers may reflect firm-specific needs rather than broader sectoral requirements and inflate the number of qualifications. The emergence of multiple and often overlapping qualifications can create confusion among employers and learners, weaken their signalling value, and reduce worker mobility.

Digital innovation has the potential to ease this burden and reduce the cost of qualification governance. AI-based tools could support qualification governance by screening existing qualifications, identifying overlaps, and assessing how proposed qualifications align with emerging skills needs. To realise this potential, greater harmonisation in how qualifications are structured and how their content is described would be required, including the use of a more standardised vocabulary across qualification types. At the same time, a balanced approach is needed. While standardisation and AI-based tools can improve efficiency, they also carry risks. In particular, excessive standardisation may lead to oversimplification and a loss of nuance, especially where skills are highly context- or occupation-specific. Therefore, AI should be used as a complementary tool to support, rather than replace, expert judgment in qualification design and review. This approach is well illustrated with the Korean example.

In Korea, AI is used to support work on the National Competency Standards (NCS), which define the skills and competences required by industry. The NCS are organised into units grouping related job tasks into coherent areas of competence; they are developed with industry involvement and revised every five years. The development and review of qualifications follow a structured process guided by detailed rules, which can be time-consuming and costly to revise, especially as rapid technological change requires more frequent updates. As the standards are written in a highly standardised format, AI helps ensure that structure and formatting rules are followed. Its outputs are presented in structured tables, with one column listing issues identified and another proposing revision. Human experts then validate these proposals. The use of AI offers several advantages: it significantly reduces the time required for revisions, improves quality by eliminating inconsistencies across experts’ inputs, and lowers costs. However, AI does not replace human involvement; instead, it complements it, enabling experts to focus more on the substantive content and less on formatting and process requirements (OECD, 2026[39]).

2.3. Policy challenge 3: Foundational and sustainability skills are not systematically included across all VET qualifications, and access to higher-level technical programmes remains uneven

Preparing for the green transition means equipping VET learners with a combination of job-specific competences, broader foundational skills, and soft skills. A wind turbine technician, for instance, needs the technical ability to install and repair turbines, but also a grounding in electrical principles, physics, and mathematics, alongside the interpersonal skills required to work in teams and engage with clients.

Two previous studies in this project – (OECD, 2026[6]) and (Kuczera, 2025[5]) – found that green skills do not constitute a separate category requiring dedicated programmes. Rather, they build on and extend what strong VET systems already deliver. For VET policy, this implies prioritising the strengthening of technical foundations, expanding higher-level provision, and embedding sustainability competences across all qualifications.

2.3.1. Policy tool: Provide all VET learners with opportunities to acquire strong foundational and transferable skills, complemented, where relevant, by green job-specific skills

Green jobs, in which the green transition changes the job content, rely on advanced technical, STEM, and managerial skills alongside strong foundational competences. These foundational skills, which refer to core competences such as literacy, numeracy and problem solving, should be integrated across VET programmes, not limited to explicitly “green” fields.

Foundational skills and skills transferable across occupations support labour market mobility and continued learning over the course of life. Recognising this principle, in many countries, upper-secondary VET qualifications targeting young people (or individuals with educational attainment below upper-secondary) provide a common core of foundational skills in addition to more occupation-specific competences. Job specific green skills are often embedded within occupation-specific competences, as illustrated by the structure of Finnish VET programmes, for example in Electrical Engineering and Automation Technology.

In Finland, all upper-secondary VET programmes in Electrical Engineering and Automation Technology include a common core composed of foundational skills and occupation specific skills each electrician should possess. In addition, students choose optional units, which may include modules preparing directly for green jobs, such as solar power installations (ePerusteet, 2025[40]). See Figure 4.

Figure 4. How is a vocational qualification in Electrical Engineering structured in Finland?

A student trained as a solar power installer in Finland therefore develops not only specialised skills in solar panel installation but also a much broader skill set related to electrical work and foundational competences such as mathematics and science. Consequently, there is a substantial overlap in skills among electricians in Finland, regardless of whether they have specialised in solar power systems or not (ePerusteet, 2025[40]). This helps ensure a sufficient supply of labour that can enter the solar sector directly or with targeted training, while also allowing electricians specialising in solar power to transition to other electrician positions if demand in the sector declines.

The appropriate level of specialisation also depends on the qualification level and the target group. HVET qualifications typically target individuals who have already completed upper-secondary education and are therefore assumed to possess strong foundational skills. As a result, these programmes are often more specialised and focus more directly on the competences required for specific green occupations. However, as these skills are typically high-level and technical, they are often transferable across occupations, enhancing individuals’ labour market flexibility and making them less vulnerable to sudden shifts in demand. Higher VET provision in Denmark illustrates well this dynamic.

