Teacher Professional Learning

2. Ambition One: Build the foundations of an effective and meaningful career

Abstract

This chapter presents the first of the four ambitions that orientate this report. It focusses on the initial foundations of teachers’ career, encompassing the process for selecting candidates for the profession, the nature of their preparation in initial teacher education, and how transitions from initial teacher education to the classroom unfold. In discussing these, the chapter presents key design considerations from research literature, insights on implementation, and examples from systems around the world.

A thriving career as a teacher is heavily shaped by how these teachers first enter into their roles and the classroom. Decisions around choosing who will be become a teacher and how they are prepared and supported for this role are important foundations for teachers’ subsequent growth and development.

The work of teachers is very complex and demands ongoing work to refine their craft, and that means that initial teacher education (ITE) can never achieve everything that teachers will need in their careers. Nevertheless, it can help prepare teachers with a strong base of knowledge and skills, as well as values and attitudes, for being effective with their students from the beginning and for ongoing learning and flourishing across a career.

Moreover, teacher selection and preparation are significant not only in terms of what it means for the growth trajectory of individual teachers but also its collective strength. The type of knowledge, skills, values and attitudes that teachers develop early in their careers shape the whole profession. When teachers are attuned to research and problem-solving together, this can shape how schools and system will face future challenges. In turn, the selection and preparation of teachers also shapes how the teaching profession is perceived and its status, and thus its future pipeline too.

This ambition can be understood as structured loosely around how candidates are first selected for the profession, how they are prepared for the classroom, and how they are transitioned into becoming fully independent teachers. The last point is an important one as the transition is really a continuum as the initial teacher education that teachers experience should be coherent with their ongoing professional learning. Indeed, all four of the ambitions and twelve levers below are interconnected; for instance, the research literacy and supportive school and system environment of Ambition 4 (see Chapter 5) are very much essential supports in ITE, as will become clear across the subsequent sections.

Key highlights

This ambition focusses on the goals of attracting and identifying high-quality candidates; preparing these candidates for immediate effectiveness in the classroom as well as their lifelong learning; and supporting beginning teachers through the most challenging early stages. Some of the considerations it draws particular attention to include how:

• There remains considerable variation across countries and debate around the most appropriate level of selectivity, the criteria used, and when identification of candidates takes place.

• Generalised differences between entry requirements for different levels of education are rarely justified.

• Gauging teacher quality is, in general, challenging; it often demands recourse to multiple measures at different time points to build a more rounded picture of candidates’ suitability for the classroom.

• The criteria for accrediting or evaluation ITE providers are a key mechanism of quality assurance, such as in relation to research outputs, research-use and facilitation of quality grounded practice.

• Preparation should balance both theory and knowledge, alongside quality experiences in school to develop teachers’ practice to support their readiness to be impactful.

• Preparation should attend to the wider mindsets and competencies of teachers.

• Induction programmes using coaching and mentoring remain primarily under-utilised despite promising potential to support beginning teachers.

• Meaningful feedback loops between stakeholders can support alignment between the needs of schools, ITE institutions and the wider system.

Lever 1: Process for selecting candidates for the profession

While there is agreement around how important the phase of selection is for shaping the profession, there remains considerable variation and debate across countries around the most appropriate level of selectivity, the criteria used, and when identification of candidates takes place.

At the heart of this is the nature of entry barriers and where these are positioned. Both of these are ultimately interconnected; policymakers need to consider when to put the selection barriers that teacher candidates must clear, as well as how high or low to put these barriers.

Of particular note here is that for many systems this sits within the context of high levels of autonomy for higher education institutions. These institutions are often key actors in delivering ITE, and systems need to have trust and confidence in their ability to deliver content and prepare quality teachers. Systems often need to balance respecting the autonomy of such institutions, such as in their design of bespoke content and delivery methods, with efforts to encourage high, consistent standards.

It is also worth noting that the process for selecting candidates sits within wider challenges that systems may face. The process of selecting and certifying teachers shapes the overall supply of teachers and impacts who and how many apply to join the profession. For those systems facing acute shortages of teachers – as many systems around the world are today – this can be particularly significant.

Define the entry requirements to ITE

In general, there are two distinct time points where entry requirements need to be considered. The first relates to the entry requirements to enter into ITE programmes.

