This chapter examines the policies and strategies that OECD countries have implemented to promote upskilling and reskilling for the green transition. It highlights examples of publicly-funded green-related training programmes and explores how countries incentivise employers, adult learning providers, workers, and jobseekers to participate in these efforts. Additionally, the chapter provides insights into the characteristics of green-related training, drawing on an analysis of course catalogues from Australia, Germany, Singapore, and the United States.
Training Supply for the Green and AI Transitions
Equipping Workers with the Right Skills
Abstract
Rising temperatures and the proliferation and increased frequency of natural disasters have pushed climate change mitigation and adaptation to the forefront of policy agendas in recent years. In this context, many countries have signed commitments to significantly reduce their carbon emissions, such as the European Fit for 55 initiative aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 (European Council, 2024[1]), which will require substantial structural adjustments in economies and labour markets. In order to meet the new challenges emerging from these structural changes, workers in contracting emission-intensive sectors will need to upskill or reskill to find new employment in cleaner industries. At the same time, new jobs will emerge in low-emitting sectors and existing jobs are likely to require new skills and tasks. Adult learning can support and facilitate the green transition and make it more inclusive by equipping adults with the required skills.
While there is not yet an internationally accepted definition of skills for the green transition, the O*NET Green Economy programme provides one of the most widely used international classification for green jobs.1 This classification considers occupations as green if they are directly created by the green transition (“green new and emerging”), but also if their task content has changed significantly because of the transitions to net-zero (“green enhanced skills”) or if their demand is likely to rise because they provide goods and services required by green activities (“green increased demand”). The OECD estimates that about 20% of workers are employed in one of these “green-driven jobs” (OECD, 2024[2]).
Compared with the rest of the labour market, green-driven occupations generally require a higher degree of autonomy, higher-level abstract skills, and higher levels of education, work experience and on-the‑job training (Consoli et al., 2015[3]). Green-driven jobs may also be biased against the skills of manual workers, in favour of the non-routine cognitive skills held by those in technical, scientific and professional roles (Marin and Vona, 2019[4]). Compared with existing green-driven occupations, the new and emerging ones are higher-skilled, demanding greater proficiency in information processing, critical thinking, active learning, complex problem solving and decision making (OECD, 2024[2]). They also require higher proficiency in analytical skills (such as programming, problem solving, science and mathematics) compared to existing green-driven jobs which require more mechanical skills (such as equipment maintenance, repairing, installation and quality control) (Pew Research Center, 2020[5]).
Training can help adults transition into green-driven occupations, and the extent of training needed will vary depending on one’s level of education and previous work history. Recent OECD analysis using O*NET data finds that high-skilled workers may find it easier than the low-skilled to transition out of emission-intensive occupations into green-driven occupations due to a significant overlap in the type and level of skills required in high-skilled jobs. Workers in low-skilled jobs, by contrast, may require more upskilling or retraining to move into greener employment. This is made challenging by the fact that both low-skilled adults and workers in emission-intensive occupations are found to participate less in formal and non-formal training than the average (OECD, 2019[6]; OECD, 2023[7]).
This report takes a broad definition of green-related training to include all training that supports the development of skills and knowledge for the green transition. The training programmes and policy initiatives shared in this chapter are based on countries’ own national or sub-national definitions or understanding of upskilling or reskilling to meet the needs of the green transition.
All 27 countries that responded to the OECD policy questionnaire have a policy or strategy in place relating to upskilling or reskilling for the green transition (Table 3.1). These countries have implemented various types of measures to address skill gaps arising from the green transition, ranging from publicly-funded training programmes to the provision of incentives to one or more of the actors in the skills ecosystem. This section outlines the different initiatives introduced by these countries, while the next sections describe these incentives.
Many of the policies are part of a wider policy or strategy related to meeting environmental targets (see Table 3.1). This is the case in several countries, including Australia, Canada, Costa Rica, Hungary, Latvia, Portugal, Singapore, and the United Kingdom. The stated objective of these policies is usually to mitigate anticipated labour and skills shortages that are likely to arise as a result of following through with climate commitments or as demand for certain goods or services increase with a changing climate. Other policy objectives are to reduce the negative distributional impact of the green transition, by ensuring that individuals who are at risk of losing their job or facing wage reductions have access to support through active labour market policies, including upskilling and reskilling. Examples of such policies include Canada’s Sustainable Jobs Plan 2023‑25, which funds skills development towards sustainable jobs; or Austria’s Just Transition Action Plan, which funds the Public Employment Service to provide training or employment support to 8 000 people for green jobs (such as waste disposal apprentice, recycling specialist, energy technician for renewable) in 2022 as part of its goal of achieving climate neutrality by 2050.
In other instances, countries have advanced an education and training strategy, which includes some mention or consideration for preparing adults for the green transition. This is the case in Austria, the Czech Republic (Czechia), Hungary, Korea, Latvia, the Slovak Republic, Sweden, and Switzerland. For instance, in Switzerland, climate protection and the green transition are among the priority themes for upskilling and reskilling policies in the next few years, as organised by FSEA (la federation Suisse pour la formation continue) and its partners. In Portugal, the National Environmental Education Strategy (2020) is an instrument to support education systems, knowledge creation and awareness raising. The Strategy aims to empower citizens and decision makers to address environmental challenges from local and global perspectives by building environmental literacy.
There are a few examples of strategies aimed specifically and narrowly at upskilling and reskilling for the green transition. In the United Kingdom, the Department for Education published the Sustainability and Climate Strategy for Education and Children’s Services Systems, which makes reference to adult learning. The UK Government’s forthcoming Net Zero and Nature Workforce Action Plan will also focus on actions for industry and government bodies on adult skills.
The European Union’s NextGenerationEU Recovery and Resilience Facility provides funding to member states to support structural reform and investment packages that facilitate and accelerate the green and digital transitions. Member states, including Croatia, France, Greece, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, and Spain, put forward and received support to implement National Recovery and Resilience Plans. For instance, the Recovery and Resilience Plan of Luxembourg (2021) identifies concrete measures to improve digital skills as a response to the green transition. Poland’s Recovery and Resilience Plan (2021) has three dimensions of structural intervention: resilience, the climate transition and the digital transition. In Croatia, the National Recovery and Resilience Plan 2021‑26 allocated EUR 190.5 million to support upskilling, reskilling, professional guidance, and employment, particularly in green and digital industries. In 2022, the Ministry of Labour, Pension System, Family, and Social Policy (MROSP), through the Croatian Employment Service (HZZ), initiated the distribution of vouchers to both unemployed and employed individuals, with a primary focus on upskilling and reskilling for green and digital jobs. As part of “France Relance,” France allocated EUR 50 billion to support the climate transition, including an education and skills policy. Investments were targeted at improving professional skills for responding to ecological challenges and supporting reskilling to enable a just and inclusive transition.
Note: 1. Publicly-funded training programme is planned to be introduced, but was not yet implemented at the time of the questionnaire response.
Source: 2023 OECD Policy Questionnaire: Adult Learning for the Green Transition.
Green-related training programmes
The OECD 2023 Policy Questionnaire “Adult Learning for the Green Transition” revealed that many OECD countries have introduced publicly-funded, green-related training programmes. They can broadly be categorised into three groups: 1) training workers in green sectors, 2) training jobseekers for the green sectors, 3) and training workers in non-green sectors (see Table 3.2).