In Denmark, for example, in the HVET programme in Energy Technology students learn how to work in areas such as electrical and plumbing systems as well as how to optimise energy in building installations and industrial processes. Students acquire both practical and theoretical knowledge about improving the efficiency of energy supply systems, air conditioning installations, process plants, lighting systems, heat pumps, wind turbines and solar panels. The programme also includes elements of business understanding and contract management (UddannelsesGuiden, 2025[41]).

While such qualifications provide knowledge and skills that can be directly applied in green jobs (such as energy advisor or energy optimisation expert), they can also be transferred to non-green jobs. For example, the same technical knowledge used to optimise energy consumption in renewable systems can also be applied to industrial production plants, conventional energy systems, or building operations. Similarly, programmes not specifically designed for green occupations, such as those preparing offshore operations technologists, provide competences that are also relevant in green settings, including offshore wind energy.

2.3.2. Policy tool: Scale up HVET in STEM fields to meet growing demand for advanced green technical skills

The upskilling of existing jobs and the creation of new positions driven by the green transition are increasing the demand for complex technical and managerial skills. Depending on the education system, these skills may be developed through upper-secondary VET programmes that provide learners with strong foundational and technical skills, HVET programmes (ISCED 5) as well as programmes at bachelor level and above (ISCED 6 and higher). Expanding provision in STEM-related fields in the corresponding programmes can help meet growing demand for higher-level competences in green jobs.

While this section focuses specifically on HVET, it recognises that, across countries, a range of VET programmes not classified at ISCED level 5 (HVET) serve similar purposes, namely providing advanced technical skills and supporting the upskilling of VET graduates and experienced workers. Examples include Switzerland’s professional education and training (PET) system, comprising professional examinations and higher professional college qualifications classified at ISCED level 6 and above, as well as Finnish vocational qualifications designed for experienced workers seeking to upskill, which are classified at ISCED level 4.

HVET are well suited to deliver advanced technical and managerial skills required in green jobs. HVET examples include college programmes in Canada, business academy programmes in Denmark, Higher Vocational Education (Yrkeshögskolan) in Sweden, associate degrees in the United States, and Higher National Certificates and Diplomas (HNCs/HNDs) in the United Kingdom. HVET programmes are particularly attractive because they tend to be applied in nature and flexible in design, allowing them to respond closely to labour market needs. Compared to university degrees, they are typically shorter (one to two years) and therefore less costly for both learners and public budgets. In some countries, they also provide progression opportunities for upper-secondary VET graduates who may not otherwise have direct access to university programmes.

The use of HVET varies considerably across countries. Figure 5 shows that it is a popular pathway in countries such as Canada and Korea, where more than 20% of young adults hold a HVET qualification as their highest level of education.

In countries such as Sweden and Norway, HVET has helped fill the labour shortages by providing higher-level skills closely aligned with employer needs, with provision expanding significantly in recent years. In Norway, enrolment in HVET increased from 15 600 in 2017 to 34 016 in 2024 (Norwegian Directorate for Higher Education and Skills, 2025[42]).

Figure 5. Share of 25‑34‑year-olds with higher VET (HVET) as the highest qualification, 2022

Source: OECD (2022[43]), Education at a Glance 2022: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/3197152b-en.

Given the strong demand for advanced technical skills in green jobs, where the green transition is changing the job content, HVET programmes in STEM fields are particularly well aligned with green labour market needs. Recent OECD evidence shows that young HVET graduates specialising in ICT, engineering, manufacturing and construction, as well as natural sciences, mathematics and statistics, are the most likely to work either in these green jobs or in non-green occupations that rely on similar skill sets (OECD, 2023[44]; Kuczera, 2025[5]). In 2021, in the OECD countries 27% of new HVET students opted for programmes in STEM fields. The share of new students in STEM HVET programmes is highest in Norway and Sweden, two countries where HVET has been expanding rapidly to address emerging labour market needs. See Figure 6.

Figure 6. STEM in higher VET (HVET)

New entrants to HVET in STEM fields, 2021

Note: STEM refers to the fields of science, technology, engineering and mathematics.

Source: OECD (2023[44]), Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en.

Recognising the value of HVET in flexibly addressing technical skills shortages, various countries took initiative to boost their post-secondary VET provision in green-related fields.

Italy reformed its Higher Technological Institutions (ITS), now renamed ITS Academies, through the 2022 reform aimed at strengthening the supply of highly skilled technicians in strategic sectors linked to the digital and green transitions. The reform sought to expand enrolment, strengthen links with employers and improve alignment with labour market needs. New technological areas were introduced or reinforced in fields particularly relevant to the green transition, including energy efficiency in sustainable buildings, renewable energy systems, sustainable mobility and logistics, and the management of energy and industrial plants (European Commission, 2023[45]).