• Joining an ITE programme may incur the same requirements as that of joining other equivalent higher education programmes. Hence, to join a concurrent model ITE programme (see below), an upper secondary qualification at a certain level may be necessary.

• In approaches where a consecutive approach is followed in ITE, a bachelor’s degree in a particular field may be necessary. Notably, this may be in the same subject as the ITE programme (e.g. a mathematics bachelor’s for pursuing an ITE programme on mathematics teaching).

• Alternatively, some systems have sought to address shortages in certain subjects by showing more leniency; it may be that prospective candidates can pursue an ITE programme in mathematics teaching having obtained a minimum number of credits in this subject in their bachelor’s degree (a similar approach here is the major/minor split in bachelor’s degree).

Minimum qualifications may be coupled with additional requirements. These may seek to screen weaker candidates, particularly if ITE programmes are highly competitive.

• To this end, systems may make use of competitive examinations or interviews prior to admitting individuals to an ITE programme.

• For instance, in Japan and Korea competitive examinations determine entry to ITE programmes (they are also used to determine certification afterwards, as set out below) (OECD, 2019[1]).

• As mentioned, this is heavily shaped by the overall demand for ITE programmes. If teaching is a highly attractive career with a surplus of applicants a degree of screening is necessary.

• This partly explains why there is no clear pattern to the approach of systems performing highly in the OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA); as mentioned above some systems like Japan and Korea make use of competitive examinations – either or both at the start and end of ITE programmes – while others make no use of competitive examinations at either point (e.g. England (United Kingdom), Estonia, Singapore) (OECD, 2019[1]).

• More broadly, the association of certain criteria with future performance in teaching is modest, and its effectiveness has been questioned by some researchers (Kane, Rockoff and Staiger, 2008[2]).

In navigating this decision, it is important to note that generalised differences between different levels of education are rarely justified.

• Differences in degree requirements across levels of education remain widespread in OECD countries (OECD, 2019[1]).

• This particularly effects the early years or primary level that typically see lower entry requirements.

• Not only does this build an innate inflexibility into a system’s pool of teachers and how they can be allocated, but it risks sending signals that run counter to the considerable body of evidence on the critical role of high-quality early education to students’ development and future success (OECD, 2019[1]).

• Indeed, such differences are also challenged by the very demanding nature of the work at the early years and primary level.

Establish the entry requirements to certification and entering the classroom

The second key time point to consider is entering into teaching itself and what are the associated entry requirements here.

One essential question is what steps, if any, are required for certification as a teacher following ITE in order to actually start in the classroom.

• In some cases, entry requirements after ITE may not exist. Thus, successful candidates from ITE programmes are fully qualified and can start teaching directly (e.g. Norway).

• An alternative may see the need to be certified by a specific national, sub-national or local authority. This could be a mere administrative step that allows for the overall distribution of teachers to be monitored.

• At the same, the process of being certified can also be a means of selecting the right candidates by implementing additional requirements for certification. This may be motivated by a desire to select only the strongest candidates from a large pool of ITE graduates, such as by using competitive examinations or standardised tests that successful graduates from ITE have to pass to be formally certified and allowed to teach (see Box 2.1).

• Alternatively, additional requirements may also be a response to concerns around the effectiveness of all ITE programmes to fully prepare candidates for the classroom (see Lever 2 below). Additional requirements may be a means of monitoring the quality of ITE graduates being developed, as well as encouraging a degree of competition between providers.

• Additional requirements such as standardised tests are, of course, associated with additional resource costs too. In particular considering how it can be challenging to gauge the quality of a potential teacher through single standalone measures. It may also create specific incentives for ITE providers who might focus more on the demands of the additional requirements than the classroom itself.

Notably, this form of additional requirements and selection may occur in the latter stages of an ITE programme as part of its successful completion.

• For instance, a standardised test could be a requirement to graduate from an ITE programme.

• Alternatively, in Finland, oral exams are drawn upon in the ITE programme to gauge motivation (see Annex B).

Finally, a second connected question here is if teachers have a probationary period or not when they enter the classroom.

• For instance, teachers may be able to start teaching, but still have a certain duration of probation where they are monitored. One example of this is Japan (see Box 2.1).

• Some have pointed to the potential value of probationary measures due to their ability to allow for the effectiveness of teachers to be better gauged. Hence, probation can allow for teachers to be retained based on a better measure of their proven effectiveness than, say, competitive examinations (Rockoff et al., 2011[3]; Staiger and Rockoff, 2010[4]).

