Teacher Professional Learning

Annex B. Summary of Education Systems

Box B.1. Overview of Chile

Entry to the profession via alternative pathways

Chile has sought to support individuals with diverse backgrounds to enter the profession. Continuing education programmes target individuals with prior training – be it university or technical. This may mean professional experience too but is not necessary. Thus, there is a need to meet one of two requirements:

• Possess an academic degree or professional title.

• Possess a higher-level technical degree.

Some 2 000 individuals were trained in one of these programmes in 2024. There are some 50 different programmes for different education levels and modalities, such as the Mathematics and Computer Science Pedagogy programme, Basic Education programme, and Pedagogy in Technical and Vocational Education programme.

These programmes also offer a means of individuals working as teachers, or other roles, in the school system to pursue a pedagogical degree if they do not have one yet.

Monitoring initial teacher education(ITE)

Universities are required to administer two diagnostic assessments to ITE students. This aims to furnish providers with information to improve their offer to students.

• One assessment is at the beginning of the programme and administered by the universities themselves. This aims to support diagnosis of support and levelling mechanisms for students, if necessary.

• A second assessment is administered centrally by the Ministry of Education one year before graduation. The “National Diagnostic Assessment” is based on the specific defined standards for ITE that define the essential core of disciplinary and pedagogical knowledge that education professionals are expected to possess once they have completed their initial training.

  • The assessment aims to understand the knowledge that has to that point been acquired by students.

  • It is a mandatory requirement to complete this assessment, with results submitted to the National Accreditation Commission.

  • Improvement plans may be established based on this, meaning that there is a degree of central oversight of providers.

A key actor is the Center for Pedagogical Improvement, Experimentation, and Research (CPEIP). They promote collaboration between various public entities and generate knowledge to support ITE providers.

Moreover, recently in March 2025, the Initial Teacher Training Strengthening Agenda has been established to implement strategies and actions to strengthen ITE through an inclusive, equitable, and territorial approach.

Career structure

Chile introduced wholesale changes to its system of professional learning and teacher career structure in 2016. Progression across its five-stage career model hinges upon a certification process that is competency-based and regulated by an external component, as well as teachers’ years of experience. Interestingly, this was recently further reformed to try to create more efficiency and reduce the burden on teachers.

Competencies are specified in the national teaching standards. Evaluation consists of two external components: the teacher completes a standardised written assessment on their pedagogical knowledge and prepares a professional portfolio. The latter seeks to evaluate different aspects of the pedagogical practice of classroom teachers, based on multiple direct evidence of the work inside and outside it, including samples of work (e.g. lesson planning), a recording of their teaching, and proof of collaborative work with colleagues.

Teachers are expected to move from the first stage (‘Initial’) to the second stage (‘Early’) and, under the new reform, onto the third stage (‘Advanced’). Teachers have the opportunity to engage in the evaluation process between these stages twice. This means that evaluation serves as a mechanism to remove underperforming teachers from the profession if they fail the examination more than twice (Santiago et al., 2017_[21] pp. 240, 253). In some cases, teachers can re-enter the profession after a two-year break and try the evaluations again.

Progression to the two highest stages (‘Expert I’ and ‘Expert II’) are voluntary. Thus, those at the ‘Advanced’ or higher levels do not need to engage in evaluation processes but, instead, they must participate in the ‘Deepening Cycle’. This cycle lasts for four years and seeks to actively promote professional learning. During this, teachers must complete one of four actions:

• Participate and pass at least a program, course or support peer action, developed or certified by CPEIP.

• Take and pass at least one of the evaluation instruments (portfolio or assessment).

• Participate through a program of active participation on an activity of the Teachers’ Network of Teachers.

• Become a mentor for one or more new teachers under the induction or mentoring processes recognised by CPEIP.

Under their new salary and career re-structuring in 2016, all beginning teachers were assigned to the lowest stage while current teachers were designated a step based on their years of experience and their previous results in multiple teacher evaluation processes (Santiago et al., 2017_[21] p. 240). In the more recent reforms, an additional provisional category was created for teachers who did not have evaluations from recent years, who have several years to complete an evaluation with which they would essentially ‘re-join’ the new progression ladder.

The reforms centred on creating a high-stakes evaluation system that, as mentioned, could see the removal of underperforming teachers. The evaluation was also intensive in terms of measures. Central to its successful implementation was it being a multi-stakeholder affair, with the government creating a tripartite technical committee that provided a platform for central and local authorities alongside the country’s main teacher union to develop consensus positions.

Use of standards

The Standards for the Teaching Profession (STP) serve as Chile’s primary benchmark for defining the teaching that children and young people need to develop their full potential. It serves as a common reference point across the entire education systems, supporting pre-service and in-service teacher professional learning and enabling dialogue across stakeholders.

Induction

Considerable attention has been focussed on recognising the importance of the first years as a teacher. The Induction and Mentoring Program provides dedicated support to new teachers and their integration into the education community.

Induction is a right of all beginning teachers who are appointed or contracted to a state-funded institution. It last for 10 months during the school year, and beginning teachers receive an allowance for the time spent on induction.

Beginning teachers have an assigned mentor who is an experienced teacher (at the upper stages of the career structure: Advanced, Expert I or Expert II) and who has received specific training to be able to lead and support effective induction.

• Mentors may be from the same institution or another.

• Mentors may oversee up to three beginning teachers.

• Mentors are also entitled to receive allowances for each beginning teacher they mentor and support.

• Mentors must design, implement and evaluate a mentoring plan based on the beginning teachers’ needs. Guidance is published by the Ministry to support this, including a rubric for self-assessment with beginning teachers.

The induction process requires a commitment of between four and six hours a week for the beginning teacher and mentor to meet a reflect on practice and challenges, as well preparing classroom work, analysing learning outcomes, and considering integration into the education community. Notably, the emphasis is on mentoring and formative development, rather than supervision and evaluation.

High-performing schools have the right to implement and manage their own induction processes.

A commissioned evaluation of the system of professional learning noted that induction was highly valued, but yet to fully permeate the school culture. It also did not have wide coverage yet. This has been a valuable evaluation for further refinement of the system of professional learning, including induction. For instance, now there are now ongoing efforts to enhance the relevance of induction to specifical, more localised contextual needs. This includes trying to better match beginning teachers with mentor teachers from that particular local context.

Provision of professional learning

In 2014, teachers at all levels had 2 006 annual working hours, of which 75% were designated to classroom activities, which constituted both a heavy workload and a high proportion of contact hours by international comparison.

Motivated in part by a desire to ameliorate these working conditions, Chile introduced a new System for Teacher Professional Development in 2016.

• The new law initiated a reduction in the proportion of teaching time to 70% of the workload by 2017 and to 65% of the workload by 2019.

• This provides teachers with more time to engage in non-teaching activities, fosters teachers’ engagement in the school and provides greater opportunities for collaboration among peers since teachers are required to stay at the school during some of their non-instruction hours.

The online portal “Desarrollo Docente en Línea” provides access to free, regularly updated trainings. Facilitated by CPEIP, it aims to provide ongoing professional learning support that is differentiated to teachers depending on their levels in the career structure and needs.

• Teachers can search for learning opportunities that correspond to their roles in schools and apply online.

• Providers of the courses then inform participants of their selection or not.

• Teachers receive a certificate of completion once they have met the approved criteria.

Monitoring professional learning opportunities

The Ministry undertakes the certifying of professional learning opportunities. This relates to activities, programmes or courses that are aimed at teachers and to support their learning. Certification can be given to professional learning providers be they public, private or non-profit institutions, as well as national or foreign.

Clear procedures are set forth by the Ministry, with a required set of documents needed as well as follow-up reports for tracking. The process unfolds in three steps: an administrative evaluation stage, a technical evaluation stage (of the quality and relevance of the proposed activity) and a legal evaluation stage.

The Center for Pedagogical Improvement, Experimentation and Research periodically reports and updates the training actions certified since 2016, with these publicly available online. In this respect, teachers and school leaders are provided with valuable information on providers and where to find quality professional learning.

Digital tools

A virtual assistant chatbot is being developed, that focusses on answering questions of new teachers using generative artificial intelligence. It is due for release in 2025.

Notes: Chile shared insights in the organised peer-learning event of 13-14 May 2025 in Kyiv, Ukraine for the Ukrainian Ministry of Education and Science that have informed this box.

Source: (Santiago et al., 2017[1]), OECD Reviews of School Resources: Chile 2017, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264285637-en; (CPEIP, 2025[2]), Certificacion Acciones Formativas [Certification of Professional Learning Activities], https://www.cpeip.cl/certificacion-acciones-formativas/ (accessed on 24 April 2025); (CPEIP, 2025[3]), Estandares Formacion Docente [Teacher Training Standards], https://www.cpeip.cl/estandares-formacion-docente/ (accessed on 24 April 2025); (CPEIP, 2025[4]), Estudiantes Pedagogia [Pedagogy Students], https://www.cpeip.cl/estudiantes-pedagogia/ (accessed on 24 April 2025); (CPEIP, 2025[5]), Formacion Continua Docente [Continuous Professional Learning Standards], https://cpeip.cl/formacion-continua-docente/ (accessed on 24 April 2025); (CPEIP, 2025[6]), Formación Inicial Docente [Initial Teacher Education], https://www.cpeip.cl/instituciones-formadoras/ (accessed on 24 April 2025)

Box B.2. Overview of England (United Kingdom)

Entry requirements

‘Qualified Teacher Status’ (QTS) is a minimum requirement needed to teach in publicly funded primary, secondary and special schools in England (United Kingdom) and is awarded as part of Initial Teacher Training (ITT) courses. Academies schools (which are publicly funded) can employ teachers without QTS, though the majority of teachers employed by academies do hold QTS. Private schools are able to employ teachers without QTS, though many chose to employ teachers holding QTS.

There are entry requirements to be achieved prior to the Initial Teacher Training course commencing and separate requirements to be awarded QTS that will be met over the course of the Initial Teacher Training Course.

For entry into primary and secondary teaching courses, candidates must have passed Maths and English at the upper secondary level at the equivalent minimum grade (GCSE grade 4, or recognised equivalent). In addition, primary school teachers must also hold a minimum qualification (GCSE grade 4) in a science subject.

To be awarded QTS, candidates must have a bachelor’s degree – or equivalent qualification – in any subject. For postgraduate routes to QTS, candidates must have achieved a bachelor’s degree as an entry requirement. For undergraduate routes, trainees may complete a bachelor’s degree in primary or secondary education with QTS as part of their ITT course.