In Sweden, HVET (yrkeshögskolan) is set to grow by 15% between 2023 and 2026 (MYH, 2023[46]), The expansion responds to broader labour market demand for upskilling and reskilling, and programmes supporting the green and digital transitions are given particular priority in the assessment and allocation of new training places. In 2024 alone, over 40 000 new training places were approved across 477 HVET programmes, including 124 in Engineering and Manufacturing (MYH, 2024[47]). Among others, additional training opportunities are being introduced in industrial production, energy and food production. Key educational specialisations such as electric power technicians and process technicians are also expanding. Furthermore, two new programmes, Designer of Battery Electrical Systems and Quality Technician in Battery Manufacturing, have been introduced to meet emerging industry needs. The Built Environment and Building Technology education sector is also growing, driven by sustainability requirements, climate adaptation, and infrastructure investment needs. (MYH, 2024[47]).

2.3.3. Policy tool: Embed sustainability competences across all VET programmes

Integrating sustainability into VET involves both developing learners’ knowledge, including an understanding of climate change and its impacts, circular economy principles and energy efficiency, and fostering environmentally responsible behaviours. These skills therefore contribute to developing citizens who care for the environment and the communities in which they live and work. Consequently, sustainability issues should be covered in all VET programmes, regardless of whether this is achieved through integration into existing subjects or through dedicated courses.

Sustainability competences can be delivered either as standalone subjects or modules, or integrated across general and vocational and general subjects, such as during a VET course in car mechanics. Some countries use both approaches. All countries that responded to the questionnaire reported that they embed sustainability across VET subjects, ensuring that environmental considerations are an integral part of all education and training. In addition, some countries offer sustainability as a separate subject or module.

Finland introduced mandatory sustainability units in upper-secondary VET qualifications in 2022, including “Promoting sustainable development” (EU, 2023[48]; Ministry of Education and Culture of Finland, 2023[49]; ePERUSTEET, 2024[50]).

The extent to which sustainability content is present in VET varies across programmes. In some cases, these skills are seen as universal and all learners are required to acquire sustainability competences, while in others provision is optional and depends on institutions or individual choices. Differences are also observed between initial and continuing VET. For example, in Finland and Norway, sustainability content is mandatory in initial VET but optional in continuing VET (CVET).

To promote the adoption of sustainable practices and the development of corresponding behaviours among teachers and students, some countries appoint sustainability co‑ordinators or leads within VET institutions to support implementation. These roles typically involve integrating environmental topics into curricula, promoting green innovation, and co‑ordinating related activities across the institution. Dedicated co‑ordinators help ensure that sustainability receives sufficient attention and that implementation responsibilities are clearly defined.

In Czechia, schools may appoint an EVVO co‑ordinator (Environmental Education, Training and Awareness), who is responsible for developing and implementing sustainability programmes, ensuring the integration of cross-cutting environmental topics in teaching, and fostering co‑operation with external partners. While EVVO co‑ordinators are widely used, they are not universally present – around 50% of upper-secondary schools report having such a co‑ordinator, although data do not distinguish between VET and general education (EduSTA, 2023[51]).

2.4. Policy challenge 4: VET teachers and trainers lack up-to-date skills

A major challenge in delivering VET for the green transition is that VET teachers often lack up-to-date knowledge of emerging technologies and sustainability practices. Addressing it requires continuous professional development and stronger links with industry. In addition, all VET teachers need to develop sustainability competences, as these are relevant to all occupations.

VET teachers and in-company trainers play an instrumental role in developing students’ skills and knowledge, including those required for green jobs and broader sustainability competences. However, nearly all countries (23 countries) identified teachers’ and trainers’ skills and knowledge as the main challenge in delivering VET for the green transition. Other challenges included workshop equipment not aligned with green technologies (22 countries), and limited collaboration between VET institutions and social partners (11 countries). See Figure 7.

Figure 7. Obstacles to adapting VET programmes to the green transition

25 countries replied to the question: “What challenges does the green transition pose to the provision of VET programmes?” More than one answer was possible

Source: OECD (2024[4]), VET and the green transition: Background questionnaire (unpublished).

Note: The questionnaire used for data collection is reproduced in Annex B; responses are not included.

Many countries already face persistent shortages of qualified VET teachers, a challenge that is not specific to the green transition but is exacerbated by it. Rapid technological change and evolving skill requirements increase the need for continuous updating of teachers’ competences, while at the same time making it more difficult to recruit and retain qualified staff.

2.4.1. Policy tool: Keep VET teachers technically up to date through partnership with industry and regular professional development

Most VET teachers are required to have relevant professional experience and are often recruited from industry. As a result, they typically enter the profession with a strong understanding of workplace requirements, including in green areas. However, over time, as they spend longer periods outside industry, their technical knowledge may become outdated. Supporting VET teachers in staying up to date with recent green innovations helps them better prepare learners for today’s jobs while partnerships with firms help ensure exposure to current technologies and practices, as in Romania and the Netherlands.

