Training Supply for the Green and AI Transitions

Annex B. Keyword lists

Table A B.1. Green keywords and count of occurrences by country

Keyword	Australia	United States	Singapore	Germany
Agroforestry*	1	0	0	3
Air quality	11	13	55	19
Anti pollution / anti-pollution*	0	0	0	0
Aquaculture standards*	0	0	0	0
Aquaponics*	0	0	13	0
Atmospheric science	0	2	0	0
Biodegradable	0	0	5	14
Biodiversity	18	412	55	214
Biofuel	0	3	1	4
Biomass	2	1	4	337
Blue farming*	0	0	0	0
Carbon emissions trading*	0	0	0	129
Carbon trading	0	0	11	0
Clean energy	0	2	47	13
Climate adaptation*	0	0	0	83
Climate adaption	0	0	0	0
Climate change	7	30	151	2 245
Climate justice	0	0	0	29
Climate mitigation*	0	0	0	3
Climatology	0	2	0	6
Coastal research	0	0	0	2
Conservation	63	103	111	1 765
Conservation agriculture	0	0	0	5
Conservation fishing	0	0	0	0
Disaster risk management	0	0	0	2
Earth science	0	74	1	31
Ecohacking / eco-hacking	0	0	0	0
Ecology	10	484	43	3 772
Ecotourism / eco-tourism	0	0	2	10
Emission standards*	0	0	0	5
Emissions trading*	2	0	3	0
Energy efficiency	98	329	162	12 160
Energy engineering	1	1	0	7 032
Environmental action plan*	1	0	5	0
Environmental assessment*	5	2	12	6
Environmental audit*	6	1	5	106
Environmental awareness*	1	2	3	737
Environmental design*	0	48	8	3
Environmental engineering*	0	4	12	131
Environmental health and safety	3	3	9	24
Environmental impact	309	7	106	39
Environmental law*	3	3	19	13 754
Environmental legislation*	24	0	1	52
Environmental management*	72	14	112	11 439
Environmental plan*	61	0	3	0
Environmental policy*	4	1	3	409
Environmental protection	289	6	14	23 574
Environmental regulation*	51	0	9	1
Environmental remediation	0	1	3	32
Environmental risk*	117	0	20	6
Environmental risk management*	0	0	0	0
Environmental rules*	0	0	0	0
Environmental science	0	85	22	1 527
Environmental standards*	90	0	8	51
Environmental survey*	0	0	0	0
Environmental threat*	6	9	1	0
Ethical fisheries*	0	0	0	0
Forest conservation*	0	0	1	7
Forest ecology*	0	1	1	0
Forestry regulation*	0	0	0	0
Forestry strategy*	0	0	0	0
Generative agriculture*	0	1	0	0
Geothermal	1	0	2	190
Glacier research	0	0	0	0
Green advocacy	0	0	0	0
Green communities	0	0	0	0
Green construction	0	2	3	0
Green economy	0	3	20	7
Green education	0	0	0	502
Green energy*	0	0	10	70
Green farming*	0	0	0	1
Green infrastructure*	3	1	2	2
Green legal issues	0	0	0	0
Green legislation*	0	0	0	0
Green policy	0	0	0	1
Green recreation	0	0	0	0
Green regulation*	0	0	0	0
Green research	0	0	0	17
Green socio-economic development	0	0	0	0
Green solutions	0	0	3	0
Green transport*	0	0	7	0
Hydrology	6	8	16	15
Land use planning	0	4	3	70
Landscape architecture	0	2	4	18
Leadership in energy and environmental design	0	1	0	3
Natural pesticides	0	0	0	12
Naturalist	0	4	12	14
Organic farming*	4	0	3
Pollution prevention	4	0	8	0
Public health	25	203	125	295
Recycling	231	1	117	958
Reforestation*	0	0	0	1
Regional planning*	3	3	1	2
Regulation enforcement	0	0	1	0
Renewable	21	174	121	7 317
Renewable energy	0	0	0	0
Solar	8	59	109	6 382
Solid waste management, treatment, and reduction	0	0	0	0
Sustainability	399	80	1 145	26 690
Sustainable agriculture*	0	2	4	1
Sustainable aquaculture*	2	0	17	0
Sustainable communities	0	3	2	0
Sustainable energy*	342	3	22	8
Sustainable fishing*	0	0	0	0
Sustainable food system*	0	1	1	3
Sustainable forest management*	0	0	0	0
Sustainable infrastructure*	0	0	9	1
Sustainable transport*	0	2	5	1
Urban and regional planning	0	2	0	1
Urban planning*	2	5	49	246
Waste collection*	4	0	44	2 175
Waste management*	150	0	224	214
Waste reduction	4	1	32	3
Waste treatment*	13	0	39	67
Wastewater management*	0	0	0	0
Wastewater management, treatment, and reduction	0	0	0	0
Wastewater reduction*	0	0	0	0
Wastewater treatment*	7	25	25	75
Water resources	37	8	9	10
Weatherisation / weatherization	0	3	0	3
Wildlife	19	28	42	279
Wind	66	23	39	2 075