Routes to Qualified Teacher Status

There are three routes to QTS:

1. The postgraduate fee funded route, which normally runs for one year full-time:

• Postgraduate Initial Teacher Training courses typically last nine months full-time and combine theoretical learning with at least two classroom placements in schools.

• Courses have to be paid for (approx. 9 500 GBP per year [~11 000 EUR]), though there are some bursaries or scholarships to incentivise participation in certain subjects. A system of loans also exists.

• Some of these courses lead to QTS, and others to QTS with a combined postgraduate certificate in education (PGCE).

• It is also worth noting that only providers who have been accredited by the Department for Education (DfE), or providers who work in partnership with an accredited provider, may offer courses that lead to QTS. Not all teacher training courses in England lead to QTS, and candidates should check this before committing.

2. The postgraduate salaried route, which normally runs for one year full-time and includes the School Direct salaried programme, the High Potential ITT programme (HPITT) and, since 2018/19, the Postgraduate Teaching Apprenticeship (PGTA):

• These allow individuals to earn a salary while they work towards QTS.

• These vary in length from nine to twelve months typically, with most of the time spent in school placements over theoretical learning. They follow a more apprenticeship-based approach.

• These are highly competitive and in high demand.

An example of a salaried route into teaching is via Teach First. Teach First is a charitable organisation that also delivers so-called ‘high potential initial teacher training’.

• This is an employment-based route into teaching for high-performing graduates and those who are looking to change careers.

• Similar to the above, participants on the programme also earn a salary while they work towards qualified teacher status (QTS) with a postgraduate certificate in education (PGCE).

• Teach First is part of the Teach for All network, which offers similar alternative pathways into teaching in a range of countries.

• The undergraduate route, which normally runs over three or four years and includes teacher training via an undergraduate degree route and the new Teacher Degree Apprenticeship pilot which is a salaried route (and is accepting applications from 2024/25 onwards).

In addition to the three routes outlined above, a more direct assessment-only programme can also be pursued for those that have worked as an unqualified teacher for a significant amount of time and can demonstrate that they already meet the standards required to be awarded QTS.

Following the award of QTS, individuals can apply to teaching positions to complete a mandatory two-year induction period (see below) as a so-called ‘Early Career Teacher (ECT)’.

Incentives

A system of ‘teaching internships’ are available. They are designed to offer a means of understanding what it is like in the classroom for those interested in the profession.

The internships last three weeks in June or July (the academic year ends in July in England (United Kingdom)). Interns are also paid, receiving 425 GBP (~500 EUR) per week.

Paid internships are available to those studying for an undergraduate or master's degree in the following subjects: chemistry, computing, languages, maths, physics. They are thus targeted towards specific subjects where there are notable shortages. Those interested in teaching from other subjects can visit schools to get unpaid experience in the classroom.

Defining core content of preparation and induction

From 2025, the new Initial Teacher Training and Early Career Framework (ITTECF) sets out the entitlement of every trainee and early career teacher at the start of their career. In particular it outlines:

• The core body of knowledge, skills and behaviours that define great teaching.

• The types of support that should be provided both when preparing teachers and in delivering induction support, so they receive a three or more-year introduction to the core body and mastering it.

A key goal of the new framework has been to combine the previously separate frameworks on teacher preparation, core content, and beginning teachers. The development process has also sought to:

• Integrate the latest evidence based on a recent public call for evidence, including relating to early cognitive development, oracy, supporting pupils with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND), and social and emotional learning. Evidence has been assured by the Education Endowment Foundation (EEF).

• Build on lessons learned over recent years delivering implementation of the previous frameworks.

The framework is designed to work across subjects and age groups to promote a shared body of knowledge and skills in the profession. The framework promotes coherence, such that early career teachers will purposely revisit elements from their preparation programmes to go deeper into these aspects. The framework is structured around two types of content:

• ‘Learn that…’ statements: These are primarily knowledge-based statements that are informed by the best available educational research (e.g. practice guides, rigorous individual studies, high-quality reviews and syntheses).

• ‘Learn how to…’ statements: These are drawn from the wider evidence base, including both academic research and guidance from expert practitioners.

Notably the framework is a minimum entitlement to training, and not a full curriculum. Accredited providers of ITT or training to beginning teachers make decisions about the form this takes in terms of coherent content, as well as additional elements. Hence, the framework informs curriculum design and is not an assessment framework – with the published teachers’ standards serving as the primary reference for any performance-based assessments in the system at the end of ITT and induction respectively.

To support the translation of the framework into actual learning opportunities in ITT or supporting beginning teachers, guidance is included in the framework. This includes ensuring that teachers engage in:

• Observation of practice, including discussing and analysing these with expert colleagues.

• Receiving clear, consistent and effective mentoring, grounded in evidence.

• Opportunities to practise using specific approaches through rehearsal and refinement.

• Receiving feedback on their application of particular approaches, with a focus on reflection and critique for improvement.

Accreditation and Quality Control of Initial Teacher Training Providers

Initial Teacher Training providers are accredited by DfE.

• Where a provider of ITT has been accredited by DfE, this means the quality of their provision has been assessed against a specific set of assessment criteria, which cover areas including course design, coherence across the provision, evidence base and evaluation.

• This process also involves assessing how the provision meets the requirements set out in the ITT criteria and other supporting literature, such as the ITTECF.

• The accreditation process is led by DfE, in collaboration with ITT sector experts.

A second key body in quality control is that of an inspectorate. Ofsted (Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills) inspect services providing education and skills for learners of all ages in England (United Kingdom). Ofsted have a statutory duty to inspect ITT provision that leads to Qualified Teacher Status (QTS).

Ofsted inspects ITT providers under its Initial Teacher Education inspection framework. Inspection outcomes from Ofsted are valuable in several ways:

• They provide trainees and prospective trainees with an expert, independent assessment of how well an ITT provider is performing and the quality of ITT and training offered.

• They also provide information to ministers and system leaders about the work of ITT providers and the extent to which an acceptable standard of teacher training is being provided.

• More specifically, the English Department for Education can withdraw a provider’s accreditation if the quality of their provision (as shown through Ofsted inspection reports) falls below the expected level.

• Inspections also provide information for and encourage the improvement of individual ITT providers and the education system as a whole.

Induction overview

As mentioned above, once QTS is gained, teachers can apply to complete a mandatory two-year induction in a school as a ‘Early Career Teacher (ECT)’. This is essentially qualified teachers’ first teaching job.

Induction should be equivalent to two full-time school years (six semesters) and can be split across different schools. Performance during the induction and in the final assessment for successfully completing it is measured against the teachers’ standards. There are appropriate bodies for quality assurance of this (e.g. teaching school hubs), with each ECT having a named contact at their appropriate body for raising any concerns.

It is encouraged to start induction as soon as possible after gaining qualified teacher status, but there is no set time limit for starting or completing an induction period. There is only one chance to complete statutory induction. Hence, without satisfactorily completing induction a qualified teacher cannot be employed as a teacher in a relevant school in England.

Working in some schools (e.g. private sector, an academy or free school) means that teachers are not legally required to satisfactorily complete an induction period although many opt to. Induction must only be undertaken in appropriate settings where the school can provide the right types of supports. For instance, some settings, such as schools that are in ‘special measures’ based on inspection, cannot conduct induction.

Features of induction

During the two-year induction, ECTs are entitled to a reduced timetable; they can teach a maximum of 90% of the typical timetable in their first year, and a maximum of 95% in the second year. This is in addition to the timetable reduction that all teachers receive for planning, preparation and assessment time.

An induction tutor and a mentor should be appointed, held by different individuals. Alongside this, a suitable monitoring and support programme must be put in place as part of the induction. This is expected to include: a programme of training aligned to expected frameworks and the teachers’ standards; regular one-to-one mentoring, support and guidance from a designated induction tutor, being observed at regular intervals and receiving written feedback, and observing colleagues (see more below). There should also be periodic professional reviews of progress with the induction tutor, which not a formal appraisal but monitoring of the ECT’s progress against the teachers’ standards. It is designed to prepare them for their formal assessments.

Formal assessments should occur twice during induction, namely at the end of their first and second year of induction. These should be evidence-based assessments with a report developed summarising it, conducted by school principal or induction tutor. The final assessment will see the school principal make a recommendation to the appropriate body as to whether the ECT has satisfactorily completed their induction period

Notably, there is funding to cover mentor sessions during timetabled hours and school leaders are expected to ensure mentors have the time and means of fulfilling their roles.

Background to National Professional Qualifications

England (United Kingdom) has a series of ‘National Professional Qualifications’ (NPQ) for teachers and school leaders. These were reformed in 2021 to ensure they were underpinned by the best available evidence of effective teaching and leadership practice. The qualifications aim to:

• Improve career progression

• Improve quality and consistency of leadership

• Improve retention of teachers and leaders

• Improve the quality of teaching

The NPQs provide training and support for teachers and school leaders at all levels, from those who want to develop expertise in high-quality teaching practice, such as behaviour management, to those leading multiple schools across trusts. The NPQ frameworks build on the evidence base and expert guidance already established in the Department’s Initial Teacher Training and Early Career offer. Formally taught through a blend of face-to-face, online and independent learning against defined frameworks, the qualifications are both a learning opportunity as well as recognition of the teacher or school leader’s knowledge and competence in a specific area.

Overview of NPQs

The suite includes a series of what are referred to as ‘Specialist National Professional Qualifications’(SNPQs), which enable teachers and school leaders to broaden and deepen their expertise in specialist areas.

• NPQ in Leading Teaching (NPQLT): Participants learn how to lead the teaching and learning of a subject, year, group or phase. Qualification launched in Autumn 2021.

• NPQ in Leading Behaviour and Culture (NPQLBC): Participants learn how to create a culture of good behaviour and high expectations in which staff and pupils can thrive. Qualification launched in Autumn 2021.

• NPQ in Leading Teacher Development (NPQLTD): Participants learn how to become a teacher educator and successfully support teachers in their school to expand their skills. Qualification launched in Autumn 2021.

• NPQ in Leading Literacy (NPQLL): Participants learn how to develop literacy across their school and recognise the importance of literacy for pupils’ academic achievement, well-being and success in life. Qualification launched in Autumn 2022.

• NPQs for Leading Primary Mathematics: Participants learn how to lead primary mathematics teaching across a school, key stage or phase. Qualification launched in Spring 2024.

The suite also includes a series of ‘Leadership National Professional Qualifications’ (LNPQs):

• NPQ in Senior Leadership (NPQSL): Participants develop their leadership knowledge and expertise to improve outcomes for teachers and pupils in their school. Qualification launched in Autumn 2021.