In Romania, Education and Employment Programme envisages to strengthen the quality and attractiveness of VET. Eligible activities include the training of teaching staff through placements and professional development activities carried out in companies partnering with VET schools. The training is also intended to cover issues related to the green transition and green technologies, with the aim of improving teachers’ industry knowledge and their capacity to integrate sustainability-related content into VET provision (OECD, 2024[4]).

The use of professionals from industry, who contribute to teaching and other school activities alongside their regular employment, brings up-to-date industry knowledge into VET institutions and provides a flexible way to access professionals with specialised and in-demand skills.

The Netherlands has increasingly used hybrid teachers (hybride docenten) to address shortages of technical teachers and strengthen links between VET and industry. Hybrid teachers are professionals who combine teaching with employment in industry or another occupation. They typically teach part-time while continuing to work in their sector and may work towards obtaining a Pedagogical Didactic Certificate (PDG). The use of guest lecturers, who are industry professionals invited to contribute occasionally to teaching and may teach up to six hours per week without a teaching qualification is a related arrangement. At least 13% of employees in Dutch VET and universities of applied sciences work in a hybrid manner or combine multiple jobs. The approach is particularly common in technical fields, including engineering, ICT, healthcare and renewable energy (Techport, 2026[31]).

Evidence suggests that hybrid teachers facilitate knowledge exchange between education and industry, help keep curricula aligned with technological developments, and provide students with exposure to current workplace practices. The Dutch hybrid teacher model relies primarily on professional rather than financial incentives. Research indicates that many hybrid teachers are motivated by the opportunity to combine different roles, maintain their connection with industry, and pursue ongoing professional development (Katapult, 2026[52]; Expertisecentrum Hybride Docent, 2026[53]; SOMMBO, 2024[54]; mboRijnland, n.d.[55]).

2.4.2. Policy tool: Equip all VET teachers and in-company trainers with sustainability competences - not just those in green fields

As a cross-cutting topic, sustainability requires all VET teachers to have relevant competences. Developing sustainability competences among VET teachers may require a different approach, as these are not always fully embedded in existing workplace practices and may therefore fall outside teachers’ professional experience acquired in industry. Sustainability competences are typically cross-curricular, which places additional demands on VET teachers across all subjects. Sustainability content can be integrated into initial teacher education as well as in-service training.

In Finland, the national programme for developing teacher education (2022‑2026) identifies sustainability expertise as a core competence for teachers. All Finnish Universities of Applied Sciences offering initial pedagogical training for VET teachers include sustainability topics, although often as optional components (OECD, 2025[3]).

In Denmark, sustainability is part of VET teacher training too. Danish knowledge and competence centres, offer training and resources for teachers in areas such as renewable energy, sustainable construction, and green manufacturing. These centres strengthen links between VET, research and industry, and provide workshops, courses, teaching materials, and partnerships with green technology firms to help teachers integrate sustainability into their teaching (OECD, 2025[3]).

In apprenticeship systems, most education and training take place in companies, placing primary responsibility for apprentices’ learning on in-company trainers. While these trainers are familiar with current technologies, they may not always be aware of environmental issues or emerging sustainability requirements. Recognising this challenge, Germany, where training for in-company trainers is mandatory, has updated the framework for training in-company trainers.

In Germany, the Federal Ministry of Education and Research, in co‑operation with social partners, has revised the framework for training of in-company trainers to better address current challenges, including digitalisation and sustainability. Additional programmes support the development of trainers’ pedagogical, technical and social competences, including qualifications related to sustainability (OECD, 2025[3]).

2.5. Policy challenge 5: Workers in jobs most exposed to green disruption are less likely to participate in training needed to adapt to new requirements

Many workers will need to upskill or reskill to remain in employment or transition into greener jobs, but participation in training – especially among those most at risk – is relatively low. Modular programmes and employer-driven training can better respond to evolving skill needs and make training more accessible. However, their effectiveness depends on strong employer recognition, clear skill signalling, and adequate guidance and financial support for learners.

For some workers, transitioning into green jobs may be relatively smooth if they already possess skills that overlap with those required in green occupations. Workers with relevant prior experience and education, particularly in STEM fields, may already possess some of the required skills and therefore need only targeted top-up training. By contrast, older workers and those with lower levels of education face greater challenges in transitioning (Curtis, O’Kane and Park, 2023[56]). For example, a petroleum engineer is likely to find it easier to acquire new technical skills and transit to a green job than a low-qualified worker in the oil industry, such as a tank cleaner. As greenhouse gas-intensive jobs are more likely to be low-skilled than green jobs, ensuring a successful green transition thus requires supporting workers in these occupations who are at risk of job loss (OECD, 2024[2]).