Source: 2023 OECD Policy Questionnaire: Adult Learning for the Green Transition.
Training workers for jobs in green sectors
Many of the green training programmes that are funded or developed by governments have the specific aim of training workers to perform jobs in what are considered green sectors, including natural resources, renewable energy, sustainable agriculture, and energy-efficient construction. The content of these training programmes is usually developed based on stakeholder consultation and/or a skills assessment specific to the national or sub-national labour market. Training in green sectors often has a work-based or vocational education component, though not always.
In both Germany and Luxembourg, public training is offered to develop the skills needed to make the construction sector greener. Germany provides funding for trades workers to participate in short training courses and coaching on the subject of heat pumps in existing buildings (Bundesförderung Aufbauprogramm Wärmepumpe, Federal Funding Programme Heat Pump). The content of the short training course was developed with the involvement of several relevant stakeholders with the aim of addressing knowledge gaps among trades workers. Eligible participants come from plumbing, heating, air conditioning and electrical engineering as well as refrigeration/air conditioning technology, chimney sweeps, planning companies for technical building equipment, companies offering energy consultations, and persons listed on the federal government’s list of energy efficiency experts. This training programme is part of the 2023 Climate Action Programme (Klimaschutzprogramm) to achieve climate targets in the building sector by 2030, and it supports the target to install 500 000 heat pumps annually starting from 2024 – a target set by the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action, the Federal Ministry for Housing, Urban Development and Building, and a broad alliance of business, industry, crafts, research, science and trade unions. Green training in Luxembourg also focuses on the construction sector, which has been identified as facing major challenges complying with national energy performance standards. The programme targets employees of Luxembourg’s heating, sanitation and building sector to help them adapt to new skill and job requirements as a result of the greening of the construction sector. In addition to this, two training programmes are being prepared via the European Social Fund Plus: one provides heat pump training to employees in heating and sanitation companies who plan, install, troubleshoot and maintain heat pumps in buildings (via Chambre des Métiers/Chamber of Craft); and the other aims to reduce CO2 for the building sector (via IFSB/Training Institute Building Sector).
Training programmes in Australia, Canada and Sweden all have a strong work-based component, helping learners to build industry-relevant, practical skills while gaining on-the‑job experience. Australia’s New Energy Apprenticeships Program (NEAP) will contribute to building a pipeline of skilled workers needed to transition Australia’s economy to net zero. Starting in 2023 and over nine years, the programme aims to train 10 000 new energy apprentices in clean energy occupations in solar, wind energy, geothermal energy, hydropower, ocean energy and bioenergy. Eligible New Energy Apprentices will receive financial support payments of up to AUD 10 000 over the course of their apprenticeship, to assist with the cost of living. As part of Canada’s net-zero efforts and the Sustainable Jobs Plan, the government announced a sustainable jobs stream which would support unions in leading the development of green skills training to reach 20 000 apprentices and journeypersons (Union Training and Innovation Program). In Sweden, adults who have a formal upper secondary school diploma or equivalent and want to change professions are eligible for higher vocational education subsidised by the Ministry of Education and Research. Employers and industry representatives have an influence on the content of the subsidised VET programmes. Based on an evaluation report, approximately half of all subsidised training provides competencies that contribute to climate change adaptation and a circular economy. Examples include Timber House Designer, Operations Technician with a focus on biogas and water treatment, Solar Energy Technician, and Sustainable Logistics Specialist.
Both Canada and France provide funding to employers to develop industry-driven training solutions, which helps to ensure workers’ skills are in-line with industry needs. As part of Canada’s Sectoral Workforce Solution Program, sectoral stakeholders are encouraged to collaborate with each other and with provincial/territorial governments to implement wide‑scale industry training solutions. Within the priority area of “Building Talent for the Clean Economy” (one of three priority areas), the programme targets sectors that are directly or indirectly involved in protecting the environment, oceanic or aquatic ecosystems, managing natural resources, and/or contribute to the low carbon economy in key areas, such as: Agriculture and agri-food, Clean technology, Construction (building retrofits/energy efficiency), Natural resources and environment, and Transportation. In France, training courses linked to developing skills for a greener economy have been funded through FNE‑Formation, which supports firms in training their employees to maintain or develop their professional skills. Courses are selected based on an assessment of labour market needs, national priorities and sectoral developments. Currently funded green-related training courses focus on energy efficiency, renewable energy, water management and sustainable agriculture.
Training jobseekers in green sectors
Several green training programmes are specifically directed at jobseekers or inactive individuals, for instance through the public employment service. Labour market training for unemployed or inactive individuals contributes to matching labour demand and supply by ensuring they have the skills needed to work in growing green sectors.
In Austria, between April 2022 and March 2025, approximately 1 000 unemployed people with obsolete apprenticeship training will be re‑qualified in the environmental sector. This programme is developed and implemented by the Environmental Foundation (Umweltstiftung), a foundation initiated by the Austrian Trade‑Union Federation (ÖGB) and the Austrian Federal Economic Chamber (WKÖ). The programme is being implemented jointly with the Public Employment Service Austria (AMS), the Federal Ministry of Labour and Economic Affairs (BMAW), the Federal Ministry for Climate Protection (BMK) and in close co‑operation with companies with strong demand for climate‑related professions. Eligible unemployed persons undergo training in close co‑operation with companies looking to meet a concrete staffing need. They undergo up to 24‑months of training and further education courses or apprenticeship qualifications. For instance, electrical technician/photovoltaic technician (extraordinary apprenticeship certificate) is one example of a training course that is currently being completed through the Environmental Foundation.
Costa Rica’s National Employability and Human Talent Strategy (BRETE 2023‑27) includes a focus on providing training that is aimed at the unemployed and those who are out of the labour force, particularly focusing on young people and people with disabilities. The strategy is broad in terms of the content of training and education, but it emphasises high demand occupations, including green jobs, those related to changes in the energy matrix and STEM careers. The identification of high-demand skills and jobs is done based on skills assessment and anticipation exercises.
In Portugal, the Green Skills and Jobs programme (Trabalhos e Competências Verdes) created in January 2023 aims at training and reskilling both jobseekers and workers whose employers were directly or indirectly affected by the increase in energy costs. The programme has the dual objective of accelerating the transition to a more sustainable and efficient energy sector by increasing the skills and number of qualified people in the energy sector and preventing unemployment in firms affected by rising energy costs. Companies and training institutions are eligible for funding to provide skills training on topics within the scope of the energy transition, including energy efficiency, renewable energy, water efficiency, sustainable mobility and the circular economy.
In the United States, the Environmental Career Worker Training Program (ECWTP) provides opportunities for unemployed or underemployed individuals from disadvantaged and underserved communities to obtain careers in environmental cleanup, construction, hazardous waste removal and emergency response. To date, more than 14 000 people have been trained by the programme’s partners, which include community colleges, historically black colleges and universities, and apprenticeship programmes. Programmes provide pre‑employment job training, including literacy, life skills, environmental preparation, construction skills training and environmental worker training (including hazardous waste, asbestos and lead abatement training, and safety and health training). Some training also includes enrolment in apprenticeship programmes for construction and environmental remediation worker training. Particular focus is placed on establishing a programme of mentoring. Unemployed individuals living near hazardous waste sites or in communities at risk of exposure to contaminated properties are targeted. ECWTP has maintained a high job placement rate of 70% after training.
