Vocational Education and Training Systems in Nine Countries

Some countries take a more centralised approach to VET curricula development and implementation, whereas others are more decentralised. For example, Singapore has a relatively centralised model, with the Ministry setting VET curricula structures and one public provider developing most ISCED 4 VET programmes. In Germany, training regulations are set federally, while school curricula are developed by the Länder, and detailed occupational standards are drafted by bipartite trade committees. Engaging employers in curricula development is commonplace, and may take place in national-level curricula framework setting, right down to provider-level course design.

Countries employ a range of methods to assessing students’ learning outcomes in upper-secondary VET. In core subjects (official language, mathematics, etc.) VET students often sit the same standardised assessments as students in general programmes. Yet VET subjects are assessed in various ways. For example, Finland relies on unit-based competence demonstrations: students prove mastery of each module through real work tasks that are jointly assessed by a teacher and a workplace representative, with no national final exam. In Denmark, VET culminates in an externally-set final trade test that is designed by the sectoral trade committee and evaluated by a panel of examiners using national criteria.

Upper-secondary VET comprises programmes that are predominantly school-based, as well as programmes with a substantial element of work-based learning, including apprenticeships.

The extent of work-based learning in upper-secondary VET programmes differs considerably across countries. Across the seven countries for which comparative data are available in 2021 (excludes the Netherlands and Singapore), the share of upper‑secondary vocational students enrolled in “combined school- and work-based programmes” ranged from 8% in Sweden to 100% in Denmark. In these programmes the work-based component is between 25% and 90% of the curriculum.

In Sweden, the three-year school courses that include a minimum 15 weeks of workplace training (APL) are the most popular option. By contrast, virtually all upper-secondary VET in Denmark is apprenticeships, in which at least 50% of time is spent in paid company training.

Providers can offer a wide diversity of vocational specialisations or focus on specific fields or target audiences, and most countries have a mix of public and private provision. In the Netherlands, 39 publicly-funded regional training centres (ROCs), 16 occupational colleges, a Police Academy and around 100 accredited private providers deliver upper-secondary VET programmes. Finland has 139 registered providers, ranging from large, multi-field municipal colleges that serve entire regions to small, specialised private or state-owned schools that cater to specific industries or linguistic minorities.

Countries have different requirements for the technical and pedagogical preparation of VET teachers and trainers, as well as their ongoing professional development, to maintain currency in the world of work.

In Singapore, teachers (“Lecturers”) at the main public provider require significant sectoral expertise and often receive their pedagogical training in-house from their employer. Norway obliges vocational teachers to hold a trade certificate and at least four years of work experience, and lets them begin teaching while completing the one-year, part-time Practical Pedagogical Education.

Which responsibilities are decentralised and to whom in VET systems differs by national contexts. For example, in Switzerland, the Confederation sets framework legislation, the 26 cantons fund and supervise vocational schools, and professional organisations offer inter-company courses and are closely involved in curriculum updates. In Denmark, the state issues overall regulations, sector-based trade committees design detailed curricula and approve training companies, while social partners sit on providers’ boards and committees.

While many countries aim to minimise tuition fees for students in upper-secondary VET, there are differing approaches to funding VET in classrooms and workplaces. Upper-secondary VET is tuition-free for the vast majority of learners in each of the studied European countries, while Singapore which charges a nominal and partially subsidised fee for ISCED 4 VET.

Funding of work-based learning is handled differently across countries. For example, German employers bear the full wage and training cost of apprentices and receive no direct public subsidy, while Norwegian companies receive a state training subsidy proportional to apprenticeship duration.