However, those at risk participate less in training. Figure 8 shows participation in education and training (formal and non-formal) among adults in the last 12 months. Across OECD (EU) countries with available data, participation in training averages 18% among adults with below upper-secondary education and 28% among upper-secondary VET graduates, compared to 48% among adults with higher levels of education. Although the figure does not specifically identify workers in greenhouse gas‑intensive jobs, it shows that less‑educated workers – who are more likely to hold such jobs, participate less in training. This is consistent with other studies (Causa, Nguyen and Soldani, 2024[34]). The data also reveal substantial cross-country variation. Participation rates are above the OECD average in Nordic countries, Estonia and Hungary.

Figure 8. Workers with lower levels of education participate less in training

Participation in education and training (formal and non-formal) in the last 12 months, 25–64-year-olds, 2024

Note: Iceland data from 2022. Data on training participation among adults with below upper-secondary education have low reliability in Croatia and Finland.

Source: Eurostat (2024[57]), Participation rate in education and training (last 12 months) by type of training and educational attainment level, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/trng_lfs_31__custom_21211024/default/table.

Governments have a range of policy tools to support labour market transitions, targeting both firms and individuals. Measures aimed at firms help manage restructuring by reducing layoffs, supporting internal redeployment of workers, and encouraging investment in workforce skills. These include short-time work schemes adapted to restructuring, training subsidies and co-financing schemes, particularly for SMEs, and targeted programmes that support firms in upgrading the skills of their employees (OECD, 2025[58]). Governments also use policies targeting individuals to facilitate transitions, including instruments such as individual learning accounts, training subsidies, and tax incentives that support participation in upskilling and reskilling programmes. This policy paper does not aim to be exhaustive and cover all those instruments but focuses on specific measures facilitating access and provision of education and training targeting adult learners.

2.5.1. Policy tool: Strengthen employer- and sector-led workforce upskilling to rapidly align skills with evolving needs in green sectors

In some cases, training initiatives emerge directly from employers or sector organisations that identify specific skills gaps. These initiatives are typically part of continuing vocational education and training and may operate outside the formal qualification framework. Training is often designed and managed by sectoral bodies and can be developed and delivered quickly in response to emerging skill demands. This is particularly advantageous in green occupations, where job requirements evolve rapidly and require frequent adjustments. The training may lead to sector-recognised certifications that support individuals’ progression within the sector. However, recognition within a formal qualification framework is not automatic. While this is not often an issue, such formal recognition may be beneficial if individuals wish to move to another sector or return to formal education.

Training in construction in Ireland, Switzerland and Luxembourg provide examples of this approach.

In Switzerland, Polybau training centres provide short programmes in the construction sector for experienced workers without formal qualifications or with foreign credentials. Participants can obtain a sector-recognised professional practice certificate valued by employers. However, formal recognition may require additional steps. In green-skills training offered by Swissolar (developed jointly with Polybau), around 1 140 people attended training courses in 2022, twice as many as in the previous year (Polybau, 2026[59]; PvEurope, 2023[60]; OECD, 2024[4]).

In Luxembourg, the Centres de Compétences de l’Artisanat, established by employer organisations and trade unions in 2015, offer short training programmes for workers in construction and related trades, including areas such as energy efficiency and sustainable construction. Participation has grown rapidly, with more than 47 000 workers trained between 2016 and 2023. The training modules generally lead to sector-recognised certificates but do not automatically count towards formal qualifications within the national qualification framework. (MECDD, 2024[61]; Les Centres de Compétences de l’Artisanat au Luxembourg, n.d.[62]).

Ireland developed a network of six Nearly Zero Energy Building (NZEB)/Retrofit Centres of Excellence - publicly operated and developed in close collaboration with industry, which offer targeted upskilling courses aimed at those working in the construction sector. The courses are free, fast and flexible with weekend and evening provision available. Course duration varies between one and five days, depending on the knowledge and skills required by the individual. Online/remote options are also available. Over 20 courses are now available, with further provision planned. Some of the courses are aligned with Irish Qualification Framework. Since NZEB/Retrofit courses began in 2020, the number of enrolments has continued to increase steadily, rising from 793 in 2021, to 2 034 in 2022, and 6 423 in 2024 (OECD, 2024[4]; Ireland Department of Further and Higher Education, Research, Innovation and Science, 2025[63]).

2.5.2. Policy tool: Develop modular credentials to let workers add green skills quickly without starting from scratch

Modular training (micro-credentials, partial qualifications) allows workers to acquire specific green skills without completing full qualification. This is particularly effective for upskilling in rapidly changing sectors. However, success depends on strong employer recognition and clear communication of the value of modules.