Training workers in non-green sectors
A third group of green-related training programmes in the policy questionnaire involved training workers in non-green sectors. In some cases, these training programmes involve retraining workers in carbon intensive sectors so that workers remain employable in the context of the environmental transition. For instance, in Germany, the BMWK programme “Unternehmen Revier” was launched at the end of 2017 to provide early support for structural change in Germany’s lignite coal regions. The programme is intended to generate innovative bottom-up models of regional development. Companies in the coalfields sector independently develop ideas and compete for funding to implement their projects, including training programmes. These can serve as models not only for other sectors within the region, but also for other coalfield regions. Similarly, in the United States, the Partnerships for Opportunity and Workforce and Economic Revitalization (POWER) puts federal resources toward helping communities and regions affected by job losses in coal mining, coal power plant operations, and coal-related supply chain industries due to the changing economics of energy production. Several of these programmes involve training in green-related skills. For instance, with support from the 2022 POWER award, Wallace State Community College’s “Supporting Electric Vehicle Manufacturing and Maintenance in North Alabama” project will train students in Mechatronics, Automotive Services, and Diesel Technician programmes in smart manufacturing, and servicing electric vehicles and electric heavy-duty trucks. The project will partner with automotive companies to ensure students are equipped for potential employers and connected to high-wage opportunities.
In other cases, green training programmes in non-green sectors involve upskilling workers to be able to perform their job tasks in a more sustainable way, such as incorporating energy-efficient practices, reducing waste, or adopting eco-friendly technologies to minimise the environmental impact of their daily operations. Since 2022, a training programme in Germany (Bund-Länder-Fortbildungsinitiative) trains procurers in the federal states in the field of sustainable public procurement and the corresponding regulations in the field of sustainability. In Lithuania, the Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Economics and Innovation designed a programme to train public catering facilities in how to reduce food waste. They are planning 10 training workshops by 2030 for public caterers on lean food production skills. Funded by the European Union’s investment programme and the state budget, the aim is to meet the waste prevention and recycling targets set out in the National Waste Prevention and Management Plan 2021‑27.
Finally, some green training programmes are more general in nature and have the aim of improving overall environmental literacy or awareness. Given that the success of the green transition relies on changing individual behaviours, consumption patterns and reorganising production processes, fostering widespread awareness and willingness to promote environmental sustainability is crucial (OECD, 2023[7]). Some OECD countries have implemented policies aiming at improving climate literacy, while also considering the significant disparities across socio-demographic groups in their attitudes, knowledge and competences related to environmental sustainability. In Latvia, for example, the Ministry of Education and Sciences in co‑operation with the Green Freedom Association and the Electronic Platform for Adult Learning in Europe (EPALE) developed a training programme to educate adults about overconsumption and waste sorting. The course aims to challenge mindsets and habits particularly of older people.
Incentives for workers and jobseekers
Another approach to incentivising the development of skills related to green jobs is to influence the demand side, starting with measures targeted to individuals. This section will provide examples of how countries are influencing the incentives for workers and jobseekers to train in two ways: 1) providing financial incentives for training, and 2) improving labour market information about skills in demand and facilitating access to career guidance (see Table 3.3 for an overview).
Source: 2023 OECD Policy Questionnaire: Adult Learning for the Green Transition.
Financial incentives for training
Of the 27 countries that responded to the policy questionnaire, 26 reported that they have incentives to encourage workers and/or jobseekers to train in green-related content (Table 3.1). When trying to steer adults to train more in green-related content, most countries use direct subsidies (21 of the 27 surveyed countries). This is likely because subsidies are a flexible tool that can be easily adapted to specific types of training content and used to target specific groups of people. Direct subsidies include scholarships, grants, bursaries, allowances, vouchers, training vouchers, credits and subsidised training places.
Direct subsidies for green training often target adults expected to be heavily impacted by the green transition or to benefit most from this training, including low-educated workers and jobseekers. In Latvia, retraining programmes offered for free by the public employment service are geared at jobseekers with a low level of formal qualifications, and these programmes have been updated in light of the need to acquire green (and digital) skills. Singapore implemented the SkillsFuture Credit in 2015, providing an opening credit of SGD 500 to Singaporeans aged 25 and above to partially offset training course expenses. To assist in the skills development of older individuals, when Singaporeans turn 40, there is a credit top-up of SGD 4 000. Since 1998, the United States Environmental Workforce Development and Job Training Program awards grant funding to train jobseekers for a range of environmental careers. The United States announced USD 12 million in 2023 to train jobseekers in brownfield assessment and cleanup activities, as well as hazardous waste operations and emergency response. The Environmental Protection Agency that runs the programme encourages institutions applying for the grant to develop curricula based on local labour market assessments and employers’ hiring needs. In Croatia, the public employment service subsidises adult education courses for the acquisition of green, digital and general knowledge and skills for both unemployed and employed adults. Examples of green adult education programmes include ecological production of vegetables, maintenance of hybrid electric vehicles, installing heat pumps and installing photovoltaic systems. Funding is provided by the European Union and the voucher is paid directly to the selected education provider to offset the cost of tuition. In Spain, the Ministry of Labor and Social Economy subsidises workers and jobseekers to pursue micro-credentials in skills for digital and green transformations. In Portugal, the previously mentioned Green Skills and Jobs programme includes a monthly training allowance for workers who engage in training via the scheme, equivalent to at least 85% of the national minimum wage.
In addition to targeting green training subsidies at specific groups, several countries target a specific mode of training, which may reflect that these countries perceive work-based learning as providing cutting-edge training in green content. For example, subsidies in Greece are directed at work-based learning for the green transition. Apprenticeship vocational schools run by the Greek Public Employment Service (DYPA) are currently prioritising fields of study relevant for the green transition. With funding from the European Union, the DYPA also plans to provide training focused mainly on green and digital skills, but also “blue” skills (skills relevant to jobs in the marine and maritime sectors) and financial literacy to over 500 000 beneficiaries (both unemployed and employed) by 2025.
Some financial incentives are made available specifically for training in green sectors. In the United Kingdom, Department of Work and Pensions runs two training initiatives that can be used for green sectors: Sector-based Work Academy Programmes, and the Train and Progress policy. Training is free to the learner and arranged through engagement with their public employment service Work Coach. Also in the United Kingdom, Skills Bootcamps are free, flexible courses of up to 16 weeks that give learners the opportunity to build sector-specific skills. Skills Bootcamps have been designed with employers to meet short- and medium-term skill shortages and boost productivity in a range of sectors including green construction, renewable energy and green transport. There are over 1 000 Skills Bootcamps currently available and open to adults age 19+ who are in or out of work. In Canada, the Sectoral Workforce Solutions Program (SWSP) includes funding for projects that provide incentives for training, career guidance and labour market information in key areas for the clean economy.