• NPQ in Headship (NPQH): Participants develop the knowledge that underpins expert school leadership and apply it in order to become an outstanding headteacher. Qualification launched in Autumn 2021.

• NPQ in Executive Leadership (NPQEL): Participants develop the expertise needed to become an outstanding executive leader, leading change and establishing supportive networks to drive improvement across the group of schools or multi-academy trusts. Qualification launched in Autumn 2021.

• NPQ in Early Years Leadership (NPQEYL): Participants develop their leadership knowledge and skills to improve delivery of high-quality early education and care as well as staff development, while also implementing improvements in their setting. Qualification launched in Autumn 2022.

• NPQs for Special Education Needs Co-ordinators (SENCO): A new leadership level qualification to support the development of SENCOs, school leaders or aspiring SENCOs. Qualification launched in Autumn 2024.

LNPQs typically last for 18 months and demand a minimum of 75 hours of engagement, while the SNPQs last for 12 months with a minimum of 50 hours of engagement. The NPQ for SENCOs is a minimum of 85 hours.

Provision of NPQs

The actual provision and delivery of NPQs is outsourced by the English Department for Education to an approved set of providers. Selection of providers is rigorous, with distinct criteria needing to be met. Indeed, in general there is strong oversight by the Department for Education:

• For each NPQ, the Department for Education has developed and published a framework to support organisations developing and delivering NPQs. This can also support teachers applying for, or participating in, an NPQ; school leaders who are encouraging staff to undertake an NPQ.

• The framework sets out what participants should know, and know how to do, after completing an NPQ.

• A strong emphasis in the frameworks is the evidence base that underpins the qualifications and, more broadly, alignment with the accompanying frameworks that have been developed for Initial Teacher Training and Early Career Framework. The framework sets clear ‘key evidence statements’ of expected learning, as well as so-called ‘practice statements’ on the more practical skills to develop.

• The content of the guidance for NPQs and the supporting evidence of the content framework are independently assessed and endorsed by the Education Endowment Foundation (EEF). The latter review each guidance and content framework to ensure they draw on the best available evidence and that it is interpreted with fidelity.

Teachers can search for the providers of different NPQs online through the central government website. To apply, teachers need to:

• First register with the Department for Education. This allows for oversight over funding allocations (see below) and is a means of keeping one’s professional record up-to-date and, eventually, issuing NPQ certificates.

• Apply directly to the provider who then confirm registration for the NPQ.

As mentioned, to support engagement, teachers can also apply for funding to cover the costs of NPQ course fees. In particular, current eligibility criteria for funding is orientated towards teachers and school leaders in the top 50% of state-funded settings in England that have the highest proportion of disadvantaged students. Funding is also currently available for the NPQH, NPQ for SENCOs and NPQLPM.

Delivery of NPQs

In terms of delivery, as mentioned this consists of three strands: face-to-face learning, synchronous online learning, and asynchronous independent learning too that is led by the individual teacher or school leader. There is though variation among providers in terms of delivery. For instance, features such as mentoring or attending conferences may also be elements of how certain providers deliver NPQs.

To successfully complete the NPQ there is an assessment. Assessment of the qualification was reformed in 2021. Previously, a school-based project was undertaken as a means of documenting learning, but this proved relatively burdensome for teachers. The new approach to assessment sees participants in NPQs complete a fictional case study. This case study aims to recreate an authentic school-based situation aligned with the content of the NPQ. They are carefully developed to incorporate hypothetical data and resources and are open-book to allow candidates to use previous readings and work from the NPQ course.

Notably, some providers also undertake diagnostic assessments at the beginning of courses to gauge participants’ existing levels of knowledge. These assessments rely on digital tools.

Transition lessons

While the NPQs are notably substantial in terms of their commitment as well as the breadth of content many of them cover, there is a resemblance to certain features of micro-credentials. Particularly those of the ‘Specialist’ qualifications – which seek to support and recognise the diversification of skills – have some overlap with the broad understanding of micro-credentials in other spheres (e.g. higher education – see Chapter 3).

The use of assessment and, in particular, the reform of this to be less demanding and more manageable for teachers, reflects the potential need for ongoing refinement and monitoring in such an initiative. The ongoing efforts to evaluate the NPQs provision is also indicative of this iterative approach to its implementation in general.

The use of diagnostic assessment points by some providers signals the potential of digital tools to gauge teachers’ levels of competence. Notably these are used in a low-stakes sense; for instance, at the beginning of a course as a formative tool to understand prior knowledge, rather than a more high-stakes summative assessment at the end as a measure of completion. They provide a potential indication of how digital tools could be drawn upon.

The Department for Education (DfE) in England (United Kingdom) knows that evidence is not static, and insights evolve. Therefore, DfE is now undertaking a formal review of the existing NPQ suite. The review includes, but is not limited to, consideration of the following key areas:

• further best-practice for teaching pupils with Special Education Needs and Disabilities (SEND)

• ensuring that NPQs genuinely support progression through different levels of leadership

• addressing how leadership practices can support workload reduction

• further best-practice, particularly at executive leadership level, in operational aspects of leadership, such as how to manage a budget and deploy a workforce effectively

The department will work in partnership with the Education Endowment Foundation (EEF) to update the evidence base underpinning the qualifications. It is expected the review of the suite of 10 NPQs will take approximately 18 months. The existing suite of NPQs will remain in place until the review is complete.

Note: England (United Kingdom) shared insights in the organised peer-learning event of 13-14 May 2025 in Kyiv, Ukraine for the Ukrainian Ministry of Education and Science that have informed this box.

Source: (CFE Research, 2023[7]), Emerging findings from the NPQ evaluation: Interim report 1, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/63cfdb418fa8f53fe33dddb3/ Emerging_findings_from_the_evaluation_of_National_Professional_Qualifications_Interim_report_1.pdf (accessed on 19 March 2025); (CFE Research, 2024[8]), Emerging findings from the NPQ evaluation: Interim Report 2, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/66e17cc5caa02d92e72c8d54/NPQ_evaluation_interim_report_2.pdf (accessed on 19 March 2025); (Department for Education, 2020[9]), National Professional Qualification (NPQ): Leading Teacher Development Framework, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/66c4908b057d859c0e8fa7c4/NPQ_Leading_Teacher_Development_.pdf (accessed on 19 March 2025); (Department for Education, 2024[10]), Outcomes of the review of the Initial Teacher Training Core Content Framework and Early Career Framework, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/661d24ba08c3be25cfbd3e62/ Outcomes_of_the_review_of_the_Initial_Teacher_Training_Core_Content_Framework_and_Early_Career_Framework.pdf (accessed on 19 March 2025); (Department for Education, 2025[11]), Apply for a national professional qualification (NPQ), https://www.gov.uk/guidance/apply-for-a-national-professional-qualification-npq (accessed on 19 March 2025)

Box B.3. Overview of Estonia

Background of a new career structure

In 2013 Estonia transitioned from an attestation system of professional learning and career progression to one that was more competency-based.

Previously, teachers were expected to complete a set number of hours of professional learning (160 hours every five years) with which attestation at different career levels would be determined. This was a complex and resource-intensive system. Teacher attestation processes focussed on the acquisition of qualifications with no professional standards as a reference, serving more as an academic exercise than concentrating on the core work of teachers.

Table A B.1. Overview of the Estonian career structure

Position	Notable features
Teacher (level 6)	Applies only to pre-primary teachers upon entrance in the teaching profession, following the completion of an initial teacher education programme (at bachelor’s degree level) or following the recognition of professional qualifications for this level by the teacher professional body. This career stage is awarded indefinitely.
Teacher (level 7.1)	Awarded upon entrance in the teaching profession, following the completion of an initial teacher education programme (at master’s degree level) or following the recognition of professional qualifications for this level by the teacher professional body. This career stage is awarded indefinitely.
Senior Teacher (level 7.2)	Awarded to a teacher who, in addition to conducting teaching activities, supports the development of the school and of other teachers and is involved in methodological work at the school level. Teachers choose to apply to this stage. Awarded for five years, after which a new application must be submitted for this career stage.
Master Teacher (level 8)	Awarded to a teacher who, in addition to conducting teaching activities, participates in development and creative activities in and outside his or her school and closely co-operates with a higher education institution. Teachers choose to apply to this stage. Awarded for five years, after which a new application must be submitted for this career stage.

Source: (Santiago et al., 2016[12]), OECD Reviews of School Resources: Estonia 2016, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264251731-en

Some horizontal diversification also exists alongside the vertical structure. A teacher can become the head of a subject section, co-ordinate a subject in the school, or be invited by the school director to management roles such as deputy director. Other possible roles include mentor of a beginning teacher, curriculum development or co-ordination of professional development at the school.

There were also considerable efforts to raise teacher salaries. Salaries increased, in real terms, by 30% between 2005 and 2012 (for lower secondary teachers with 15 years of experience), with further increases in 2013 and 2014. This saw the average teacher salaries move to around the level of the Estonian average salary. The increase in teachers’ salaries in the last few years in Estonia has been the most significant among the OECD countries for which data are available. This was despite a context of no shortages in the workforce, but the need to consider the motivation levels of teachers and the way the workforce attracts candidates.

That said, career progression decisions are made independently of financial decisions. Promotions are accompanied by a guaranteed salary increase, but the exact amount depends on the number of teachers at each level; local authorities share out salaries from a lump salary sum. This means that there is not an upper limit on promotions but at the same time salary expenditure remains constant and predictable for the authorities. This also means that there are not strong financial incentives.

Transition process of a new career structure

Two distinct bodies now oversee the definition of expectations and the appraisal process:

• The development of the teacher professional standards is the responsibility of the Estonian Qualifications Authority.

• The certification processes to reach the different career stages are the responsibility of a teacher professional organisation (the Estonian Association of Teachers). Notably, this has given ownership of the certification process to teachers themselves.

A strength of the new career structure is associated with a set of teacher professional standards, which define the competencies associated with each career stage. In this new model, professional learning is now incentivised as a means of gaining the competencies needed to access higher stages and perform new roles. Developed by the aforementioned Estonian Qualifications Authority, the standards cover the following aspects with key competencies defined for each of these for each career stage:

I. planning and preparation

II. the learning environment

III. instruction and supporting learning

IV. reflection and professional development

V. student counselling and communication with parents

VI. methodological work and mentoring at school level (for Senior and Master Teachers)

However, it has proven challenging to build engagement and use with these standards in consistent ways (see final section below). The adoption of the standards has been characterised by limited understanding, particularly of certain roles.