To increase access to education and training and improve the signalling of skills many countries have introduced modular education and training, whereby qualifications are broken into smaller components –often referred to as units, modules, partial qualifications or micro-credentials linked to specific tasks and skills. A modular approach is often designed to build on learners’ previous education and work experience and to recognise their prior learning, contributing to shorter and more adapted training courses. For example, a car mechanic may take a few modules on repairing electric engines without needing to complete the full qualification in automotive mechanics. Similarly, a young person who has dropped out of education may return later and continue their studies without having to repeat what they have already completed. This can significantly reduce training cost and potentially increase participation in VET (OECD, 2023[64]).

Recognition of skills through partial qualifications can improve job matching, benefiting both individuals and employers. For individuals, making skills more visible increases their portability across employers and supports professional mobility and further learning. For employers, clearer and more standardised skill signals can make recruitment more efficient by improving the visibility of competences acquired both within and outside formal education. While some non-formal credentials and certifications developed by private companies, are well-known and relatively easy to interpret, others are more ambiguous.

A modular approach is particularly well-suited to the green transition, which often requires workers to complement their existing skills with new competences needed to work with emerging green technologies and new regulations. It also enables the rapid provision of training to address urgent workforce shortages in specific areas, such as solar or wind turbine technicians.

But the introduction of a modular approach can raise several challenges (see Figure 9), as reported by countries through the questionnaire (for a detailed description see Annex A).

Figure 9. Challenges in providing units of qualifications versus full qualifications

Source: Adapted by the author, based on OECD, (2024[4]), VET and the green transition: Background questionnaire (unpublished).

Note: The questionnaire used for data collection is reproduced in Annex B, responses are not included.

Drawing on country experience, several policy measures may contribute to effective introduction of modular qualifications. Developing modules with social partners and delivering them where demand is highest, for example in expanding green occupations, can increase their labour market value and uptake. Canada and Sweden provide examples of such a modular provision in apprenticeship and HVET respectively.

In Nova Scotia (Canada), the Department of Labour, Skills and Immigration launched a Microcredential Innovation Initiative encouraging training providers and employers to jointly develop short credentials linked to apprenticeship programmes. These microcredentials address emerging labour market needs, including areas such as climate literacy for construction and electric vehicle maintenance (OECD, 2024[4]).

In Sweden in Higher Vocational Education (HVE) since 2020, shorter courses and course packages have been introduced alongside standard programmes to respond more quickly to labour market needs, particularly in areas such as digitalisation and automation, with many addressing the green transition. For example, the course in Agriculture and food security looks at issues of ecosystems, green environments, leadership, sustainable food production and product development. These courses remain embedded in the national HVET system and require clear employer support, reflecting the strong labour market orientation of Swedish HVET. In 2022, a total of 222 shorter courses or course packages (fewer than 100 HVE credits) were offered, an increase compared with 177 in 2020 and 164 in 2021 (OECD, 2024[65]).

Modularised approaches may be more suited to adult learners. Adults often accumulate skills through education, work experience and other forms of learning over time, and modular systems allow these skills to be recognised and built upon. As adults frequently need to combine work and family responsibilities with education and training, more flexible learning pathways are particularly valuable for them. The situation is somewhat different for young people, especially those completing upper-secondary education. For this group, obtaining a full qualification should be the primary objective. Some countries, such as Sweden, where VET provision is organised in modules, encourage young learners to complete full qualifications even when modular learning options are available.

2.5.3. Policy tool: Promote the use of financial incentives and personalised approach to increase participation in training

Financial incentives (e.g. vouchers, subsidies) can increase participation in training, though long-term effectiveness remains uncertain. Individualised guidance is also crucial to help learners navigate modular systems and choose relevant training pathways, despite their higher resource requirements.

To increase participation in modular training, some countries such as Croatia and Lithuania have introduced modular qualifications alongside financial incentives for adults to participate in training. While initial outcomes, reflected in rising participation, appear promising, the overall effectiveness of these schemes has not yet been thoroughly evaluated.

Croatia introduced a voucher system in 2022 to support lifelong learning related to the green and digital transitions. The system provides up to EUR 3 000 for approved training aligned with the Croatian Qualifications Framework and has since expanded to cover a broader range of in-demand skills. Nearly 10 000 users had completed their education by 29 February 2024, and over 6 000 adult learners were enrolled in the voucher system (OECD, 2025[58]; OECD, 2024[4]).

Lithuania introduced funding schemes to support participation in modular VET and short adult training programmes. Through the national KURSUOK adult learning platform - part of an Individual Learning Accounts-type system - adults can choose training aligned with national skills priorities and receive state funding of up to EUR 500. Participation in modular training has increased in recent years, with the number of learners acquiring competences through modules rising from around 400 in 2020 to 1 642 in 2023 (OECD, 2024[4]).