Note: Keyword list based off methodology described in Chapter 2. (*) refers to keywords that have been added or modified, in addition to the O*NET Green Topics list. Keyword ‘health and safety’ has been removed. Multiple keyword references for a single course are counted only once. Total does not correspond to total number of green-related courses as some course descriptions matched to multiple keywords.

Source: OECD calculations.

Table A B.2. AI keywords and count of occurrences by country

Keyword	Australia	United States	Singapore	Germany
3D Reconstruction	1	0	2	0
Activity Recognition	0	0	6	2
AdaBoost	0	0	0	21
Adaptive Boosting	0	0	0	0
Advanced Driver Assistance Systems	0	0	0	4
Advanced Robotics	0	1	16	24
Adversarial Network	0	0	29	1
AIOps	0	0	2	36
Amazon Textract	0	0	0	0
Ant Colony	0	0	0	1
ANTLR	0	0	0	0
Apache MADlib	0	0	0	0
Apache Mahout	0	0	0	21
Apache MXNet	0	0	0	2
Apache SINGA	0	0	0	0
Apache SparK	0	4	20	3 143
Applications of Artificial Intelligence	0	0	15	1
Artificial General Intelligence	0	0	0	12
Artificial Intelligence	2	41	1 033	98 150
Artificial Intelligence Development	0	0	0	1
Artificial Intelligence Markup Language	0	0	0	0
Artificial Intelligence Systems	0	0	0	0
Artificial Neural Networks	0	0	29	96
Association Rule Learning	0	0	0	1
Autoencoders	0	0	16	71
Automated Machine Learning	0	1	26	33
Autonomic Computing	0	0	0	9
Autonomous Cruise Control Systems	0	0	0	0
Autonomous System	14	1	14	38
Autonomous Vehicles	0	2	15	14
AWS SageMaker	0	0	1	2
Azure Cognitive Services	0	0	5	951
Azure Machine Learning	0	0	17	1 026
Backpropagation	0	0	4	421
Baidu	0	0	0	5
Bard*	0	0	20	143
Bayesian Network	0	0	0	3
Bee Colony	0	0	0	0
BERT*	0	0	43	410
Boosting	0	0	84	476
Caffe	0	0	2	14
Caffe2	0	0	0	0
CHAID	0	0	1	22
Chainer	0	0	0	0
Chatbot	0	1	165	512
ChatGPT*	0	0	162	8 901
Chi-Squared Automatic Interaction Detection	0	0	0	0
Classification and Regression Tree	0	0	2	0
Cluster Analysis	0	0	23	53
Cognitive Automation	0	0	1	0
Cognitive Computing	0	0	2	20
Cognitive Robotics	0	0	0	0
Collaborative Filtering	0	0	2	23
Computational Intelligence	0	0	2	5
Computational Linguistics	0	1	1	3
Computer Vision	0	0	147	1 339
Confusion Matrix	0	0	10	75
Connectionism	0	1	0	1
Connectionist	0	0	2	0
Contextual Image Classification	0	0	0	0
Convolutional Neural Networks	0	0	37	68
Cortana	0	0	8	1 504
Cudnn	0	0	0	0
Cyber-Physical Systems	0	2	17	348
Dask	0	0	2	0
Data Classification	1	4	10	399
Data Mining	2	39	159	4 393
Dbscan	0	0	1	422
Decision Models	0	0	2	24
Decision Tree Learning	0	0	0	6
Deep Belief Network	0	0	0	0
Deep Learning	1	13	391	3 132
Deep Learning Framework	0	0	0	0
Deeplearning4	0	0	0	0
DeepSpeech	0	0	0	0
Dialog Systems	0	0	3	1
Differential Evolution Algorithm	0	0	0	0
Digital Image Processing	0	0	0	3
Dimensionality Reduction	0	0	13	383
Dlib	0	0	0	14
Ensemble Learning	0	0	3	7
Ensemble Methods	0	0	5	17
Evolutionary Algorithm	0	0	3	0
Evolutionary Computation	0	0	2	1
Evolutionary Programming	0	0	0	0
Expectation Maximization Algorithm	0	0	0	0
Expert Systems	0	0	9	77
Eye Tracking	0	0	0	11
Face Detection	0	0	3	132
Facial Recognition	0	0	9	17
Factorisation Machine	0	0	0	0