Transition process of a new professional learning model

Co-ordination of the provision of professional learning has also been to some extent recentralised. Municipalities (or private providers of schools) previously had 3% of the ‘salary budget’ earmarked for professional learning. This has moved to 1% now, with the remaining 2% centrally managed. Institutions such as the Education and Youth Board of Estonia have accredited providers to deliver specific professional learning activities aligned to wider system goals.

Since 2015, earmarked funds for professional development activities of teachers and school leaders are no longer linked to the ‘salary budget’. Instead, these are determined on the basis of a per student model (12 EUR per student per year).

This means that there are two funding mechanisms and modes of choice:

• Teachers and school leaders have the choice of how to use the direct funding provision for professional learning that they have. Thus, teachers can choose particular learning activities aligned with their professional development plan, under the oversight of school’s director who guides choices and validates them.

• Learning activities from central providers (e.g. Education and Youth Board of Estonia) as part of the 2% are free of charge for teachers to engage with.

There is an online database of professional learning activities (“Juhan”) though it is not exhaustive. This provides a detailed overview of courses (e.g. expected outcomes, facilitators etc.), but not necessarily information to evaluate its effectiveness.

An ongoing challenge is the relevancy of professional learning. A lack of relevant programmes was cited as one of the main barriers to participating in professional development for teachers in Estonia (Cordingley et al., 2022[13]).

Overall, there is no central co-ordination of professional learning. There are a range of different institutions that teachers are free to choose from with the allocated funding. For instance, higher education institutions, teacher education institutions, individual schools, teachers’ professional organisations, municipalities and private companies.

Initial teacher education

In recent years Estonia has concentrated considerable efforts on enhancing the quality of its teacher workforce. New teacher standards were introduced in 2013, which were developed through an interactive process representing a considerable range of stakeholders. New standards have been introduced since these with the latest entering force as of 1 September 2025.

The standards are an important tool; institutions need to demonstrate that their curriculum prepares teacher candidates for all the requirements stated in the professional standards, with an explicit matching occurring between the learning outcomes of the curriculum, modules and courses on the one hand, and the teacher standards on the other (Révai, 2018[14]).

There are two major initial teacher education providers in Estonia: Tartu and Tallinn University. There are also two other institutions that only focus on preparing teachers of certain areas (music, arts and theatre). For those entering at the primary level, programmes of ITE consist of mostly concurrent studies. At the lower or upper secondary level, it generally consists of a consecutive programme.

On the back of concerns that a teaching career was not a very popular choice among upper secondary graduates, Estonia has developed a series of programmes to further incentivise talented candidates to join the teaching profession. This includes:

• A scholarship programme: This seeks to motivate students with talent for teaching to apply to teacher education specialisations and to acquire a teaching qualification. Students who enter the teaching profession within 18 months of completing their education receive an additional allowance. The programme was also extended to professional support specialists.

• The “Youth to School” programme (“Noored Kooli”), part of the “Teach for All” programme: This seeks to raise interest in teaching and education by awarding scholarships to a select group of university students. Recipients teach at a school for two years, while at the same time participating in teaching and leadership training. After the programme, students can choose to keep working at school, return to university or work elsewhere.

There is a strong focus on linking theory and practice in ITE in Estonia. In particular, ITE seeks to prepare teacher candidates for the realities of the classroom through a range of school-based experiences. These occur in the two years of the master’s programme, and include:

• Observations to help teacher candidates relate their theoretical knowledge to practice.

• Teaching practice of 6-10 weeks in a school, organised through a range of partnerships with schools.

• A university-based supervisor and a school-based mentor to support reflection on practice, and to provide general oversight or guidance.

• In some cases, simulated pedagogical practice also occurs in a university setting (e.g. the University of Tartu).

There is also a notable focus on research skills too, grounded in bridging theory and practice. This is evidenced by the writing of a master’s thesis, for instance. Or, in some settings, building teacher candidates’ research capacity through involvement in research projects (e.g. the University of Tartu).

There is no standardised curriculum for ITE, but institutions use the aforementioned teaching standards to inform the content of ITE programmes. The standards define a broad range of knowledge areas teachers need (e.g. development psychology, basics of research, basics of reflection, age-related peculiarities) and competencies, as well as particular tasks. Analysis has suggested that the breadth of tasks teachers undertake demands a wide knowledge base that is both theoretical – stretching across general pedagogical knowledge and more specific content-based pedagogical knowledge – and including knowledge of research methods (Révai, 2018[14]).

Teachers beginning their careers in school have the opportunity to voluntarily participate in a 12-month induction programme. This is funded by the Ministry of Education and Research and the induction programme is provided by both of the public comprehensive universities that also provide ITE.

The induction programme hinges on the allocation of a mentor to supervise the work of the beginning teacher. The mentor is a teacher at the receiving school and is appointed by the school principal. There are certain criteria that the mentor must fulfil too, namely having at least three years of experience in pedagogical work and having passed a specific training in supervision.

In terms of tasks, the mentor provides a support for beginning teachers as well as supervising their work. The beginning teacher will, in particular, prepare an individual development chart which contains self-reflections of their experience. The mentor is also required to provide feedback to the ITE provider from which the new teacher received their qualification. In this respect, there is a feedback loop between schools and institutions.

The beginning teacher also has access to tailored workshops that address the frequent challenges of the first years in a school. These seek to address experiences and explore solutions, be that individually or jointly with other teachers.

Two contexts of appraisal

Estonia is characterised by a blend of internal formative appraisal/assessment and an external summative appraisal which is used for certification in the formal career structure.

1. Regular appraisal for performance management:

• School directors appraise on a regular basis. Others may participate (or lead) such as deputy directors or chairs of subject sections.

• Primary aim is formative and to inform competency development. That said, may inform salary levels as these are defined at the school level. Though seems rare in practice.

• High degree of autonomy with criteria defined by directors (e.g. aims, criteria, methods). Typically involves observation and may have a written evaluation report at the end.

2. External appraisal for certification

• This is a voluntary teacher appraisal process that teachers can undertake to be certified at higher levels on the career ladder.

• It is organised by the Estonian Association of Teachers, and is thus external to the school. Teachers can apply for certification at any of the levels twice a year (April and November).

• It involves an evaluation based on two instruments:

• A portfolio prepared by the teacher which includes a self-evaluation, examples of own work, lesson plans and might also include appraisals by the school director.

• A 30-minute interview with the three-member appraisal committee, who also analyses the portfolio. Classroom observation is not required but either the candidate or the appraisal committee can request it.

• Appraisal committees are formed from a pool of about 30 experienced teachers organised by the Estonian Association of Teachers.

• The certification process may also involve some feedback to the candidates which they can use for their own professional development.

The second certification process is mostly disconnected from the first, more school-based teacher appraisal. These processes do not inform each other, except when the teacher applying for certification includes the results of school-based appraisal in his or her portfolio.

Potential transition lessons

The transition process highlights some potential challenges, particularly with regard to communication and buy-in:

• There were some initial challenges with the degree schools embraced the more competency-based career structure. For instance, the professional standards developed by the Estonian Qualifications Authority were not typically used for formative teacher appraisal. Accordingly, a secondary knock-on effect of this was that internal teacher appraisal practices were likely to vary across schools in terms of the criteria applied and the way the results are used for professional development and teacher rewards. This may also have allowed formative and summative appraisal processes to be better connected.

• The challenges of communication and buy-in appear pertinent when considering that a recent review of the system suggested that the roles of senior and master teacher are not universally understood (Cordingley et al., 2022[13]). Moreover, the review suggested that there was a need to better leverage the two more senior roles of senior and master teacher for fostering more collaboration.

• These challenges around the engagement of teachers and schools may also be connected to the nature of incentives. Notably, the absence of financial incentives has meant that most teachers show little interest in attaining the certifications and engaging in the professional learning that allow access to higher levels.

• With regard to professional learning, as for any system monitoring its effectiveness is challenging. Participation and satisfaction rates are the primary means of assessing professional learning activities.

• One challenge is more systematic dissemination of learning from professional learning activities. For instance, if several teachers take part in an externally provided programme, how can the learnings from this programme be shared more widely among their colleagues and embedded to have greater impact in a school?

Source: (Santiago et al., 2016[12]), OECD Reviews of School Resources: Estonia 2016, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264251731-en; (Cordingley et al., 2022[13]), Recommendations for the Professional Development of Teachers and School Leaders in Estonia, https://www.britishcouncil.ee/sites/default/files/ policy_recommendations_for_the_professional_development_of_teachers_and_school_leaders_in_estonia_eng.pdf (accessed 15 February 2025); (Crehan, 2016[15]), Exploring the impact of career models on teacher motivation, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002462/246252e.pdf (accessed 21 February 2025); (Révai, 2018[14]), What difference do standards make to educating teachers?: A review with case studies on Australia, Estonia and Singapore, https://doi.org/10.1787/f1cb24d5-en

Box B.4. Overview of Finland

Entry to the profession

In Finland, teacher qualification requirements are defined in legislation, specifying the qualification requirements for various teaching positions, as well as language skills. For instance, subject teachers (lower secondary and general upper secondary) are required to have:

• A master’s degree (which is necessary at all levels bar early childhood).

• Credits in pedagogical studies (60≤ credits), which can consist of aspects such as practice, educational sciences and subject didactics and include a strong focus on research skills.

• And, at the upper secondary level, in one subject to be taught at least the basic, intermediate and advanced credits of that subject (120≤ credits), as well as credits in other subjects to be taught (60≤ credits). At the lower secondary level, the subject requirement is slightly lower at (60≤ credits).

There are two potential routes to qualification:

• Concurrent route: Individuals may undertake teacher education programmes for early childhood education and care teachers, class teachers, and special needs teachers, and study and careers advisers. Those pursuing becoming subject teachers undertake a blend of courses as outlined above.

• Consecutive route: Individuals may first complete a master’s-level university degree or university of applied science degree, and then undertake pedagogical studies as non-degree studies. Similarly, they also undertake additional studies depending on their planned role as a teacher, for instance in additional subjects to be taught, special needs teacher studies, or study and careers adviser studies.

There is also a degree of selection into these programmes. Indeed, teacher education programmes are in high demand in Finland.

• To take the subject teacher route as an example, students typically apply to a subject programme and then apply during their studies for the right to study pedagogical studies.

• Their selection can be based on their matriculation exam scores as well as a written exam, and during their studies an aptitude test organised in an interview format.

• For those applying to be, say, an early childhood education and care teacher or class teacher, the selection is similar, including a nationally planned and coordinated written exam (“VAKAVA”).