The financial incentives mentioned above have all been created to respond directly to the green transition or can be used explicitly to finance training for this purpose. Another common approach, however, is to promote general training incentives as a response to the upskilling and reskilling challenges presented by the green transition, even if they can be used for areas other than green-related training. This is the approach taken in Austria, Belgium, France, Japan, Portugal, and the Slovak Republic. Taking advantage of existing financial measures to promote training for the green transition can be advantageous, as it can contribute to a streamlining of programmes and information while addressing emerging skill needs. However, given the growing skill gap in the net-zero transition there is sufficient evidence to question if these training programmes are reaching the people that need them. Without the steering element provided by subsidies that are tied to specific green skills training, individuals are left to make decisions about which skills and knowledge to acquire themselves. This underscores the importance of having access to good quality labour market information, advice and guidance.
Information, advice and guidance
Information, advice and guidance are important to help adults successfully navigate the evolving labour market and training opportunities. Twelve out of 27 OECD countries report that they have career guidance initiatives in place to facilitate transition into green jobs.
While there has not been a big focus on adapting career guidance programmes for the green transition, some countries include career guidance as an element of a wider skill programme or policy. To inform the use of Croatia’s new system of green and digital training vouchers, guidance counsellors at the Croatian Employment Service have been instructed to consult relevant labour market indicators when awarding vouchers and guiding adults in accessing upskilling opportunities. All Apprentices in Australia’s New Energy Apprenticeship Program are guaranteed access to professional mentoring support. Latvia, in co‑operation with the European Commission, organised a webinar in 2022 to educate young adults about the skills needed for the environmental transition and the circular economy in general, and to get them thinking about how to acquire those skills. They also organised a conference for educators on civic initiatives for the environment and sustainability, and how those initiatives could be integrated into education.
Labour market information is critical and several countries are investing in skills anticipation and assessment to better understand the skills and labour market needs of the green transition (OECD, 2023[8]). For instance, the Luxembourg Ministry of Labour, Employment and the Social and Solidarity Economy (MTEESS) and the Public Employment Service (ADEM) initiated sectoral studies to understand skills gaps created by technological, environmental and societal transitions.
Tripartite social dialogue, if carried out well, can aid in the anticipation of skill needs and supports reskilling and upskilling to prepare displaced workers for transitions in the labour market. Ten out of the 27 countries that responded to the Policy Questionnaire on Adult Learning for the Green Transition reported that trade unions were involved in the development and/or implementation of publicly-funded training programmes for the green transition, and 12 countries reported that employers or industry groups were involved.
Sweden’s Employment Transition Agreements
In Sweden, social dialogue has increased awareness of labour market transition risks and collective responsibility for managing impacts. Since January 2019, the Swedish Council for Negotiation and Co‑operation (PTK) and the Confederation of Swedish Enterprises enhanced the TRR conversion agreement to address job search support, employment protection, employability and training. The agreement also includes a study allowance and severance payments. In 2022, historic Main Agreements on security, transition and employment protection were reached between social partners, addressing job-to-job transitions and lifelong learning. These agreements complement new public reforms and legislation, focusing on employment protection and supporting employees in skills development and improving working conditions.
France has done considerable work to make training linked to the ecological transition more transparent for learners. The Carif-Oref network (Centres d’animation, de ressources et d’information sur la formation et des Observatoires régionaux de l’emploi et de la formation) was tasked with categorising continuing vocational training courses listed in the FORMACODE directory as related to the ecological transition or not. This categorisation will make it easier to map the range of green-related continuing vocational training courses on offer. The public employment service (France Travail) also plans to tag skills related to the ecological transition into a new version of the operational directory of trades and jobs (Répertoire Opérationnel des Métiers et Emplois, ROME 4.0). Together these initiatives are intended to increase visibility of training courses linked to the ecological transition.
Incentives for employers
Incentivising the development of skills related to green-driven jobs can also be achieved by focusing on measures targeted to employers. This section provides several approaches countries have taken to encourage employers to invest in skills for the green transition: 1) providing subsidies or tax reductions for training, 2) offering employment incentives, 3) developing apprenticeship programmes, and 4) promoting public private collaborations (see Table 3.4 for an overview).
Source: 2023 OECD Policy Questionnaire: Adult Learning for the Green Transition.
Subsidies or tax deductions to train employees
Financial incentives for training, such as subsidies or tax deductions, can steer employers to invest in upskilling and reskilling initiatives aligned with the needs of the green transition. Eleven out of 27 countries that responded to the policy questionnaire reported providing subsidies or tax deductions to offset the expenses associated with employee training programmes.
Several of these financial incentives can only be accessed by employers providing green-related training to their employees. For instance, in Belgium, employees working in approved firms can benefit from training vouchers, known as “cheque formation éco-climat”, which entitle them to one hour of training in an environmental subject listed in an approved course catalogue. The employer accesses the voucher on behalf of the employee. In the United Kingdom, Skills Bootcamps target a range of sectors, including those relevant to the green transition. For employers utilising Skills Bootcamps to train their employees, the government covers 70% of the cost for large employers (with 250 or more employees) and 90% for small or medium-sized enterprises (SMEs with fewer than 250 employees). In Korea, the Industrial Job Transition Subsidy specifically targets carbon-neutral firms or those undergoing a digital transformation. Subsidies provided under this scheme are contingent upon the provision of training and career transition support services to employees, either directly or through outsourcing. The programme provides financial support for training costs of up to KRW 3 million per employee participating in the programme. Additionally, it provides a training subsidy for employers, capped at KRW 100 000 per participating employee within the limit of KRW 1 million. Moreover, as part of the French programme “FNE‑Formation”, eligible companies receive funding for training and developing the skills of their employees in three priority areas: ecological, sustainable food and digital transitions.
Several countries also reported having general financial incentives in place that subsidise employers for providing training without specifying the content of that training. While these incentives do not specifically target green-related training, they can encompass such initiatives, and there is potential to use these incentives in the future to specifically target green-related training. Although a full review of these is beyond the scope of this study, some examples stand out. In Singapore, enterprises have access to both demand-side and supply-side financial support. On the demand-side support, eligible enterprises receive a one‑off SGP 10 000 SkillsFuture Enterprise Credit (SFEC) to cover up to 90% of out-of-pocket expenses on enterprise and workforce transformation which includes training courses for their employees. For the supply-side support, there are course fee grants that moderate training expenses when enterprises send their employees for training. The Netherlands has two general schemes in place, the “SLIM subsidy” and the “MKBIdee”, which are aimed at stimulating lifelong learning among employees. Since 2020, the government has made EUR 48 million available for initiatives aimed at stimulating learning and development in small and medium-sized enterprises as part of the SLIM subsidy scheme. The United Kingdom’s Apprenticeship Levy can be used by SMEs to fund apprenticeships, with 95% of the cost covered by the apprenticeship’s budget. Companies with an annual pay bill exceeding GBP 3 million make a payment of 0.5% to His Majesty’s Treasury and these payments constitute the apprenticeships budget, which the Department for Education uses to finance apprentices, including those in green occupations. Since 2019, Germany has significantly expanded funding for continuing education and training, particularly for employed workers, through various legislative acts. Employers are incentivised to provide training by receiving subsidies that cover a range of costs, including course fees, travel, accommodation, board, and childcare expenses, as well as wage subsidies. The level of subsidy is adjusted based on company size. Additionally, low-skilled workers have a legal entitlement to complete vocational qualifications, with 100% wage subsidies and full coverage of training costs. Recently, a new “skills development benefit” (Qualifizierungsgeld) was introduced, offering compensation to employees whose jobs are at risk due to structural changes. This benefit aims to help workers remain within their current companies by supporting targeted skills training. Finally, through Poland’s National Training Fund, firms can receive subsidies and tax deductions to support employee training and development initiatives to improve the skills and qualifications of their workforce.