• At the same time, these have to be balanced with resource constraints; evaluation processes of teachers are complex and demanding (see Chapter 3, Lever 6).

• A further consideration is that additional barriers may demotivate certain candidates and depress overall supply (Hanushek and Pace, 1995[5]; Vegas and Ganimian, 2013[6]).

Define pathways into teaching

One of the most common routes into teaching is through ITE programmes. Even within these, typically two models dominate.

• Concurrent (or parallel) approaches see pedagogical and subject matter studies occur at the same, alongside any practical training features too like practicums.

• For instance, this has historically been a common approach to preparing teachers at the primary level. In Japan, teachers at the primary and lower secondary level are prepared through a concurrent model that covers a range of content related to academic subjects, pedagogical studies, educational science, child adolescent development studies, research skills development, as well as a 20-30 practical experience (see Annex B).

• Consecutive approaches see a focus on subject matter initially. These are then followed by courses in pedagogy and more practical training.

• For instance, this model may be characterised by individuals completing a bachelor’s degree in a specific subject and then a master’s in pedagogy. In England (United Kingdom), teachers can pursue a consecutive model where they can qualify for entry onto a one-year postgraduate certificate of education with at least a bachelor’s degree (3 years) (see Box 2.1). Their route may be shaped by the particular subject of that degree.

These models have ramifications for the coherence of preparation and how different types of knowledge and skills may be integrated. They intersect with the content of preparation, which is discussed more below too (see Lever 2).

A further important consideration is that of so-called alternative pathways into teaching. A 2018 Eurydice report (2018[7]) found that approximately one-third of European countries have some alternative pathway to a teaching qualification.

In particular, a common feature has been the development of accelerated, so-called ‘fast-track’ routes into the classroom. These have grown in popularity in many systems (OECD, 2025[8]; OECD, 2024[9]).

• One key objective of these is to offer a means of bringing different skills and experiences into schools.

  • For instance, alternative pathways may allow individuals to undertake career changes into classrooms, reflecting the shifting attitudes and norms in society around working life (OECD, 2025[10]).

  • The prestigious, competitive nature of certain courses may be significant for attracting certain high-achieving candidates, as well as the opportunity such routes can present for moving quickly into the classroom and developing one’s career in schools.

• Such alternative pathways may also reflect the fact that features such as a teacher’s ability to craft strong relationships matter greatly for student learning but are hard to measure. As previously mentioned, questions have been increasingly raised about the predictive power of certain requirements (Rockoff et al., 2011[3]; Staiger and Rockoff, 2010[4]). Alternative pathways may place more emphasis on entry to teaching being about what teachers know and can actually do, rather than passing through a specific route.

• Similarly, they may also be a response to concerns about the overly-theoretical approach to preparation of some ITE programmes and seek to increase emphasis on a more practical-focussed training model.

• Finally, alternative pathways may be driven more broadly by a need to increase the supply of candidates by maximising routes into the classroom.

Alternative pathways may combine several different features, including:

• Offering teachers the opportunity to earn a salary and essentially practice as an uncertified teacher while working towards their formal certification.

• Adopting a more apprenticeship-style training approach, as may be typically used in certain crafts or vocational fields. This may be combined with more emphasis on practical assessment too for certification.

• In England (United Kingdom), several pathways similar to these above exist alongside each other, as set out in Box 2.1.

Overall, the evidence on the effectiveness of such approaches for teachers is largely inconclusive thus far (OECD, 2019[11]).

• In general, the evidence base is hindered by methodological constraints, such as a reliance on correlational results or the sheer challenge of measuring quality teaching. There is also the fact that long-term effects (such as those who later return to teaching, or who move into adjacent areas) can be hard to capture.

• Studies in the United Kingdom (Allen and Allnutt, 2017[12]) and the United States (Clark et al., 2017[13]) tend to find either no difference or very marginal benefits to alternative pathway teachers, with unknown general equilibrium effects due to their tendency to leave teaching at more rapid rates.