Initial teacher education

There are eight universities and five universities of applied sciences with responsibility for teacher education in Finland. Teacher education is organised by different groups depending on one’s future career, such as class teacher (primary education), subject teachers (lower secondary education or general upper secondary education), or special needs teachers, among others.

Finland’s preparation of teachers has a strong focus on the development research skills.

• Teachers are typically required to complete a master’s degree, including a master’s thesis.

• More broadly, ITE is characterised by a strong focus on scientific knowledge from research evidence, as well as a focus on the thinking processes and cognitive skills used in conducting research.

• On the one hand, this seeks to develop the type of reflective thinking that is necessary in the profession and ongoing, self-driven learning.

• This also seeks to foster a strong level of research literacy that prepares teachers with the capacity to undertake their own research and to critically evaluate their work.

ITE in Finland is also characterised by concerted efforts to foster robust pedagogical content knowledge. Teacher education is a shared responsibility between the teacher education faculty and the academic subject faculty. This combination means that there is substantial attention to the type of more subject-specific pedagogy necessary for robust pedagogical content knowledge. It avoids treating pedagogy as generic and devoid of particular subject contexts (e.g. questioning approaches in different subjects). This notably applies to the preparation of upper-grade teachers, but there are also some opportunities for classroom teachers as the primary level to complete more studies in a certain subject.

A focus on more theoretical pedagogical studies is coupled with guided teaching practice. Candidates to the profession practice in specific teacher training schools during their studies. These schools provide a space not only for candidates to the profession to practice but also support experiments, research and continuous professional learning too. Such practice is not an additional ‘extra’, but an essential part of achieving the credits to complete specific programmes.

Underlying this is a blend of both autonomy but also evaluation, transparency and co-operation. There is no single ‘curriculum’ for ITE programmes and universities have autonomy in determining this and delivering it. Similarly, autonomy covers admissions and assessment of candidates. At the same time, there are also mechanisms to promote quality, particularly through self-driven means:

• The Finnish legislation for universities and universities of applied sciences contain provisions which oblige HEIs to participate in external evaluation of their activities and quality systems.

• According to the Universities act, universities must evaluate their education, research and artistic activities as well as the effectiveness thereof.

• The universities must also regularly participate in external evaluations of their activities and quality assurance systems. Notably, the universities must publish the results of the evaluations they have organised.

• The Ministry interacts continuously with higher education institutions and holds agreement negotiations with them.

There is also the Finnish Education Evaluation Centre (FINEEC). This is an independent authority responsible for the national evaluation of education, from early childhood to higher education. It undertakes three key evaluation types, which are all guided by a principal of ‘enhancement-led evaluation’: quality audits of higher education institutions (HEIs), thematic evaluations and engineering degree programme reviews.

Overall, when it comes to policy-planning for teacher education, there are high levels of trust and a strong belief in broad and regular collaboration that sources diverse expertise.

Delivery of professional learning

There is a strong emphasis on research skills in Finland with its orientation towards teacher and school autonomy and, thus, problem-solving. This is established early on, with initial teacher education including strong research-based aspects such as group problem-solving activities and a research-based dissertation. This aims to equip beginning teachers with the skills for continuous learning going forward, both in terms of developing themselves but also in terms of supporting their colleagues.

A further arm is the National Teacher Education Forum. This also seeks to foster teachers’ active engagement in research, with a wide range of stakeholders participating.

In Finland, programmes of university and school collaboration have been trialled. Jyväskylä University in collaboration with its local municipality saw the development of a project between trainee teachers, their supervisors and practicing teachers in a local primary school. This three-day initiative focussed on innovate teaching methods including first-hand, inter-subject experiences like project-based learning.

Online learning is widely available to Finnish teachers for them to engage with. The alignment with teachers’ needs is led by teachers, who have agency in their engagement with this.

The high potential of tutoring is also drawn upon. Between 2016 and 2020, earmarked government funding supported the development of regional networks of ‘Tutor Teachers’. The initiative aimed to address contemporary and future challenges in education by supporting teachers through peer mentoring and training. For instance, benefits were particularly noted in relation to teachers’ use of digital tools in their practice – one of the goals of the initiative – while tutors themselves also benefited from the opportunity and helped mobilise good practice more widely (Pennanen et al., 2021[16])

The availability of funding and the allocation of time in teachers’ schedules for their engagement was particularly key. Indeed, by 2020, many providers had taken steps to ensure that the tutor teachers could continue following the end of allocated funding (Pennanen et al., 2021[16]). Finland is currently undertaking research into how widely the model, and other digital supports, are in use across the system.

In Finland, there are also tentative means of tracking the contributions of professional learning to teaching and student learning. The data system “Koski” allows the real-time tracking of student progress, which can be analysed alongside that of the professional learning engaged in by teachers. This allows for an evaluation of the contributions of learning opportunities (Mikkonen, n.d.[17]). Such information may be relevant for quality insurance.

Collaborative inquiry - Networks

A range of networks support knowledge-building and sharing in Finland. For instance, the National Agency for Education oversees the “Lighthouse network of leadership” to support school-to-school collaboration. It includes typically monthly webinars, including a presentation and subsequent discussion, as well as occasional in-person events or seminars. Numerous similar examples could be included, such as the National Network for Bilingual Education (“Kaksari”), coordinated by the City of Helsinki and funded by the National Agency for Education, or the Early Childhood Education Development Network (“Loisto”), coordinated by the Finnish National Agency for Education.

Indeed, an orientation towards collaborative inquiry permeates the entire system. An example of this can be seen in the National Teacher Education Forum, set out below. A further example is the “LUMA Centre Network”. This has operated since 2013 and is a network of 11 universities and which focusses on the subjects of science, maths, technology and environmental studies (“LUMA” subjects), and in particular approaching them in a multi-disciplinary way. It aims to foster a high level of knowledge in these subjects, as well as a high number of professionals across Finland in fields associated with these subjects. To this end, it works to:

• Develop research-based solutions for teaching LUMA subjects

• Support the work of teachers and their continuous professional learning

• Inspire children and youth towards studying these fields and having them as hobbies.

The LUMA Centre Network has built a collaborative ‘ecosystem’ around these goals, including ranging from museums and libraries to the business sector and science centres. During 2021 and 2024, some 185 000 people participated in its activities each year and the network provided in-service training to some 4 600 professionals.

National Teacher Education Forum

The National Teacher Education Forum seeks to meet the new needs of teacher education in the context of the 2020s through broad co-operation based on research and knowledge.

• It consists of representatives of the universities, providers of education and municipalities, teachers and leaders, students, and other relevant stakeholders. All higher education institutions responsible of providing teacher education and all relevant stakeholders are involved. There is also a small international advisory board.

• The Forum was first coordinated by the Ministry for Education and Culture (2016-2023), with the University of Helsinki since responsible with the Ministry participating and financing the Forum.

• There are four main sub-sections:

  • Student admissions in teacher education

  • Teachers’ expertise development

  • Developing teacher education through co-operation and networks

  • Pedagogical leadership in educational institutions

• It undertakes activities such as National and local seminars, workshops, national brainstorming, thematic working groups, literature reviews, reports, benchmarking, and expert consultations. Indeed, it provides extensive funding for collaborative teacher education development projects.

• Notable outputs include research-based development projects and reports and the collaboratively developed national guidance (“The Teacher Education Development Programme”).

Its programme growing forward includes the implementation of the aforementioned guidance, a national science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) strategy and action plan, creating a future vision and scenarios for teacher education, research-based reports on digitalisation and AI, and designing and implementing a research-based quality assurance system.

In particular, in March 2025 the Teacher Education 2050 vision was launched. It is the first time such a vision has been created in Finland, being developed from extensive collaboration with all teacher education units and key stakeholders.

In the face of different challenges, including those yet known, the Vision seeks to focus on the development of teacher education, including:

• Enhancing attractiveness and retention through predictions and student admissions

• Continuous development of teacher expertise

• Strengthening teacher education through collaboration and networks

• Skillful leadership enhancing educational institutions to become learning and evolving communities

Underpinning this is the sense that in a more complex and unpredictable world, teachers’ strong expertise and professional agency – their will, capabilities and skills – to learn independently and together with others throughout their teacher career are essential. In this changing context, research-based teacher education and its’ continuous research-based development are crucial.

Notes: Finland shared insights in the organised peer-learning event of 13-14 May 2025 in Kyiv, Ukraine for the Ukrainian Ministry of Education and Science that have informed this box.

Source: (Mikkonen, n.d.[17]), KOSKI - a National Registry and Data Transfer Service for Study Rights and Completed Studies, https://www.oph.fi/sites/default/files/documents/Mikkonen_koski_en_25012021.pdf (accessed on 26 February 2025) ; (OECD, 2019[18]), Working and Learning Together: Rethinking Human Resource Policies for Schools, https://doi.org/10.1787/b7aaf050-en; (OECD, 2019[19]), A Flying Start: Improving Initial Teacher Preparation Systems, https://doi.org/10.1787/cf74e549-en; (OECD, 2024[20]), Education Policy Outlook 2024: Reshaping Teaching into a Thriving Profession from ABCs to AI, https://doi.org/10.1787/dd5140e4-en; (Pennanen et al., 2021[16]), Tutkimus Perusopetuksen Tutoropettajatoiminnasta ja sen Vaikutuksista [Research in Basic Education: Tutor Teacher Activities and its Effects], https://www.oph.fi/sites/default/files/documents/Tutkimus_perusopetuksen_tutoropettajatoimi (accessed on 11 July 2024)

Box B.5. Overview of Ireland

A continuum of standards

The Teaching Council is the professional standards body for teachers in Ireland. It was established on 28 March 2006 on a statutory, and it is governed by the Teaching Council Acts. The Council is funded by the teaching profession and has an independent regulatory function. It has a dual mandate to both regulate and promote the teaching profession. Concretely its work in teacher education is defined in the Teaching Council Acts to encompass:

• Reviewing the standards of entry to the teaching profession in terms of the knowledge, skills and competences required for teaching.

• Reviewing and accrediting programmes of initial teacher education.

• Setting standards to support the professional learning of newly qualified teachers during the induction phase.

• Advising the Minister regarding entry requirements to programmes of initial teacher education.

• Assessing the qualifications of teachers who qualify overseas to ensure they are of a comparable standard with Council-accredited programmes.

A key feature is the ‘Continuum of Teacher Education’ that it published in 2011. This is a recognition of the fact that learning never ends, and that teachers are lifelong learners. It encompasses initial teacher education (“Céim” – Irish for ‘step’), induction (“Droichead” – Irish for ‘bridge’) and continuing professional development (“Cosán” – Irish for ‘pathway’).