fastText	0	0	0	0
Feature Engineering	1	0	63	626
Feature Extraction	0	0	9	104
Feature Learning	0	0	0	0
Feature Selection	0	0	11	23
Firefly Algorithm	0	0	0	0
Fuzzy c	0	0	0	0
Fuzzy Environment	0	0	0	0
Fuzzy Logic	0	1	4	7
Fuzzy Number	0	0	0	0
Fuzzy Set	0	0	0	0
Fuzzy System	0	0	0	0
Gaussian Mixture Model	0	0	0	1
Gaussian Process	0	0	0	0
Generative Adversarial Network	0	0	29	1
Genetic Algorithm	0	0	0	22
Genetic Programming	0	0	0	1
Google AutoML	0	0	0	0
Google Cloud ML Engine	0	0	0	0
Gradient Boosting	0	0	1	352
Gradient Tree Boosting	0	0	0	0
Guidance Navigation and Control Systems	0	0	0	0
H2O.ai	0	0	0	0
Handwriting Recognition	0	0	0	0
Hidden Markov Model	0	0	2	3
High-Dimensional Data	0	0	11	1
High-Dimensional Feature	0	0	0	0
High-Dimensional Input	0	0	0	0
High-Dimensional Model	0	0	0	0
High-Dimensional Space	0	0	0	0
High-Dimensional System	0	0	0	0
Hugging Face	0	0	3	36
Hugging Face Transformers	0	0	0	0
Hyperparameter Optimization	0	0	0	115
Image Analysis	1	1	11	797
Image Matching	0	0	1	0
Image Processing	1	0	54	227
Image Recognition	0	0	26	197
Image Segmentation	0	0	5	26
Image Sensor	0	0	0	0
Imagenet	0	0	0	502
Inductive Logic Programming	0	0	0	0
Inference Engine	0	0	0	0
Intelligent Agent	0	0	4	22
Intelligent Control	0	0	37	0
Intelligent Software Assistant	0	0	0	0
Intelligent Systems	0	1	30	51
Intelligent Virtual Assistant	0	0	0	0
Interactive Kiosk	0	0	14	0
IPSoft Amelia	0	0	0	0
Kaldi	0	0	1	1
Keras	0	0	41	340
Kernel learning	0	0	2	0
Kernel Methods	0	0	2	1
K-Means Clustering	0	0	23	394
Knowledge‑Based Configuration	0	0	0	0
Knowledge‑Based Systems	0	0	4	16
Kubeflow	0	0	0	38
Latent Dirichlet Allocation	0	0	1	2
Latent Semantic Analysis	0	0	0	1
Latent Variable	0	0	1	2
Learning Algorithm	1	0	7	19
Learning Model	2	5	38	467
Lexalytics	0	0	0	1
LIBSVM	0	0	0	1
LiDAR	1	0	8	16
Light Detection and Ranging	0	0	0	0
Link Prediction	0	0	2	0
Logistic Regression	0	3	41	323
Long Short-Term Memory	0	0	9	43
Machine Intelligence	0	0	7	4
Machine Learning	2	37	1 099	13 922
Machine Learning Algorithms	0	0	0	0
Machine Learning Operations	0	0	0	0
Machine Translation	0	1	11	2
Machine Vision	0	3	35	10
MapReduce	0	2	3	1 765
Markov Chain	0	0	7	8
Matrix Factorization	0	0	1	5
Memetic Algorithm	0	0	0	0
Meta Learning	0	0	0	0
Microsoft Cognitive Toolkit	0	0	0	1
Microsoft LUIS	0	0	0	0
MLflow	0	0	6	277
MLOps	0	0	11	99
mlpack	0	0	0	0
Motion Analysis	1	0	3	51
Motion Planning	0	1	4	4
Multi-Agent Systems	0	0	4	1
Multi-Label Classification	0	0	0	0
Multi-Layer Perceptron	0	0	5	27
Multi-Objective Evolutionary Algorithm	0	0	0	0
Multi-Objective Optimisation	0	0	0	0
Naive Bayes	0	0	5	45
Natural Gradient	0	0	0	0
Natural Language Generation	0	0	4	18
Natural Language Processing	0	3	180	676
Natural Language Processing Systems	0	0	0	0
Natural Language Programming	0	0	0	0
Natural Language Toolkits	0	0	0	0
Natural Language Understanding	0	0	6	10
Natural Language User Interface	0	0	0	0
Nearest Neighbour Algorithm	0	0	0	0
Neural Network	1	5	182	1 151
Neural Network Library	0	0	0	0
Neural Turing	0	0	0	0
Neuromorphic Computing	0	0	0	0
NLP Model	0	0	8	1
Non Negative Matrix Factorisation	0	0	0	0