Employment incentives
Employment incentives can assist people at risk of losing their job due to the green transition in remaining in quality employment. Simultaneously, employment incentives like wage subsidies, relocation subsidies or support for green entrepreneurship can support firms in developing the skills needed for the green transition. Eight out of 27 countries that responded to the policy questionnaire reported having employment incentives in place.
In Lithuania, recent amendments to employment laws have introduced measures to support individuals, both employed and unemployed, in starting their own businesses and include one‑off lump sum payments for job creation in a micro‑enterprise, provided that the created jobs contribute to digital and green transformation goals, promote circular economy principles, and/or mitigate the impact of COVID‑19. The one‑off lump sum payment can be as high as 31 times the minimum monthly salary per job place (currently equivalent to EUR 26 040). Additionally, the Employment Service organises consultations on starting a business for job seekers seeking support in launching their entrepreneurial ventures.
Canada’s Science and Technology Internship Program and Sectoral Workforce Solutions Program exemplify the country’s commitment to fostering talent in the natural resource sector and promoting energy efficiency. The Science and Technology Internship Program offers employers the opportunity to receive wage subsidies of up to 75% when hiring, training and mentoring young individuals in the natural resource sector, particularly focusing on green jobs. Additionally, within the Sectoral Workforce Solutions Program, the Energy Manager Program provides financial support to various institutions, including industrial, commercial, and institutional facilities, enabling them to employ energy managers. These managers play a vital role in optimising energy usage and promoting sustainable practices within their respective sectors.
Similarly, Croatia allocates higher financial support to employers and self-employed individuals engaged in green and digital activities through employment subsidies and traineeship programmes. This strategic approach encourages businesses to adopt environmentally friendly practices while creating employment opportunities aligned with the green transition.
In Greece, the “Integrated Intervention of Training, Certification, and Employment of 15 000 Unemployed Aged 25‑45” programme aims to enhance skills and retrain unemployed individuals primarily focusing on areas of high demand such as green and digital industries. The programme includes comprehensive training and certification to equip participants with the necessary knowledge and skills. The next phase of the programme involves creating 15 000 new full-time jobs by facilitating the employment of trained individuals in private sector businesses.
In the United States, employment incentives are geared at firms that are affected by the decline in the fossil fuel industry. The Community Economic Development (CED) programme focuses on Energy Communities affected by declines in the fossil fuel industry, supporting new business ventures and job creation. The programme gives grants to non-profit Community Development Corporations (CDCs) in areas with persistent poverty and high unemployment to create employment opportunities for low-income individuals. At least 75% of jobs created must go to individuals with low income, offering them quality employment with benefits and opportunities for advancement. It is estimated that for every dollar spent on the CED programme, neighborhoods gain around USD 3.66 in community benefits. Grant recipients also provide support services like financial literacy and childcare to help employees maintain long-term employment. Retraining for new positions is typically offered by business partners.
Apprenticeship programmes
A specific form of employment incentive is a government-funded apprenticeship or traineeship programme. Apprenticeship programmes offer practical, hands-on training opportunities that directly address the evolving needs of the job market, including in fields aligned with the green transition. Only four countries – Australia, France, Spain and the United Kingdom – report actively leveraging apprenticeship incentives to foster workforce development tailored to the demands of the green economy.
Australia’s Apprenticeships Incentive System is an example of a government initiative aimed at addressing skills shortages and promoting employment in priority occupations, including clean energy roles, through a system of subsidised apprenticeships. Through a substantial investment of AUD 3.1 billion over five years, the Australian Government offers wage subsidies to employers hiring apprentices and trainees in these critical fields. The subsidy is set at 10% in the first year of the apprenticeship, 10% in the second year and 5% in the third year and can amount to a maximum of AUD 15 000. By incentivising employers to invest in these apprenticeship programmes, Australia promotes workforce development tailored to the needs of the green transition.
In France, the “Pro-A” scheme enables companies to provide work-study programmes for employees seeking retraining or skill upgrading in fields in-line with the needs of the job market, including those relevant to the ecological transition. This initiative ensures that employees have access to training opportunities that align with emerging green sectors, fostering a skilled workforce capable of driving sustainability initiatives.
In Spain, the INVESTIGO programme under the Transformation, Recovery, and Resilience Plan prioritises the recruitment of young researchers and technologists for innovation projects related to the ecological transition and the green economy. This initiative highlights the importance of apprenticeship programmes in nurturing talent and driving innovation in environmentally conscious sectors.
Meanwhile, in the United Kingdom, employer-led Trailblazer groups collaborate with the Institute for Apprenticeships and Technical Education (IfATE) to develop and review apprenticeship standards. By engaging employers in the design of apprenticeship training, the United Kingdom ensures that apprentices acquire the knowledge, skills and behaviours necessary for success in a given role or sector, including green industries.
Promoting public private collaborations
Promoting public private collaborations provides an opportunity to harness the expertise and resources of both the public and private sectors to address skill gaps, stimulate innovation and drive sustainable economic growth. These collaborations, which bring together government agencies, businesses, training institutions and potentially even NGOs, can include financial incentives (e.g. co-funding) or non-financial incentives (e.g. knowledge sharing) that support reskilling and upskilling for facilitating the transition to a greener economy. Eight of the 27 countries that responded to the policy questionnaire are implementing initiatives to foster such collaborations.
In France, initiatives like the “Engagements de Développement de l’Emploi et des Compétences” (EDEC) exemplify the collaborative approach adopted to address the challenges of the green transition. Through annual or multi-year agreements between the Ministry of Labour and one or more professional branches, EDECs facilitate the development of action plans aimed at anticipating the impact of economic and demographic changes on jobs and skills. As part of the 2022 EDEC scheme, joint efforts are being made to analyse the impact of the ecological transition on business activity, the future needs of the labor market in relation to the green transition, identify the specific skills required to meet environmental challenges, and identify emerging trades in this field. These initiatives are designed to raise employers’ awareness of the challenges of the green transition, and to encourage them to invest in training and skills development for their employees in order to effectively prepare for the growing demand for green skills. Similarly, as part of France 2030’s current call for “skills and professions of the future”, a consortium of employers, training organisations and public-sector training providers can apply for grants to undertake projects aimed at expediting training in emerging industries and addressing the evolving skill requirements of companies and public institutions. These projects may involve identifying vocational training needs and aligning them with existing offerings, or they may propose tailored training programmes for specific professions or cross-functional roles, provided they align with the priorities outlined in France 2030.
Belgium’s Job Market Watch, Analysis and Forecasting Department (AMEF) leverages collaboration with different stakeholders, including employers, to produce valuable insights into employment and training market trends, essential for anticipating future skill needs in sectors such as energy and environmental protection. By disseminating knowledge and facilitating access to labor market statistics and skills anticipation studies, AMEF promotes informed decision-making and fosters stakeholder engagement to address emerging workforce challenges.