Standards of Initial Teacher Education

In Ireland, the Teaching Council is very much a partnership-based organisation and as part of the review of the policy on initial teacher education undertook four rounds of consultations, constituting some 12 meetings, with different stakeholders. This included a considerable of stakeholders, ranging from teacher unions to student unions, parent bodies to principals’ bodies, and examination bodies to government bodies, to name but some of the participants.

This led to a range of adjustments from its initial criteria and guidelines for initial teacher education of 2011. There was a notable shift from ‘criteria’ to ‘standards’, as well as a range of additional features:

• Core elements that are interwoven throughout all elements of ITE to ensure that these skills and competencies really have time to become embedded into the student teacher’s thinking. These core elements are inclusive education, global citizenship education, digital skills, professional relationships and working with parents, professional identity and agency, creativity and reflective practice, and literacy and numeracy.

• The conceptual framework that seeks to support the individual programme design by ITE providers. Hence, accredited providers (see below) draw upon this framework as well as the wider Continuum and Code of Conduct of the Council to develop programmes of ITE that fit their particular context, mission and ethos. This framework promotes a research-informed approach in ITE programmes that supports students in engaging with and in research.

• The school placement, which is a central part of ITE and is based on a partnership approach between Higher Education Institutions (HEI) and schools. This includes direct teaching of 200 hours as well as experiencing a variety of placement settings, so they have a wider experience to draw on. Notably, there is also an expected scheduling of an ‘extended period’ of school placement that constitutes a minimum of 10 weeks in one school in the second half of the programme. This allows for greater immersion in a particular context.

Accreditation of Initial Teacher Education providers

The Teaching Council has overseen the procedures for accrediting programmes of ITE. Notably, this procedure, published in 2021, his has been developed through an iterative, multi-dimensional process, including:

• Surveying higher education institutions among other stakeholders

• Learning from international case studies (including Scotland and Ontario (Canada))

• A literature review

• A pilot programme with ongoing focus group discussions and consultations

The accreditation process sees the Teaching Council appoint an independent panel to review and assess the programmes of ITE. The panels consist of:

• An independent Review Panel Chairperson 

• A registered teacher with expertise in the support and/or evaluation of teaching and learning at the school level in the sector in question

• An external expert in the area of teacher education or accreditation processes in another system/jurisdiction

• A supporting rapporteur

During the review process, the Teaching Council staff may also have some engagement in terms of seeking clarification or raising queries with the Review Panel.

Following their review, the Panel make a recommendation to the Teaching Council’s Education Committee, either to accredit the programme, accredit with requirements, or refuse accreditation. The Committee then take a decision. Requirements need to be addressed within six months.

There are currently 14 providers of ITE, with 52 accredited programmes of Primary and Post-primary ITE. These programmes cover concurrent, consecutive and hybrid models. The providers were reviewed and accredited in the last cycle of accreditation, which started in November 2021 and lasted some two years. The average review time from submission date by the HEI to the outcome of the Education Committee was approximately eight months, reflecting the thoroughness of the process.

Induction

There is one sole route of induction to full registration as a teacher in Ireland. It is a state-funded induction process, and needs to be completed within three years of when someone obtains ‘Newly Qualified Teacher’ status following their completion of ITE. It consists of a minimum of 60 days at the primary level, and 200 hours at the post-primary level, within which ‘Newly Qualified Teachers’ must demonstrate to:

• have engaged professionally with school-based induction and additional learning activities

• have shown their professional commitment to quality teaching and learning for their pupils/students

• have engaged in reflective practice that supports their professional learning and practice, both individually and collaboratively

The induction process has recently undergone review and revision. In 2024, a survey of some 3 500 teachers, supported by follow-up interviews and focus groups with stakeholders, found that induction, overall, is fulfilling its role in supporting newly qualified teachers albeit with some areas of challenge. Following the review, an updated Policy was redesigned and approved – including with an Irish language translation – and is due to come into effect in September 2025.

Background to professional learning approaches

In 2023, Oide (an Irish word meaning “teacher” or “tutor”) was introduced to consolidate professional support services for teachers and school leaders. It is funded by the Department of Education (DoE) in Ireland, and brings together four previously separate professional learning services: the Centre for School Leadership (CSL), Junior Cycle for Teachers (JCT), the National Induction Programme for Teachers (NIPT) and the Professional Development Service for Teachers (PDST). Its overarching purpose is to support the professional learning of teachers and school leaders.

Much of this professional learning occurs through 21 full-time and 9 part-time ‘Education Support Centres’. Each Centre is managed by an annually elected voluntary Management Committee and serves the local education community. In total, the DoE provides annual funding exceeding EUR 60 million for professional development courses provided by Oide and the Education Support Centres. This funding both supports delivery and participation:

• funding includes the cost of over 360 seconded teachers providing continuing professional learning (CPL),

• and funding for substitute teacher cover in schools that can enable participation in professional learning (Department of Education, 2024[21])

Monitoring professional learning

There are several mechanisms in place to support monitoring of the quality of professional learning:

• Oide make regular use of teacher evaluation. All summer courses include a teacher evaluation. Oide also regularly reviews the quality of in-person training courses at the primary and post-primary levels, as well as a sample of online courses.

• The DoE Inspectorate evaluates the design and facilitation of a sample of online and in-person professional learning courses each year.

• The Educational Research Centre published in 2023 a framework intended to support the evaluation of different forms of formal professional learning, either by providers or external evaluators. In parallel, the DoE has also developed an internal framework (the Design and Quality Assurance Process) to inform the design and quality assurance process of learning opportunities provided by its support services (Gilleece, Surdey and Rawdon, 2023[22])

Finally, there are also some further additional mechanisms that seek to support Oide to ensure that the centrally-provided professional learning offer is responsive to schools’ needs.

• For example, link inspectors are nominated by the Inspectorate to support Oide during the scoping, design and review of new professional learning programmes. Crucially, these link inspectors have the ability to inform Oide of training needs that the Inspectorate have observed in the field.

• Similarly, the Teaching Council plays an important role in shaping professional learning opportunities. In addition to its role in licensing teachers and accrediting ITE programmes, the Council is responsible for advising the Minister for Education on teachers’ CPL, promoting engagement in CPL, conducting research and raising awareness of the benefits of teachers’ professional learning (OECD, 2022[23]).

• The Teaching Council has also been responsible for important outputs such as:

  • A Code of Professional Conduct, which sets out standards and expectations for teachers’ professional knowledge, skill, competence and conduct (The Teaching Council, 2016[24]).

  • Cosán (the Irish word for “pathway”) which was published in 2016 and seeks to provide a national framework guiding teachers’ continuing professional learning (The Teaching Council, 2016[25]).

These are examples of the type of feedback loops between stakeholders that can help to ensure the provision of learning opportunities meets different needs.

Delivery of professional learning

A range of professional learning opportunities are available:

• There is a concerted effort from Oide to promote the formation of communities of practice. These are building built into their professional learning frameworks.

• There are also efforts around building capacity in data and research-inform school planning. Oide offers school leadership teams a programme in relation to this. The Inspectorate also offers advisory visits to support the robust use of school-level data.

Sharing of best-practice

There are also notable efforts to facilitate the sharing of best practices widely across schools.

• The DoE has organised learning days focussed on sharing good practices. For instance, one topic has been Adapting and Managing Successful Transitions as part of Ireland’s Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools programme.

• The Inspectorate collects and describes promising practices and programmes in its published reports of inspected schools as well as more thematic reports, including on main inspection findings from Delivering Equality of Opportunity In Schools (DEIS) programme schools. There has also been the provision of webinars by the Inspectorate through the Education Support Centre networks (see OECD, 2024_[103]).

• The Inspectorate also published a good practice guide titled “Effective literacy and numeracy practices in DEIS schools”. This was intended to support the sharing of good practice among schools and teachers (Inspectorate, 2009[26]).

• Similarly, a depository of tools on social inclusion and equality of opportunity is being developed for the Oide website.

Notes: Ireland shared insights in the organised peer-learning event of 13-14 May 2025 in Kyiv, Ukraine for the Ukrainian Ministry of Education and Science that have informed this box.

Source: (OECD, 2024[27]), OECD Review of Resourcing Schools to Address Educational Disadvantage in Ireland, https://doi.org/10.1787/3433784c-en; (OECD, 2022[23]), Education at a Glance 2022: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/3197152b-en

Box B.6. Overview of Japan

The career structure of teachers in Japan

Teaching is a highly attractive job in Japan. Teachers are well-paid with a competitive starting salary relative to other careers, but teaching also carries a long and well-established prestige (OECD, 2011[28]).

The Boards of Education (BOEs) of prefectures and ordinance-designated cities are responsible for hiring teachers to work in schools in their jurisdiction. After completing initial teacher education (see below), teacher candidates apply to their local BOE who issues teaching certificates. Candidates must pass a series of multiple-stage competitive employment examinations to be eligible for a permanent teaching position in a public. These are set by the BOE but tend to be similar, with aspects such as general knowledge, professional knowledge and subject-based knowledge all being typically tested, while it may be that there are also interviews, essay writing and practical and aptitude tests.

Teachers are employed by the BOE and assigned to teach in schools in its jurisdiction. They are typically transferred to different schools every few years. Indeed, this is part of the centralised efforts to co-ordinate resources. Thus, BOEs also usually allocate senior teachers and senior vice-principals to schools with difficulties or a large number of students, and advanced skilled teachers to school with young teaching staff. In this respect, teachers are assigned based on a needs-basis, with the strongest going to those who need them the most.

Table A B.2. Overview of the career structure in Japan

Position	Notable features
Homeroom teachers / subject teachers.	Typical starting point for beginning teachers. One-year formal induction programme upon entry.
Chief teacher of a grade.	After more experience, teachers can take on the role of chief teacher of a grade and assume responsibilities for managing a group of teachers.
Senior teachers / Advanced skilled teacher	Both roles are optional in a school. Advanced skilled teachers and senior teachers are selected by the prefectural Board of Education after recommendations from the Board of Education of the city, town, or village. Both roles see direct teaching of students. Senior teachers also support the principal in the effective running of the school. Advanced skilled teacher advises other teachers and staff in order to improve education guidance for students.
Vice-principal / Senior vice-principal	Teachers may serve as a vice-principal or, with more experience, a senior vice-principal The senior vice-principal is optional in a school. It is part of management and accessing this position requires passing an examination at the prefecture level.
Principal	Specific requirements for principal can be set by the BOE.