• The OECD’s Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2024 notes that comparing perceived quality across different pathways is challenging due to the small sample size of teachers who completed non-regular teacher training. Holding this in mind, it is suggested that there does not seem to be large differences in perceived quality of initial teacher education between fast-track routes and regular routes (OECD, 2025[8]). There is variation among countries and data suggest that routes may have more emphasis on certain features (e.g. subject understanding, practical elements) than others, which can be both advantageous and a drawback.

• More theoretical arguments have also been raised; one notable concern is that with their strong focus on more ‘on-the-go’ learning in the classroom, they may minimise the need for mastery of knowledge and theory, which arguably undermines the intellectual status of the profession.

• That said, at the same time, the ‘fast-track’ nature may also serve as a significant trajectory for individuals to grow into teaching, school leadership and other related areas – such as policy making and social enterprise – which may still have a positive contribution to schools and systems (Schleicher, 2018[14]). In particular, the impacts in wider roles may be harder to fully measure, but significant, nonetheless.

Incentivise and attract candidates

Building on the topic of pathways that incentivise, countries may also turn to other mechanisms to further incentivise and attract candidates. For instance, the use of financial incentives (e.g. scholarships, subsidies, stipends) may be drawn upon as levers to enact change.

• These may serve to raise the profile of ITE and to attract particularly highly skilled candidates. For instance, as in Estonia (see Box 2.1).

• These may also be a means of addressing specific shortages or needs. For instance, in England (United Kingdom) (see Box 2.1), the Netherlands and Slovak Republic there has been use of scholarships and subsidies for students in so-called shortage subjects, such as the sciences (OECD, 2019[1]).

• Notably, these may also focus not only on recent graduates from secondary or higher education, but also those seeking a career move; in Chile, there are scholarships for individuals with experience outside education who would like to teach, which is coupled with an alternative pathway similar to those set out above.

Incentives may be attached to certain criteria, such as a certain number of years of service.

• For instance, in Chile, the Teacher Vocation Scholarship (“Beca Vocación de Profesor” [BVP]) targets academically talented secondary education graduates.

• It offers a scholarship (among other benefits) if they choose teacher education as a higher education degree and commit to teaching in a publicly-funded school for at least three years (Santiago et al., 2017[15]).

Alternatively, incentives may serve as a lever for also attracting beginning teachers to particular contexts, such as more disadvantaged or remote ones.

• Some studies have pointed to the promise of monetary incentives to help distribute teachers where they are needed the most.

• That said, such policies will work different depending on how the size of incentives interacts with the wider framework of career progression and employment.

There may also be efforts to concentrate incentives earlier in the ‘pipeline’ of attracting individuals to the profession. For instance, in England (United Kingdom), a system of ‘teaching internships’ are available for those interested in the profession to understand what it is like in the classroom. The internships last three weeks in June or July at the end of the school year. Interns are paid, receiving £425 (~€500) per week. Notably, these paid internships are targeted; paid internships are available to those studying for an undergraduate or master's degree in chemistry, computing, languages, maths, physics. They thus seek to address particular subject shortages. Those interested in teaching from other subjects can visit schools to get unpaid experience in the classroom.

Finally, it is also worth noting that the attractiveness of the profession does also extend to wider financial incentives such as the pay structure (see Chapter 3), as well as beyond. The intellectual attractiveness of the profession, as well as the opportunities for learning, growth and agency in their career, are also significant (OECD, 2025[10]). This highlights the interconnectedness of the four ambitions.

Box 2.1. International examples of approaches to selecting candidates

England (United Kingdom)

‘Qualified Teacher Status’ (QTS) is a minimum requirement needed to teach in publicly-funded primary, secondary and special schools in England (United Kingdom) and is awarded as part of Initial Teacher Training (ITT) courses.

There are entry requirements to be achieved prior to the Initial Teacher Training course commencing and separate requirements to be awarded QTS that will be met over the course of the Initial Teacher Training course.

• To be awarded QTS, candidates must have a bachelor’s degree – or equivalent qualification – in any subject.

• For entry into primary and secondary teaching courses, candidates must have passed Maths and English at the upper secondary level at the equivalent minimum grade (GCSE grade 4, or recognised equivalent).

• In addition, primary school teachers must also hold a minimum qualification (GCSE grade 4) in a science subject.

There are three routes to QTS:

• The undergraduate route, which normally runs over three or four years and includes teacher training via an undergraduate degree route and the new Teacher Degree Apprenticeship pilot which is a salaried route (and is accepting applications from 2024/25 onwards).