In Australia, the New Energy Training Pathways Initiative is a collaboration between government entities and industry stakeholders to develop training tailored to the needs of the renewable energy sector. By partnering with industry Joint Skills Committees (JSCs) and engaging in consultations with key stakeholders, the initiative ensures that training programmes align with industry requirements and support high-quality skill development for the green economy.
In the United Kingdom, initiatives like Local Skills Improvement Plans (LSIPs) and Institutes of Technology (IoTs) emphasise collaboration to address skills gaps and promote sustainability. LSIPs, developed in partnership with employer representative bodies, articulate local skills needs and ensure access to green skills training to support the transition to a low-carbon economy. IoTs, supported by capital funding – consisting of primarily government funding – and industry partnerships, deliver technical provision in key STEM subjects, including net zero carbon energy production and sustainable manufacturing, to close the skill gap in critical sectors.
In the United States, the Environmental Workforce Development and Job Training Program, led by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), is a public-private collaboration to build a skilled environmental workforce. By awarding grants to non-profit organisations and eligible entities, the programme supports the recruitment, training and placement of individuals in environmental careers, addressing unemployment and underemployment while meeting the workforce needs of solid and hazardous waste‑impacted communities.
Lastly, in Canada, the Business and Higher Education Roundtable (BHER) received funding support to launch three work-integrated learning partnerships with post-secondary institutions focused on green skills. These partnerships build capacity for 150 small and medium-sized firms and not-for-profit organisations to undertake community-engaged projects to support the green transition in Saskatchewan, Alberta and British Colombia. The projects will create opportunities for more than 1 100 students to collaborate with local businesses on climate change mitigation efforts.
Incentives for adult learning providers
Another approach to incentivising the development of skills required to power the green transition is to focus on the supply side of training: education and training institutions. A common complaint from employers is that education and training institutions do not adapt their curricula and training programmes to the pace of change of the labour market. Education and training institutions face constraints including time‑ and cost-intensive processes to update curricula or introduce new training programmes, ensuring they have trainers with the right skills and developing the necessary infrastructure (materials, equipment, technology) to offer training.
This section describes several approaches countries have taken to support adult education institutions in overcoming these constraints to offer green-related training, by incentivising them to: 1) update or develop new training programmes or apprenticeships, 2) update occupational standards or the national qualification framework, 3) create practitioner networks, 4) train the trainer, and 5) make training facilities greener (see Table 3.5 for an overview).
Source: 2023 OECD Policy Questionnaire: Adult Learning for the Green Transition.
Updating or developing training programmes
Public funding is sometimes made available to education and training institutions to develop new training programmes delivering green content. This is the case in Austria, Wallonia (Belgium), Canada, Croatia, Japan, Latvia, Portugal, Singapore, and Switzerland. In Canada, the Implementation Readiness Fund, a programme under the Low Carbon Economy Fund, supports selected organisations to create curriculum and deliver training programmes that develop skills to support GHG-emissions reduction solutions. In Portugal, the government supported the development of 30 specialised technological centres offering training in the field of renewable energies, within the scope of the Recovery and Resilience Plan. Latvia’s Investment and Development Strategies of VET institutions 2021‑27 prioritises developing training programmes for skills for the green transition.
In both Wallonia (Belgium) and Switzerland, funding for new training programmes is targeted at occupations and sectors facing labour and skills shortages. The Wallonian Government funded two institutions to develop training programmes in shortage sectors: the Eco-Centre in Belgrade, Namur (Wallonia, Belgium) to deliver training programmes for shortage and critical occupations in the construction sector, and the Eco-Technologies Contemporaines in Jemappes, Mons (Wallonia) to develop quality training in new materials in the fields of construction, energy efficiency, transport and biomedical. In Switzerland, SuisseEnergie (a programme of the Federal Office of Energy, SFOE) launched what it calls the “Construction Sector Training Offensive” in partnership with training institutions and the construction sector. Through this programme, SuisseEnergie funds institutions to offer training that boosts the supply of workers who are equipped to work in renewable energy and energy efficiency in the construction sector – a sector which has been identified as critical to meeting Switzerland’s energy and climate objectives but is facing shortages.
Given its focus on short-term job-related training, labour market training subsidised by public employment services can sometimes deliver skills for green jobs at a faster pace than the general training market. In both Austria and Croatia, the public employment service provides funding to training institutions to create green-related labour market training programmes for jobseekers. Austria’s public employment service commissions the development of training solutions for needs that are not yet covered by the general training market and can be implemented relatively quickly. The institutions receive subsidies from the public employment service for personnel and material expenses. Unemployed persons acquire certified training qualifications, particularly apprenticeship qualifications, and can start working as skilled workers through internships while training. One example of this is the Fohnsdorf Training Centre (SZF) which offers 300 places for vocational education and training in primarily technical professions, including apprenticeships in “Green Energy Engineer: Plant & Operating Technology” and higher qualifications in the field of Pneumatics/Hydraulics. Similarly, the Croatian Employment Service contracted and financed the creation of 20 green micro-credentials by the Institute for the Development of Entrepreneurship and Crafts. Both jobseekers and employed adults are eligible for this training. In Greece, following the annual evaluation of the DYPA (public employment service), new green-related training programmes were added to the roster: Phytotechnology Businesses and Landscaping, Gas Fuel (Natural Gas) Technician, Electrical Works and Lift Technician, Engine and System Technician for Conventional and Electric Cars, Thermal and Hydraulic Facilities Technician, Electrical System Technician for Conventional and Electric Cars, Refrigeration and Air-conditioning System Technician.
In addition to creating new training programmes, there is also value in updating curricula of existing training programmes to deliver more green-related content. In Costa Rica, the National Circular Economy Strategy initiates changes to the curriculum in fields like engineering and architecture and across all levels of education. Changes have been made both to the specific competences required, but also to transversal competences, particularly those related to Environmental Management. More countries can stand to benefit from regular updating of training curricula, to ensure programmes remains relevant to current and future industry needs.
Updating occupational standards and national qualification frameworks
Occupational standards and national qualification frameworks underpin education and training programmes and can help to ensure that training is aligned to the needs of the labour market, including in the context of the green transition. But reviewing and updating occupational standards and training profiles is time consuming and involves significant human and financial resources and strong collaboration between relevant stakeholders.
Given what is required, there can be delays in updating occupational and qualification standards, but some countries have prioritised the updating of standards related to green jobs. In Croatia, as part of an ESF+ programme Efficient Human Resources 2021‑27, the Ministry of Labour, Pension System, Family and Social Policy is implementing a project to review occupational standards, with special emphasis on the inclusion of green skills. Updating occupational standards with green skills will help training providers update training programmes that are linked to the green transition. In Latvia, a green component is included in occupational standards and all vocational education and training programmes include two training modules on “green skills” (EQF Levels 3 and 4). In Hungary, legislation issued by the minister responsible for higher education defines the competencies that all students obtaining a higher degree must possess, and among these competences are a basic knowledge of sustainable development, which includes a basic knowledge of environmental protection. Within the scope of Portugal’s “Green Skills and Jobs” programme, the National Catalogue of Qualifications (NCQ) integrated four short and medium-term courses: Green hydrogen – fundamentals and technologies (300h); Renewable energies – Wind (375 hours); Renewable energies – Photovoltaic Solar (375 hours); and Renewable energies – Thermal Solar (325 hours). This is part of a wider effort to integrate short and medium-length courses into the NCQ to build more flexibility and agility into the training system.