Navigating education and training organised in modules can be challenging for individuals. Learners need to assess their existing skills and knowledge and, on that basis, identify their training needs and select appropriate courses from a potentially large number of available options. This process can be more demanding than following a predefined programme.

Some countries, such as Finland, address this challenge by making individual guidance an integral part of VET. Personalised support helps learners identify suitable modules and design their learning pathways. Providing such guidance typically requires additional resources and may increase the cost of provision. However, these higher costs can partly be offset by shorter training durations, which can reduce overall programme costs.

In Finland, the individualised learning plan is prepared jointly by the VET student, a teacher or guidance counsellor and, where relevant, a representative of the employer. This individualised plan serves multiple purposes (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2023[66]).

• Recognition of prior learning (applies only to adult students).

• Tailored learning paths: The plan outlines the specific competences needed for the student’s chosen qualification and how these can be acquired in different learning environments.

• Targeted support measures: The plan also includes any necessary support services for students with learning difficulties, disabilities, injuries, or illnesses.

2.6. Policy challenge 6: Individuals navigating the green transition often lack access to career guidance on green jobs and training opportunities

Career guidance services that help learners develop career competences and navigate uncertainty should systematically include information on green jobs, required skills and pathways into these occupations. Limited access to clear and relevant information hinders individuals’ ability to navigate the green transition and engage in appropriate training. This is particularly problematic for workers in high-emission occupations, who are both most at risk of job disruption and less likely to participate in training (Causa, Nguyen and Soldani, 2024[34]), as well as for workers in green occupations, who need to continuously update their skills as job requirements evolve. Access to information on employment prospects and skill needs is also important for young people making education and career choices. Career guidance can play a key role in facilitating these transitions by informing individuals about available career opportunities and directing them to training that best matches their needs.

Career guidance and counselling services can also help address imbalances between men and women in green occupations, as men and women do not benefit from, nor are they exposed to the risks of the green transition to the same extent. Women are less likely than men to work in green occupations, including new and emerging green jobs. At the same time, men are more likely than women to work in high-emission occupations and thus face a higher risk of job losses linked to the green transition (OECD, 2024[2]).

2.6.1. Policy tool: Make green jobs visible in career guidance systems so individuals can identify opportunities and plan their next steps

According to the OECD questionnaire most countries integrate career guidance related to the green transition into its broader career guidance framework whereby information on green employment and training opportunities is provided within regular career services. However, in some countries, the focus on green jobs can be somehow missing, whereby information available to career guidance services and learners does not allow to clearly identify green occupations and education and training programmes preparing for the associated careers. In some other countries, on the other hand search criteria will allow to identify green jobs and may also provide additional information on pathways leading into these jobs. Providing clear and accessible information about green jobs, including on employment opportunities, wages, and career progression, can help individuals better understand the options available and make informed decisions. This can, for instance, prevent students from enrolling in programmes that lead to professions likely to be negatively affected by the green transition.

Online provision is widely used by career guidance services. Canada and the United Kingdom provides example where career platforms feature information on green jobs.

In Canada’s Job Bank, the national public employment service available as a website and mobile application, supports job seekers and employers in navigating labour market opportunities across the country. Job Bank has recently introduced new tools to support the transition to a greener economy. They help job seekers learn about occupations that contribute to environmental conservation and search for green job opportunities. They also provide employers with guidance on advertising green jobs, adopting environmentally sustainable business practices and identifying financial support available to help firms transition to greener operations. In addition, Job Bank is developing a new training platform that will provide a single point of access to job-related training opportunities (Government of Canada, 2024[67]; Government of Canada, 2024[68]; Government of Canada, 2024[69]).

In the United Kingdom, public National Careers Service has developed a dedicated “Green Careers” platform within its national career guidance service. This platform offers detailed information on green jobs, related qualifications, and training opportunities, helping individuals map their career paths in sustainable sectors. The service also highlights funding options for reskilling and upskilling in green-related fields (National Careers Service, 2024[70]).

2.6.2. Policy tool: Establish dedicated support services for workers in high-emission sectors facing displacement, alongside measures to address labour shortages in green sectors

Dedicated information services should support workers in industries most affected by the green transition, particularly high-emission sectors. Sector-specific platforms and initiatives, developed by governments or industry groups, can help workers anticipate changes, plan transitions, and access relevant training opportunities. Dedicated information and guidance can also support recruitment into expanding green occupations experiencing labour shortages. In response, employers and industry groups in some countries have taken steps to raise awareness of job opportunities in green sectors, many of which remain relatively unfamiliar to the public.

Some countries, such as Australia, anticipating disruptive effect of the green transition, develop services that provide workers in the industries affected by the green transition with the tools and information they need to plan their next steps. These services provide tailored guidance on reskilling opportunities, financial support, and alternative career pathways.