• The postgraduate fee-funded route, which normally runs for one year full-time:

• Combines theoretical learning with at least two classroom placements in schools.

  • Courses have to be paid for (approx. 9 500 GBP per year [~11 000 EUR]), though there are some bursaries or scholarships to incentivise participation in certain subjects. A system of loans also exists.

• The postgraduate salaried route, which also normally runs for one year full-time:

  • These allow individuals to earn a salary while they work towards QTS.

  • They follow a more apprenticeship-based approach with most of the time spent in school placements over theoretical learning.

  • This includes the School Direct salaried programme, the High Potential ITT programme (HPITT) and, since 2018/19, the Postgraduate Teaching Apprenticeship (PGTA).

  • These are highly competitive and in high demand.

An example of a salaried route into teaching is via Teach First. Teach First is a charitable organisation that also delivers so-called ‘high potential initial teacher training’.

• Teach First is a charitable organisation that also delivers so-called ‘high potential initial teacher training’.

• This is an employment-based route into teaching for high-performing graduates and those who are looking to change careers.

• Similar to the above, participants on the programme also earn a salary while they work towards qualified teacher status (QTS) with a postgraduate certificate in education (PGCE).

• Teach First is part of the Teach for All network, which offers similar alternative pathways into teaching in a range of countries.

• For instance, Teach for Ukraine is a non-governmental organisation that is also part of the Teach for All network, and which offers an alternative pathway into the teaching profession in Ukraine. Teach for Ukraine focusses on engaging talented graduates and young professionals to teach in rural settings in order to focus on learning losses in these communities. This includes offering stipends as financial incentives. Like other providers in the Teach for All network, they follow a similar competitive multi-step selection method and intensive summer training institute.

Following gaining QTS, individuals can apply to teaching positions to complete a mandatory two-year induction period (see Annex B) as a so-called ‘Early Career Teacher (ECT)’.

Estonia

In recent years Estonia has concentrated considerable efforts on enhancing the quality of its teacher workforce. New teacher standards were introduced in 2013, which were developed through an interactive process representing a considerable range of stakeholders. New standards have been introduced since these with the latest entering force as of 1 September 2025.

The standards are an important tool; institutions need to demonstrate that their curriculum prepares teacher candidates for all the requirements stated in the professional standards, with an explicit matching occurring between the learning outcomes of the curriculum, modules and courses on the one hand, and the teacher standards on the other (Révai, 2018[16]).

There are two major initial teacher education providers in Estonia: Tartu and Tallinn University. There are also two other institutions that only focus on preparing teachers of certain areas (music, arts and theatre).

For those entering at the primary level, programmes of ITE consist of mostly concurrent studies. At the lower or upper secondary level, it generally consists of a consecutive programme.

On the back of concerns that a teaching career was not a very popular choice among upper secondary graduates, Estonia has developed a series of programmes to further incentivise talented candidates to join the teaching profession. This includes:

• A scholarship programme: This seeks to motivate students with talent for teaching to apply to teacher education specialisations and to acquire a teaching qualification. Students who enter the teaching profession within 18 months of completing their education receive an additional allowance. The programme was also extended to professional support specialists.

• The “Youth to School” programme (“Noored Kooli”), part of the “Teach for All” programme: This seeks to raise interest in teaching and education by awarding scholarships to a select group of university students. Recipients teach at a school for two years, while at the same time participating in teaching and leadership training. After the programme, students can choose to keep working at school, return to university or work elsewhere.

Japan

In Japan, ITE is provided by approved universities or departments of universities. There are hundreds of universities and departments that have met the necessary requirements to provide ITE programmes. They must undertake self-evaluations and undergo accreditation processes by evaluation and accreditation organisations certified by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) at least every seven years.

In order to enter ITE programmes, individuals need to pass entrance examinations and be enrolled as students at universities with ITE programmes. In order to be able to become a teacher, candidates need to complete all required teacher-preparation courses and a practicum, in addition to an associate or a bachelor’s degree.

A key actor here is the of the local Boards of Education (BOE). Following completion of an ITE programme, teacher candidates must apply to the local BOE. The BOEs of prefectures and ordinance-designated cities are responsible for certificating and hiring teachers to work in schools in their jurisdiction. They administer their own competitive employment examinations for assigning teachers as permanent teachers at public schools (see Annex B).