Source: (OECD, 2018[29]), Education Policy in Japan: Building Bridges towards 2030, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264302402-en

There are also some roles that are associated with BOEs. Some teachers are also transferred to BOEs to become teacher supervisors, who advise schools and co-ordinate training for teachers and school leaders.

Schools are required to assign a mentor teacher for every new teacher with a regular-term contract. Mentor teachers are most commonly selected by principals from among vice principals or senior teachers at the school. Time is freed up in their schedules to allow them to engage in mentoring as part of a strong commitment to supporting quality induction for beginning teachers to make sure they have the necessary skills to succeed.

In Japan, a teacher’s career is characterised by working in different schools; teachers do not necessarily progress through their career in only one school. There are mandatory rotation mechanisms requiring teachers to relocate to different schools periodically. This is centred on the idea that transferring good teachers to schools that are struggling will ensure all students benefit from equally qualified teaching staff, and also enhance capacity in schools by spreading good practice. Rules for such mechanisms are decided by local education authorities

Initial teacher education

In Japan, ITE is provided by approved universities or departments of universities. There are hundreds of universities and departments that have met the necessary requirements to provide ITE programmes. They must undertake self-evaluations and undergo accreditation processes by evaluation and accreditation organisations certified by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) at least every seven years.

In order to enter ITE programmes, individuals need to pass entrance examinations and be enrolled as students at universities with ITE programmes. In order to be able to become a teacher, candidates need to complete all required teacher-preparation courses and a practicum, in addition to an associate or a bachelor’s degree. A key actor here is the local Boards of Education (BOE). Following completion of an ITE programme, teacher candidates must apply to the local BOE. The BOEs of prefectures and ordinance-designated cities are responsible for certificating and hiring teachers to work in schools in their jurisdiction. They administer their own competitive employment examinations for assigning teachers as permanent teachers at public schools.

More broadly, there have been efforts in recent decades to build more collaboration between universities and BOEs to help raise the quality of initial teacher education programmes, as well as that of ongoing professional learning.

BOEs in Japan are required by law to provide induction training for one year for all beginning teachers with a regular-term contract. Candidates who have been successful with the examinations of their BOE to be hired, are on a probationary status in their first year of employment. The induction training process typically includes assigning a mentor teacher for every new teacher, who are commonly selected by the principal of the school from among their pool of vice principals or senior teachers in the school. It often includes in-school professional learning opportunities too.

More broadly, Japan has seen more concerted efforts in recent years to foster collaboration and closer connections between different stakeholders. For instance, the system of affiliated schools in Japan are an example of strong university-school partnerships that seek to support practical insights into the classroom. More than 250 affiliated schools provide opportunities for on-site innovative teaching experiences for teacher candidates, as well as serving as a space for collaborative research between the school and university. Such experiences can mean that induction is not beginning teachers’ first exposure to the realities of the classroom.

Professional learning and career progression

Professional learning focusses on both extending and renewing teachers’ practice, skills and beliefs. An example of this is the “Lesson Study” approach set out below.

Until recently, the Teaching Certificate Renewal License – introduced by Japan in 2009 – meant that teachers needed to renew their teaching certificates by participating in at least 30 hours of professional learning programmes every 10 years. The extra burden this placed in terms of time (with programmes being undertaken during holidays or weekends) and costs (with costs of programmes being covered by teachers) were seemingly barriers in the reform’s implementation (Chapple, 2023[30]).

Similarly, it is important to note that the more senior levels of the career structure are dependent on certain forms of professional learning. Teachers wanting to become a school leader have to enter a Professional Graduate School in Education to build on their applied knowledge and develop a theoretical background. This graduate school delivers a master’s degree in teaching to become a “School Leader (mid-career core teaching staff)”. School leaders are then expected to master leadership theories and exhibit practical and applied skills needed to fulfil their leadership role in the school as well as bringing local communities closer. There are also specific requirements for principal as set by the BOE.

Collaborative professional learning

A notable feature of the Japanese approach to professional learning is that of ‘Lesson Study’. It parallels the way that teams often work in private industry and also reflects the Japanese focus on relying on groups to get work done.

The approach essentially sees groups of teachers collectively observe and review their lessons and how to improve them (in part by analysing student errors). Typically, teachers work together to prepare a specific lesson on a topic where students have struggled. This preparation process draws upon academic research to support their work and reflection. The designed lesson is then taught by one teacher to students, while other teachers (sometimes even from other schools) observe and learn the new pedagogical approach.

The approach has a profound impact on the practice of teaching by bringing the work of teaching out from behind the closed door of the classroom. Instead, it allows teaching to be opened up to observation, analysis and even critique by colleagues. Indeed, there is a very strong degree of teacher accountability in Japan in terms of accountability to one’s colleagues and ensuring that one contributes positively to the group and sustains high standards. Teachers to not want to let the group down but strive to develop superior lesson plans, teach them well, and to provide sound and useful critiques when it is their colleague’s turn to demonstrate their lesson plans to them. This is all grounded in the goal of nurturing the continual, sustained improvement of teaching practice. It thus strengthens co-operation between teachers.

One further consequence of this is the nurturing of consistent quality teaching focussed on rigorous concept development. Across lessons, there is a similar pattern to questioning and how student thinking progresses.

Another further consequence of this more open format of observation and analysis is a wider cultural of sharing and critiquing with a goal of improvement for students’ benefit. Hence, when new content arrives on the national curriculum, there may be groups of teachers and researchers who review research and curriculum materials and refine their ideas in pilot classrooms. This refinement may occur over a whole year before a public research lesson is hosted. Such public research lessons can be viewed online by hundreds of teachers, researchers and policy makers. The Lesson Study approach also contributes to fostering inter-school networks of teachers too.

A further dimension of collaborative learning is that of the ‘teachers’ room’ in schools (shokuin shitsu). All teachers in Japan are based during the school day in a common teacher’s room. Teachers have an assigned desk and space to meet together daily to prepare and collaborate. This means that teachers do not have an assigned classroom but travel from classroom to classroom while students stay in one place. Researchers have found this provide a valuable physical space for informal exchange and learning for all teachers whatever their stage of career (Ahn et al., 2018[31]). While less structured as a form of professional learning, it seems a valuable space for fostering collaborative learning.

Use of digital tools

Japan has recently developed an extensive new digital platform to support teachers in delivering a new era of education (“Reiwa”). The ‘Platform for Teachers and Staff Development’ aims to support efficiency and effectiveness:

• Teachers are required to record all professional learning activities in the platform.

• There are specific tests to check knowledge and skill acquisition in professional learning activities, as well as reflective tools to support contextual translation.

• Teachers and school leaders can select from a catalogue of development opportunities those that best fit their own and their school’s needs.

• A library of video on-demand teacher development programmes developed by universities, boards of education and public-interest corporations, among others.

• Tools for school-based collaboration (e.g. sharing content) and lesson study.

Teachers can evaluate the quality of the professional learning that they engage with, including its perceived impact on their teaching. For system leaders, this has the potential to offer an aggregate view across the system.

Source: (National Center on Education and the Economy (NCEE), 2025[32]), Top-Performing Countries: Japan, https://ncee.org/japan/#teachers-and-principals (accessed on 16 March 2025); (Schleicher, 2020[33]), Insights and Interpretations TALIS 2018 Teaching and Learning International Survey, http://www.oecd.org/education/talis/TALIS2018_insights_and_interpretations.pdf (accessed 14 March 2025); (Schleicher, 2018[34]), Valuing our Teachers and Raising their Status: How Communities Can Help, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264292697-en; (OECD, 2011[28]), Lessons from PISA for the United States, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264118539-en; (OECD, 2018[29]), Education Policy in Japan: Building Bridges towards 2030, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264302402-en; (Chapple, 2023[30]), No need to renew: The end of Japan’s teacher license renewal system and the future, https://doi.org/10.20448/edu.v9i2.4685; (Ahn et al., 2018[31]), Japan’s innovative approach to professional learning, https://doi.org/10.1177/0031721718815674

Box B.7. Overview of Singapore

Career structure

The Singapore career structure encompasses the entire education system and the varied roles within this. Thus, it includes both teaching and management roles within a school as well as a range of positions in the system more broadly (see Table A B.3).

Table A B.3. Overview of Singapore’s career structure

Classroom teacher
Teaching Track	Leadership Track	Specialist Track
Senior teacher	Subject head / level head	Senior specialist 1
Lead teacher	Head of department	Senior specialist 2
Master teacher	Vice Principal	Lead specialist
Principal master teacher	Principal	Principal specialist
	Cluster superintendent	Chief specialist
	Deputy director
	Director

Source: (National Institute for School Leadership, 2019[35]), Singapore's Career Ladder System, https://documents.ncsl.org/wwwncsl/Education/Study-Group/NISLSingapore%27sCareerLadderSystem.pdf (accessed 21 February 2025)

There is not a specific salary grid based exactly on the tracks, though there are connections. Thus, moving up to the next level typically incurs an increase though this may vary.

While tracks are well-defined with a clear progression, there is also a degree of flexibility. There are some broad expectations (see below) on the roles that each level encompasses, but these roles are also shaped by principals and leaders who define what is expected based also on what is needed in a particular school.

There is also some flexibility between the tracks. Teachers can both permanently change trajectory and also move to another track more temporarily as a means of gaining new experiences. In both cases, these require authorisation from their supervisor. That said, it may also be that there is a degree of reassignment of individuals by the Ministry if their skillset is deemed particularly well suited to one track.

Connected to this idea of some flexibility is that there may be the option to take on certain roles from a higher level on the career ladder without being formally assigned to that level. This is a way of essentially testing and proving one’s capability to undertake new skills and roles. This is highly informal and subjective, and is referred to as ‘upmanning’ in the system.

Classroom Teachers

The first rung on the career ladder in Singapore is that of classroom teacher. Some 60% of teachers in Singapore fall into this category.

• Teachers are part of this category for approximately five years, when they may after consultation with their supervisors move into one of the three tracks (see summaries of each below). Hence, they can take on these additional roles when there is agreement that a teacher is ready for extra responsibilities.

• Accordingly, this category may be composed of younger staff not yet ready for additional roles or those with less interest in mentoring or cluster work.

• Classroom teachers teach full-time though this includes programmed hours for meetings (e.g. team peer meetings), parent engagement and professional learning.

• There are five salary levels within this category. Moving up is contingent on evaluation and normally yields around a 10% salary increase. One-off performance-based bonuses are also available each year.

Teaching Track

The objective of the Teaching Track is to support those aspiring to remain in the classroom so they become experts in their practice and can support their peers in the classroom.