Nvidia Jetson	0	0	1	0
Object Recognition	0	0	46	811
OmniPage	0	0	0	8
Open Neural Network Exchange	0	0	0	0
OpenAI Gym	0	0	2	0
OpenCV	0	0	13	49
OpenNLP	0	0	0	0
OpenVINO	0	0	0	0
Optical Character Recognition	0	0	8	8
PaddlePaddle	0	0	0	0
Particle Swarm Optimisation	0	0	0	0
Path Analysis	7	0	0	64
Path Finding	1	0	2	6
Pattern Recognition	0	0	51	119
Perceptron	0	0	14	425
Policy Gradient Methods	0	0	0	0
Pose Estimation	0	0	2	2
Predictionio	0	0	0	0
Pybrain	0	0	0	0
PyTorch	0	0	18	308
Q-learning	0	0	5	14
Random Forest Algorithm	0	0	2	0
RankBoost	0	0	0	0
RealSense	0	0	0	0
Reasoning Systems	0	0	7	0
Recommendation Engine	0	0	8	7
Recommender Systems	0	0	26	33
Recurrent Neural Network	0	0	32	8
Reinforcement Learning	0	0	54	877
Remote Sensing	4	12	0	105
Robot Framework	0	0	0	13
Robot Operating Systems	0	0	0	0
Robotic Automation Software	0	0	0	0
Robotic Liquid Handling Systems	0	0	0	0
Robotic Programming	0	9	1	0
Robotic Systems	0	9	26	2
Scikit-Learn	0	0	43	324
Screen Reader	0	0	0	18
Semantic Analysis	1	0	2	3
Semantic Interpretation for Speech Recognition	0	0	0	0
Semantic Parsing	0	0	1	1
Semantic Search	0	0	3	26
Semi-Supervised Learning	0	0	5	4
Sentiment Analysis	0	0	53	142
Seq2Seq	0	0	0	17
Servomotor	0	0	1	1
Simultaneous Localization and Mapping	0	0	8	0
SLAM Algorithms	0	0	0	15
Soft Computing	0	0	0	0
Sorting Algorithm	1	8	10	3
Sparse Coding	0	0	0	1
Sparse Representation	0	0	0	0
Spectral Clustering	0	0	0	0
Speech Recognition	0	3	23	1 269
Speech Recognition Software	0	0	0	0
Statistical Language Acquisition	0	0	0	0
Stochastic Gradient	0	0	4	3
Supervised Learning	1	13	136	852
Support Vector Machine	0	0	40	57
Swarm Behaviour	0	1	0	0
Swarm Intelligence	0	0	0	23
Syman	0	1	0	0
TensorFlow	0	0	42	762
Test Datasets	1	0	0	1
Text Mining	0	1	40	1 076
Tokenization	0	0	9	40
Topic Model	0	0	10	1
Torch	2	0	18	309
Training Datasets	1	0	0	0
Transfer Learning	0	1	21	384
Unmanned Aerial Systems	1	1	3	0
Unsupervised Learning	1	7	108	805
Variational Inference	0	0	0	0
Vector Machine	0	0	40	57
Voice Interaction	0	0	0	2
Voice User Interface	0	0	0	3
Vowpal Wabbit	0	0	0	0
Watson Conversation	0	0	0	1
Watson Studio	0	0	0	27
Weka	0	0	2	122
Word Embedding	0	0	14	1
Word2Vec Models	0	0	1	0
XGboost	0	0	0	54

Note: Keyword list based off methodology described in Chapter 2. (*) refers to keywords that have been added or modified, in addition to Squicciarini and Nachtigall (2021[1]) and Borgonovi et al. (2023[2]). Multiple keyword references for a single course are counted only once. Total does not correspond to total number of AI-related courses as some course descriptions matched to multiple keywords.

Source: OECD calculations.

References

[2] Borgonovi, F. et al. (2023), “Emerging trends in AI skill demand across 14 OECD countries”, OECD Artificial Intelligence Papers, No. 2, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/7c691b9a-en.

[1] Squicciarini, M. and H. Nachtigall (2021), “Demand for AI skills in jobs: Evidence from online job postings”, OECD Science, Technology and Industry Working Papers, No. 2021/03, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3ed32d94-en.