More broadly, there have been efforts in recent decades to build more collaboration between universities and BOEs to help raise the quality of initial teacher education programmes, as well as that of ongoing professional learning.

Notes: England (United Kingdom) shared insights in the organised peer-learning event of 13-14 May 2025 in Kyiv, Ukraine for the Ukrainian Ministry of Education and Science that have informed this box.

Source: (OECD, 2019[1]), Working and Learning Together: Rethinking Human Resource Policies for Schools, https://doi.org/10.1787/b7aaf050-en; (Santiago et al., 2016[17]), OECD Reviews of School Resources: Estonia 2016, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264251731-en; (Révai, 2018[16]), What difference do standards make to educating teachers?: A review with case studies on Australia, Estonia and Singapore, https://doi.org/10.1787/f1cb24d5-en; (OECD, 2018[18]), Education Policy in Japan: Building Bridges towards 2030, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264302402-en

Lever 2: Nature of preparation for the classroom and profession

Evidence on initial teacher education and what makes it effective is growing, but it remains a somewhat incomplete picture (OECD, 2019[11]). This means that there is a need for policymakers as well as those engaged in delivering initial teacher education to remain flexible with a view to being responsive to an evolving evidence base.

At the same time, research has demonstrated how important good preparation is. For instance, the importance of carefully considering how teachers are prepared for the classroom is exemplified in the fact that the better prepared and early career teachers feel, the longer they tend to stay in the profession. This relevance is heightened in a context of shortages as faced by many systems (OECD, 2024[19]).

Ensure quality in the provision of ITE

The question of who provides ITE is a foundational one to many education systems. Their quality shapes the effectiveness of teacher preparation and, ultimately, the strength of the entire education system.

Policymakers are often confronted by several overarching challenges to navigate.

• As previously mentioned, in general there can be high degrees of autonomy among higher education universities. This can be important for spurring innovation – particularly considering the limited evidence base on ITE as well as the changing demands – and responding more flexibly to different contextual needs (OECD, 2019[11]). But it also means that trust and collaboration may be needed to navigate this balance between autonomy and assurance.

• ITE programmes may be directly accredited on a programme-by-programme basis, or it may be that institutions are accredited and then have the autonomy for quality assurance of its own programmes.

• Different time frames also present a problem to consider. There can be multiple, interlocking cycles of evaluation, preparation and accreditation occurring simultaneously. For instance, programmes may be evaluated on historic data for a renewal of their accreditation, while still continuing to implement ITE programmes with current students.

• The example of Ireland has carefully balanced these practical challenges with rigour and thoroughness, with all institutions reviewed and accredited during a ‘cycle’ lasting approximately two years. An independent review panel is appointed, with each review of an institution taking approximately eight months (see Annex B).

In systems where the delivery of ITE is more directly accredited to higher education institutions or specific programmes, one key lever of quality assurance is the criteria for accreditation. Common features may include:

• The quality of the academic staff, such as in terms of their research outputs (e.g. impact metrics, research expertise).

• How ITE providers integrate the latest research evidence into their curricula in a responsive yet rigorous way.

• How ITE providers facilitate quality grounded practice, that is also sufficiently substantial for exposing teachers to the different experiences that await them (OECD, 2019[11]).

Further sources of information that may be drawn upon include:

• Evaluation by teacher candidates of ITE providers, both in general as well as in a more granular form in terms of certain courses.

• Evaluation by schools of ITE providers based on the quality of candidates that a provider develops.

• Self-evaluations or independent audits may also be undertaken. There may be requirements for these to be transparently communicated as in Finland (see Box 2.2).

• Notably this information may be used in a summative way to inform accreditation, but also used formatively to support ongoing improvement of ITE programmes.

Where there is less direct accreditation of ITE or concerns around the quality of provision, alternative means may be drawn upon to support quality assurance.

• Teaching standards – or more bespoke ‘graduate standards’ focussing exclusively on beginning teachers – can be a key tool. They can serve to concretely define what graduates from ITE programmes should know and be able to do.

• As set out in the next section, such standards can be a particularly valuable lever for shaping the design of actual content in an ITE programme. They may also serve as an opportunity for engagement by different stakeholders, who can have a say in determining the type of graduates they seek to be developed (e.g. school leaders).