Australia has specific policies supporting workers in carbon-intensive, fossil-fuel or energy-intensive industries sectors where employment may decline. To prepare for the closing of some of the power stations the government undertakes an assessment process to determine if extra support is needed for power station workers. Across the country, workers from the affected industries can receive support to transition to other jobs through online tools, such as dedicated website, and in-person career services. They provide information on training opportunities, financial aid, and information on green jobs and sectors to workers who are at risk of losing their jobs as Australia moves towards a net zero economy (Australian Government, 2026[71]).

Ireland provides an example of a country where information on green career opportunities in quickly developing sectors is delivered through a public-private partnership.

In Ireland, Wind Energy Ireland in collaboration with public authorities has launched easy to navigate and user-friendly websites discussing various career opportunities in the offshore wind sector. It describes typical working patterns, career options, salary and education pathways preparing for specific jobs (GreenTech Skillnet, 2024[72]; Wind Energy Ireland, 2024[73]).

2.6.3. Policy tool: Use career guidance to increase participation of underrepresented groups in green occupations

Career guidance can also help reduce disparities in access to green jobs across different population groups, including between men and women. Differences in access to green jobs between men and women stems, among other factors, from women being less likely to choose education and career pathways in sectors where green jobs are more prevalent. Women account for around 20% of the global energy workforce, compared with 40% of the overall workforce. Their representation is particularly low in skilled trades, such as welding and electrical work (below 5%), but higher in scientific research (45%) and electrical equipment manufacturing (27%) (IEA (International Energy Agency), 2025[74]).

Providing clear information about green occupations, alongside positive role models and measures that help women balance training with other responsibilities, can support both girls and working-age women in making informed education and career choices, as illustrated by initiatives in Austria.

In Austria, the FiT (Frauen in Handwerk und Technik) programme has been run since 2006 by the Austrian Public Employment Service (AMS) in co‑operation with specialised training providers to support women seeking careers in technical, engineering, ICT, mechanical, electrical and craft occupations (AMS, n.d.[75]). The programme primarily targets working-age women who are unemployed or seeking employment, regardless of their prior educational attainment. AMS currently supports more than 200 training programmes in technical and craft occupations, many of which are linked to the green transition, including renewable energy, energy-efficient construction and related technical fields (AMS, 2026[76]).

The programme combines career guidance, vocational training and financial support. Participants typically begin with an orientation phase that introduces technical occupations, supports career exploration, and helps identify interests and aptitudes. This is followed by individual counselling, personalised training and career planning, preparatory technical training, and assistance with enrolment in apprenticeships, vocational schools or other qualification pathways. Participants also receive ongoing support throughout their training to facilitate completion and successful transition into employment. This integrated approach is widely regarded as a key strength of the programme (European Commission, 2019[77]; AMS, 2026[76]).

Evidence suggests strong labour-market outcomes. An evaluation of FiT participants between 2015 and 2020 found that 45% achieved occupational upgrading through higher qualifications, 82% of graduates were employed in technical or craft occupations targeted by the programme and gross earnings increased by 26% to 36% compared with pre-programme levels (OTS, 2022[78]). Between 2010 and 2018, approximately 41 900 women participated in the programme (European Commission, 2019[77]).

2.6.4. Policy tool: Help individuals see what they already know by mapping transferable skills against green job requirements

Career guidance should incorporate tools to assess individuals’ existing skills and identify gaps relative to green job requirements. This includes integrating information on technical (e.g. STEM) and transferable skills, as well as using frameworks that map skill equivalences across occupations. Such tools can help individuals recognise transferable competences, target appropriate training, and transition more effectively into green roles.

STEM knowledge and skills are critical for many jobs created or transformed by the green transition, particularly in fields such as renewable energy, energy efficiency, and green manufacturing. Alongside these technical skills, soft skills such as leadership and project management are increasingly recognised as indispensable in green jobs. (Rutzer, Niggli and Weder, 2020[79]). These competences are not unique to green occupations and are found across a wide range of jobs.

When planning education and training for green jobs, it is therefore essential to assess individuals’ existing skills and map them against those required in green occupations. Establishing skills equivalences can further improve matching between workers and jobs. Such assessment and evaluation could become a valuable component of career guidance services, helping individuals identify skill overlaps, gaps, and corresponding training needs.

In the United Kingdom, the recently launched Standard Skills Classification is an example of such a tool. It provides a standardised description of the skills, knowledge, and tasks required across UK occupations, regardless of sector or industry. This harmonisation makes it easier to compare skill and knowledge requirements and to recognise competences no matter how or where they were acquired. Such a tool is particularly powerful for identifying transferable skills - such as those needed for the green transition - as well as skill gaps in individuals. It is intended for use by career advisers, employers, and organisations analysing labour-market dynamics (Bowley, 2025[80]; Skills England, 2026[81]).