The Teaching Track consists of some 15% of teachers in the Singaporean system. This track has a particular salary scale (the “Senior Education Officer Scale”), with three levels of 15-20% increase.

Table A B.4. Overview of the Teaching Track

Position	Notable features
Senior teacher	Mentors for all first and second years Supervise teacher training practicums Sometimes workshops or CPL sessions Lose ~20% of teaching timetable for the roles
Lead teacher	Build capacity of teachers and senior teachers (content, pedagogy, assessment focus) Develop professional learning communities in schools Share their expertise within clusters Lose ~33% of teaching timetable
Master teacher	Mentoring Responsible for driving standards and new pedagogies across schools ~80% of their work attached to the Ministry, serving as primary staff for the teacher professional learning of the Academy of Singapore Teachers Teach master classes in schools for observation Approximately 70 in this role in the system
Principal master teacher	Essentially chief pedagogical experts for their subjects Responsible for pedagogical innovation and research Deliver master classes and lead TPL Required to teach one class a week in a school Same pay as school principals Approximately 20 in this role in the system

Source: (National Institute for School Leadership, 2019[35]), Singapore's Career Ladder System, https://documents.ncsl.org/wwwncsl/Education/Study-Group/NISLSingapore%27sCareerLadderSystem.pdf (accessed 21 February 2025)

Leadership Track

The Leadership Track aims to support those seeking school leadership position or leadership roles in the wider Ministry.

Some 25% of teachers are on this track.

Table A B.5. Overview of the Leadership Track

Position	Notable features
Subject head / level head	Observe and coach beginning teachers Participate in formal end-of-year evaluations Subject heads organise the teachers of a subject Level heads co-ordinate a given age group Lose ~20% of teaching timetable lost
Head of department	Departmental management, including coaching and developing teachers in subject areas Administration, supporting the principal and vice-principals Part of school’s management team ~33% of teaching timetable lost
Vice principal (V-P)	Two in every school, one for education and one for administration V-P for education: oversee all curriculum-related areas, lead evaluations for teaching staff, make decisions about teaching and learning V-P for administration: oversee all non-curriculum areas and lead a team of executive and administrative staff. Provide strategic planning and resource management support
Principal	Systematically appointed and rotated between schools to bring fresh perspectives and share best-practice Lead and inspire teachers Work closely with parents and the community
Cluster superintendent	Mentor and support a group of principals (10-15 principals) Observe all school-based evaluation processes to monitor them for fairness
Deputy director	Collectively lead the ~40 departments and sub-departments in the Ministry.
Director
Director-general of Education	Highest position in education Leads the entire system

Source: (National Institute for School Leadership, 2019[35]), Singapore's Career Ladder System, https://documents.ncsl.org/wwwncsl/Education/Study-Group/NISLSingapore%27sCareerLadderSystem.pdf (accessed 21 February 2025)

Specialist Track

The Specialist Track’s objective is to support those seeking to develop deep knowledge and skills in specific disciplines, with potential Ministry-level oversight (e.g. curriculum development, evaluation).

Less than 1% of teachers in the Singapore system are on this track.

Table A B.6. Overview of the Specialist Track

Position	Notable features
Senior specialist 1	Do not teach but service in the Ministry and at the National Institute of Education Less differentiation in roles and responsibilities than other functions with progress depending on quality of research Produce scholarship similar to that of a professor, aiming to produce new subject matter knowledge Expected to have or be undertaking a doctorate
Senior specialist 2
Lead specialist
Principal specialist
Chief specialist

Source: (National Institute for School Leadership, 2019[35]), Singapore's Career Ladder System, https://documents.ncsl.org/wwwncsl/Education/Study-Group/NISLSingapore%27sCareerLadderSystem.pdf (accessed 21 February 2025)

Evaluation Performance Management System

The Evaluation Performance Management System (EPMS) relies both on clear procedures but also professional judgement. There is no specification of exactly how supervisors must assess, with an intentionally broad set of outcomes and competencies (see Table A B.7). There are three outcomes ( ‘Key Results Areas’) that teachers are judged against, though the indicators or features that are measured within this remain at the discretion of the principal and evaluators. The ‘Key Results Areas’ are:

• Student outcomes, which may include aspects such as quality of student learning, students’ character development and co-curricular engagement.

• Professional outcomes, which may include aspects such as their own development and engagement in professional learning, and their coaching and development of others.

• Organisational outcomes, which may include aspects such as the teacher’s contributions to school, to wider committees, or collaboration with parents.

The final evaluation seeks to establish if candidates have met the agreed goals and are ready for the next career step and additional roles, as well as areas where further support may be needed. The final evaluation each year sees the Principal as well as other more senior stuff such as Heads of Department/Levels participate. Likewise, the Cluster Supervisor attends all evaluations for the schools under the remit to offer oversight. Notably, the Cluster Superintendent has the ability to challenge ratings. This is though seemingly rare in practice.

Table A B.7. Overview of competencies and key result areas in the EPMS process

Individual attributes	Professional mastery	Organisational excellence	Effective collaboration
Professional values and ethics	Student-centric, values-driven practice	Visioning and planning	Interpersonal skills and relationships
Self-management and development	Curriculum and content	Action management and implementation	Teamwork and team building
Analytical thinking and intellectual flexibility	Pedagogy and instruction	Culture building and people development	Internal and external partnerships
	Assessment and evaluation

Source: (National Institute for School Leadership, 2019[35]), Singapore's Career Ladder System, https://documents.ncsl.org/wwwncsl/Education/Study-Group/NISLSingapore%27sCareerLadderSystem.pdf (accessed 21 February 2025)

It is worth noting that the evaluation system rests upon professional judgement and the strong institutional expertise that exists within this system having been built up over many years. Rigorous training and the collective participation of many of the same actors together (e.g. Principals, Cluster Superintendents) helps to build this consistency. It raises the question of how to foster this type of culture, and whether more prescriptive guidance and reflective feedback loops may be needed initially to support a transition to this style of evaluation system.

Initial teacher education

In Singapore, there is one single provider of initial teacher education to prepare teachers for the classroom and profession: the National Institute of Education. Preparation seeks to develop the knowledge and skills related to teaching, as well as imbuing candidates with the purpose and values of teaching and the education system.

In 2023, the Enhanced TE²¹: Empowering Teachers for the Future Model was launched to help develop teachers that are ready for the future, insofar as they themselves can develop students’ 21st-century competencies so they are also future-ready. The new model builds on the original model but with a particular focus on preparing teachers and the school systems for the fluctuating changes of the future. As outlined in PISA 2022 Volume V (OECD, 2024[36]), the new model is rooted in:

• Three core values:

  • Commitment to the learner: believing that all children can learn, nurturing each learner holistically, and valuing diversity.

  • Commitment to the teaching profession: engaging in lifelong learning not only for one’s personal and professional growth but as a role model to students.

  • Commitment to the community: being cognisant of their role in the ecosystem and contribute to society by impacting the next generation of learners.

• Knowledge of the self as a teacher, the learners, the subject content and pedagogy. In particular, there has been a focus in the new model of expanding teachers’ knowledge of topics such as sustainability, global and environmental issues, and health and mental health.

• Skills for teachers of 21st-century learners such as promoting reflection and metacognition, digital and data literacy and cross-cultural literacy.

• Three core competency dimensions: professional practice, personal growth and development, and leadership and agency. These aims to help teachers to enable teachers to perform five roles, namely, shapers of character, creators of knowledge, facilitators of learning, architects of learning environments and agents of educational change.

In terms of delivery, there has been a focus in the past decade or so on promoting a learning environment in ITE that is more centred on and driven by teacher candidates rather than teacher educators. This was grounded in seeking to develop more self-directed, inquisitive learners. Simultaneously, there was also a focus on strengthening the link between theory and practice. A manifestation of these shifts is that candidates were, for instance, increasingly asked to engage in inquiry and reflection in the classroom, such as through using real-life school scenarios as a basis for this. More problem-based, blended and flipped learning have become more important.

Professional learning approach

Teachers are entitled to 100 hours of professional learning opportunities per year – an indication of the value that the system places on continuous growth and development. This may be undertaken in several ways:

• On the one hand, it may be through more formal, central channels. The National Institute of Education provides courses that focus on aspects such as subject matter pedagogical knowledge. Engagement in these may contribute towards higher degrees or advanced diplomas.

• School-based professional learning that is led by staff can account for a large amount of professional learning. This typically focusses on identifying specific problems in a school or introducing new approaches.

• Networks across schools are also an important means of encouraging and facilitating peer-to-peer learning. For instance, the Academy of Singapore Teachers was opened in September 2010 to further encourage teachers to continuously share best practices.

In terms of funding, each school has an allocated fund through which it can support teacher growth. This can include funding trips and visits abroad to learn about new approaches from other countries and to gain fresh perspectives.

Centre for Character and Citizenship Education

The Singapore Centre for Character and Citizenship Education (SCCCE) was established in 2023. It was established to advance Singapore’s vision that teachers play a crucial role in guiding students to become good people and citizens. There is a deep belief in the system – as reflected across ITE and professional learning opportunities above – that every teacher is a teacher of character and citizenship education (CCE), with it a collective responsibility and part of a teacher’s identity.

The Centre serves as a bridge between research and practice. It synthesises local and international scholarship, developing in 2025 a meta-framework for character and citizenship education. Its supports for professional learning at all levels manifest in different ways:

• Pre-service teachers in the Meranti Programme reflect on their identity and purposes as educators.

• In-service teachers in the “HeART of CCE” course deepen their moral conviction and relational practice to create caring and enabling school environments that cater to diverse needs.

• Through the Facilitating Challenging Discussions course, specialised CCE teachers develop their efficacy in leading values-based discussions on complex social issues.

Notes: Singapore shared insights in the organised peer-learning event of 13-14 May 2025 in Kyiv, Ukraine for the Ukrainian Ministry of Education and Science that have informed this box.

Source: (National Institute for School Leadership, 2019[35]), Singapore's Career Ladder System, https://documents.ncsl.org/wwwncsl/Education/Study-Group/NISLSingapore%27sCareerLadderSystem.pdf (accessed 21 February 2025); (Schleicher, 2011[37]), Building a High-Quality Teaching Profession: Lessons from around the World, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264113046-en; (Schleicher, 2018[34]), Valuing our Teachers and Raising their Status: How Communities Can Help, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264292697-en; (OECD, 2024[36]), PISA 2022 Results (Volume V): Learning Strategies and Attitudes for Life, https://doi.org/10.1787/c2e44201-en

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