One challenge in updating occupational standards and national qualification frameworks in the context of the green transition is that there is no commonly accepted definition of “green skills” or “green jobs”, internationally, and sometimes even within countries. In France, as part of the approach to overcoming this challenge, the public employment service (France Travail) is tagging skills related to the ecological transition in a new version of their occupational standards (Répertoire Opérationnel des Métiers et Emplois, ROME 4.0). This is intended to develop a shared language about green skills in the field of employment and vocational training for all stakeholders to use and adopt.
Creating practitioner networks
Education and training institutions can benefit from sharing information and insights with one another about the development and implementation of training programmes with green content. Seven out of the 27 countries that responded to the policy questionnaire reported that they actively promote practitioner networks.
In Austria, Klimaaktiv is the climate protection initiative of the Federal Ministry for Climate Protection, Energy, Mobility, Innovation and Technology (BMK). Their Education Co‑ordination Team works with technical colleges and universities that have courses in the areas of sustainable construction, renewable energy technologies and energy efficiency. Klimaaktiv shares information and tools for courses and connects institutions with experts within the network.
In Hungary, 14 universities signed a co‑operation agreement to support the “Sustainability Platform of Hungarian Universities.” They agreed to share good practices in the field of sustainability, organise joint actions, and establish closer co‑operation in order to realise sustainability goals, especially the 17 Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations. Areas of co‑operation include organising joint sustainability programmes online, creating a joint event calendar, and sharing good practices.
The Institutes of Technology (IoTs) are leaders in the United Kingdom in the provision of high-quality higher level technical education. They bring together the best of existing further education provision with higher education providers and strong employer engagement to deliver a high-skilled, diverse workforce that meets local employer needs. IoTs aim to close skills gaps – including green skills – in STEM sectors like digital, engineering, manufacturing and construction. The national network of 21 IoTs is committed to supporting the government’s targets for sustainability and net zero emissions. With access to GBP 300 million of capital funding to develop industry-standard facilities and equipment, IoTs are delivering training in key green skills like zero-carbon energy production, electric vehicles and sustainable manufacturing.
Another practitioner network model involves collaboration between education and training institutions and industry. In Wallonia, Belgium, strategic business units (SBU) (domaines d’activités stratégiques – DAS) are organised around Skills Centres and Competitiveness Clusters to identify training trends and to ensure that vocational training provision aligns with economic and innovation policy in key sectors, including environment, construction and mechanical engineering. Skills Centres bring together the leading vocational training providers in this field, such as TechnoCampus and TechniFutur Centres. Similarly, in France, to address shortages in green-related sectors like construction, industry, agriculture, transport and energy, the French Government is working with local players to adapt training schemes to local needs through the EDECs (Engagement développement de l’émploi et des compétences). As mentioned above, EDECs are co‑operation programmes between different players, including the skills operators (OPCP), aimed at adapting the training offer to meet the needs of the regional labor market.
As part of Australia’s New Energy Skills Program, the New Energy Training Pathways Initiative will develop fit for purpose training pathways for new energy industry jobs in partnership with industry, the states and territories, and unions. The Initiative will produce a suite of learning and training resources to support and fast track the capacity of registered training organisations (RTOs) to deliver existing qualifications and skill sets within Australia’s vocational education and training (VET) system relating to electric vehicles and renewable energy. The resources will be developed in partnership with the new Jobs and Skills Councils and through national consultation with key stakeholders and will be available to use in 2024.
Train the trainer programmes
The professional development of teachers or trainers is one of the ways that education and training programmes are kept up-to-date and responsive to skills needs. Six of the 27 countries that responded to the policy questionnaire reported offering train the trainer programmes, helping trainers to become more green-conscious.
Education institutions from Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania, implemented a Nordic Council of Ministers funded project “Green Skills for Greener Life” with the aim to promote green skills acquisition in adult education. The partners developed training materials and a non-formal education programme for adult teachers focusing on knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to take informed and responsible action for environmental integrity. The training materials are available in four languages: English, Latvian, Estonian and Lithuanian on the project blog.2 In Latvia, a new training programme was developed to expand the knowledge of adult learning trainers in the areas of green construction, including its opportunities, new technologies and to promote their ability to solve real-life problems.
In the United Kingdom, there are several programmes to train the trainer in green skills. The Local Skills Improvement Fund (LSIF) enables collaborations of further education providers across an area to develop new provision that meets the skill needs set out in their Local Skills Improvement Plans (LSIP). The LSIF can fund training for staff, which includes expertise in green areas. Additionally, the Taking Teaching Further programme allows further education providers to recruit new teachers with additional support. Up to GBP 18 200 is available per recruit to cover the cost of a teaching qualification (a minimum of a Level 5 Diploma in Education and Training), mentoring support, and a reduced teaching timetable. For the 2023 programme, the Department of Education is piloting a financial incentive to support those with relevant knowledge and industry experience to teach in the hardest-to-fill subject areas, including many STEM roles. While this is not a green initiative per se, it helps to develop trainers with STEM skills, for which there is a shortage in many green subjects.
Making training facilities greener
Education and training institutions in Latvia, Belgium, Switzerland and Hungary are themselves undergoing changes to deliver training that has a less negative impact on the environment. In Wallonia, Belgium, training centres are being upgraded to integrate innovative learning techniques involving simulation and virtual reality. During the construction and renovation of buildings, close attention is being paid to use eco-friendly materials, building insulation and renewable energy sources. In Switzerland, the FSEA (Fédération Suisse pour la formation continue) is supporting continuing education organisations that wish to achieve net-zero carbon emissions. They developed a “Climate Check” tool to help continuing education institutions analyse their carbon footprint based on their building, activities and the mobility of their employees. The first Climate Check is being launched in ten continuing education institutions in 2024 and its performance will be monitored. In Hungary, a strategic agreement between the Moholy-Nagy University of Art and Design (MOME) and the Ministry for Innovation and Technology was signed in 2022, with the aim of making MOME Hungary’s first net carbon neutral higher education institution by 2030.
To complement the above policy analysis, this section conducts an analysis of training course catalogues in Australia, Germany, Singapore and the United States to sheds light on the quantity and nature of delivery of green-related training provision. For the purposes of this analysis, courses were identified as having green elements if a green-related keyword (see Annex B) was found in the course title or description. Based on this analysis, the share of courses that include green elements ranges from 14.1% in Australia (2 136 courses), 5.3% in the United States (1 702 courses), 4.7% in Singapore (2 243 courses) and to only 2.1% in Germany (71 810 courses).3 Below is a sample of course titles that have been classified as green in each country (Table 3.6), as well as a sample of course descriptions (Table 3.7).
These estimates likely represent a lower bound estimate for the true share of courses incorporating green-related subjects in these countries: for it to be mentioned in the course title or description, the green content of courses needs to be somewhat substantial. It is likely that some courses have started to incorporate elements of green-related training into their syllabus but do not mention this in the title or description. Moreover, training delivered by the non-formal sector or directly by employers is not captured in this analysis.
Source: Australia’s NCVER vocational training database; Germany: IWWB course catalogue; Singapore: Skills Future Singapore course database; United States: Credential Engine database.
Note: Keywords highlighted in bold. Both course description and course objective provided for Germany and Singapore.
Source: Australia’s NCVER vocational training database; Germany: IWWB course catalogue; Singapore: Skills Future Singapore course database; United States: Credential Engine database.
Depending on data availability in each country, the descriptive analysis below sheds light on the following aspects of green-related training courses: duration, mode of delivery, pre‑requisites or prior education level, provider, student characteristics, and whether a course is available in part-time or full-time format. Not all of these data are available in every dataset.
In Singapore, green-related training is more costly and takes a longer time to complete than the average training course (170 total training hours versus 124 hours, on average). Whilst still high, a smaller share of green courses in Singapore are short, with 61% lasting 50 hours or less, compared to the share for all courses (69%). Green training is slightly more likely to be offered online that the average course (35% vs. 31%). Moreover, green-related training in Singapore has a higher level pre‑requisites than the average training course: they are more likely to require a post-secondary degree or a diploma compared to all courses (34% versus 19%), suggesting that green-related training targets higher-educated individuals.
In the United States, green-related training is both less costly and takes fewer hours to complete than the average course (50 weeks versus 53 weeks). Nonetheless, green-related training in the United States is still relatively long, as no green courses have a duration of only 50 hours or less of contact hours (compared to 0.55% of all courses). This is unsurprising given the high share of longer degree programmes in the course catalogue in the United States. Green-related training is less likely to be offered online only (25% versus 41%) or in a self-paced format (17% versus 49%), and much more likely to be offered in-person (68% versus 41%). As noted above, this may reflect the nature of green-related training, which tends to require more hands-on application of new technologies. Green-related training is also less likely to be provided by an education and training provider (69% versus 96%), and more likely to be provided by a private not-for-profit institution (49% versus 39%).
In Australia, green-related training looks similar to other courses in the database in terms of duration and provider institution. One important difference is that compared to other vocational training, green-related training in Australia is more likely to be offered at the Certificate III level (46% versus 28%). Certificate III is considered the core of vocational education and training in Australia and is aimed at direct employment outcomes through apprenticeships in the trades (Stanwick, 2006[9]). Green-related training in Australia is only slightly less likely to be offered completely online (10% versus 12%) and more likely to be subsidised by the state or government than the average course (30% versus 26%). Furthermore, similar to the rest of training, green-related training in Australia is relatively short, with 73% of green courses requiring only 50 hours or less of contact hours (this share is 75% amongst all courses).
The data in Australia also allows for a comparison of the type of students who pursue green-related training compared to students pursuing other types of vocational training. In 2022, almost 750 000 students were enrolled in at least one green-related subject. These students tend to be younger on average than students enrolled in other courses (mean age of 29 versus 35) and are more likely to report that their highest education level is high school (62% versus 45%). The student pool of green learners also appears to be less gender-diverse with only 34% identifying as female (compared to 47% for all courses) – likely reflecting broader gender segregation in the sectors women and men study and work in, with green-related courses more likely to be in the male‑dominated construction, manufacturing, engineering and agriculture sectors. This is in-line with other recent OECD work which finds that men are more likely than women to occupy green-driven jobs (OECD, 2024[2]). Green-related courses may, however, be more culturally and racially diverse, with more international student enrolments (12% versus 4%).
Finally, in Germany, most green-related courses (84%) are offered in the form of seminars or in-person programmes. This is on-par with the share for all courses (81%). Only a small fraction of courses are offered as distance learning courses or web- and computer-based courses (1% each), much lower than the share offered online for all courses (9%), suggesting the delivery mode of green-related courses in Germany is less flexible than the average course.
One common finding among the analysed countries, except for Singapore, is that green-related training is less likely to be delivered online than other types of training programmes, and more likely to be delivered in-person (Figure 3.1). This may be because green-related training often requires that students learn to use new technology through hands-on practical applications that cannot be conducted virtually. Nonetheless, going forward, countries may consider more flexible delivery formats to encourage wider participation in green-related training.
Percentage point difference in share of courses by delivery method (green courses versus all courses)
Note: Information on hybrid mode of delivery unavailable for Germany and Singapore. Given underlying differences in data, cross-country comparisons are not advised.
Source: Australia’s NCVER vocational training database; Germany: IWWB course catalogue; Singapore: SkillsFuture Singapore course database; United States: Credential Engine database.
References
[12] Cedefop (2022), Briefing note: An ally in the green transition, https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/files/9166_en.pdf.
[11] Cedefop (2012), Green skills and environmental awareness in vocational education and training, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://doi.org/10.2801/78825.
[3] Consoli, D. et al. (2015), Do green jobs differ from non-green jobs in terms of skills and human capital?, http://www.sustainability-seeds.org/.Enquiries:info@sustainability-seeds.org.
[10] European Commission (2019), The Social Dimensions of ’Greening the Economy’: Developing a taxonomy of labour market effects related to the shift toward environmentally sustainable economic activities, European Commission Publications Office, Brussels.
[1] European Council (2024), , https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/green-deal/fit-for-55/.
[4] Marin, G. and F. Vona (2019), “Climate policies and skill-biased employment dynamics: Evidence from EU countries”, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, Vol. 98, p. 102253, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeem.2019.102253.
[2] OECD (2024), OECD Employment Outlook 2024: The Net-Zero Transition and the Labour Market, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ac8b3538-en.
[8] OECD (2023), Assessing and Anticipating Skills for the Green Transition: Unlocking Talent for a Sustainable Future, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/28fa0bb5-en.
[7] OECD (2023), OECD Skills Outlook 2023: Skills for a Resilient Green and Digital Transition, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/27452f29-en.
[6] OECD (2019), Getting Skills Right: Future-Ready Adult Learning Systems, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264311756-en.
[5] Pew Research Center (2020), Emerging jobs, green economy boost U.S. demand for analytical skills, https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2020/03/23/new-emerging-jobs-and-the-green-economy-are-boosting-demand-for-analytical-skills/ (accessed on 7 March 2024).
[9] Stanwick, J. (2006), Australian Qualification Framework lower-level qualifications: Outcomes for people over 25, National Centre for Vocational Education Research, Adelaide.
← 1. Other agencies such as the European Commission have developed similar taxonomies by building on the O*NET classification (European Commission, 2019[10]). Cedefop classifies skills for the green economy as “the knowledge, abilities, values and attitudes needed to live, work and act in economies and societies seeking to reduce the impact of human activity on the environment” (Cedefop, 2012[11]; Cedefop, 2022[12]). This definition reiterates the broad-based nature of green jobs and skills. Notably, Cedefop’s definition has been used to create the multilingual taxonomy, the European Classification of Occupations, Skills and Competences (ESCO), which contains a list of green-related skills and knowledge concepts for the European labour market. Nationally, OECD countries have used the aforementioned international taxonomies or developed their own when conducting skills assessment and anticipation exercises (OECD, 2023[8]).
← 2. Available at https://projectgreenskills.wixsite.com/greenskills.
← 3. Each of these course registries are accessible by adults. However, there are some differences in the course registries: the Australian course registry captures all vocational education and training courses; in Singapore, the course registry captures adult education courses that are eligible for a Skills Future subsidy; and in the United States, the course registry aggregates courses offered in higher education institutions across the country. More details about these course databases are provided in Chapter 2.