• As mentioned, additional requirements after an ITE programme for certification and starting to teach can also be a key means of quality control. In particular, standardised examinations may be a means of assessing the quality of preparation by ITE programmes. Lever 1 above has addressed this in more detail.

Develop a coherent body of theory and knowledge

One of the most fundamental functions of preparation is to introduce teacher candidates to the body of theory and knowledge that underpins education. While this body of theory and knowledge is less well-defined in education than in some other professions (e.g. medicine), and also under ongoing construction, there remains nevertheless a large body of important knowledge that has been developed over time (OECD, 2025[20]; OECD, 2019[11]). This can be considered as the minimum ‘content’ that ITE should impart to teacher candidates.

More specifically, some of the particular knowledge that may be concentrated on includes subject knowledge and general pedagogical knowledge.

• These can be seen as two key bodies of knowledge that teachers draw upon alongside their more locally-situated pedagogical content knowledge.

• The latter essentially sees the translation of more abstract theory and knowledge around a subject or teaching into actual actions that support student learning. It is primarily developed through focussed effort in the classroom, which is why there is a need for both theory and practice in ITE, as addressed below.

Striking the right balance between breadth and depth in the content of ITE is no easy task.

• The nature of concurrent or consecutive models can have a particular influence here.

• Similarly, particular attention may be needed to subject knowledge depending on the route to specialisation in a subject. For instance, in some systems one can teach a particular subject based on a similar degree (e.g. teaching chemistry with a physics degree).

• Alternatively, at certain levels where there is not specialisation like primary, some systems may still dedicate particular attention to certain subjects (e.g. mathematics) to respond to wider priorities or system-level needs.

• It has been argued that there has been little shift over the past decades in how prepared teachers feel for the classroom (OECD, 2019[11]). This suggests that preparing teachers with the more grounded, pedagogical content knowledge for the actual classroom remains a challenge.

One tool for developing coherence in this content is clear, well-defined teacher standards.

• Standards can help to define what is needed in terms of theory and knowledge. It can also help to provide coherence with what teachers need to be able to do in terms of their practice and how they actually use any theory and knowledge.

• Standards may be particularly relevant for prioritisation. It is, after all, more common to add to the expectations of teachers than to take away from them.

• Exercises to map standards to the content of ITE programmes may be a fruitful exercise for identifying gaps and a shared understanding across different stakeholders (Révai, 2018[16]).

• Such mapping exercises may also help to expose the types of experiences and more practical knowledge that is needed. After all, standards cannot encompass everything due to the challenge of capturing the more tacit pedagogical content knowledge of the classroom.

• One further advantage may be that clear standards can also underpin career progression beyond the initial stages as a teacher, as outlined below (see Chapter 3). They can thus help to ensure alignment between ITE and future progression and learning opportunities.

Another tool may be thoroughly attending to the coordination of content across ITE programmes.

• One particular limitation in the teaching of this fundamental content has been its typically episodic nature; small chunks of content are taught in isolation often by different individuals, with little attention to how they may align with or build on each other.

• This may be further exacerbated by the separation of teaching and research in ITE institutions (e.g. universities). It may mean that the latest research findings are not always easily integrated into the curricula of ITE institutions.

• Some systems such as Finland have sought to bridge this gap through the integration of more subject-specific studies alongside pedagogical studies (see Box 2.2).

Move beyond theory to build an understanding of practice

Both theory and practice are important in the content of ITE programmes. Theory helps to prepare teachers for a life of learning, becoming research-informed and aware of why certain actions are taken. Practice is about ensuring that implementation is effective and the actions and decisions are translating this theory effectively. To this end, ITE should also seek to incorporate quality time and experiences in school.

Two particular forms of exposure may be especially relevant: observing practice in action, or actually engaging in practice themselves in the classroom – what is often referred to as grounded practice.

• Observing colleagues may help candidate teachers see practices in action and understand better their different components. In particular, observation of colleagues should be about exposure to high-quality practice.

• Moreover, the reflection on this type of experience is particularly relevant. This can support specific learnings to be derived from observation and potentially mobilised into a teacher candidate’s own practice or knowledge base.

• Observation may be especially relevant when it comes to exposing teachers to more innovative, student-led practices which candidates may have had little exposure to in their own educational experiences.

• Grounded practice is particularly important for the process of transferring one’s theoretical knowledge into actual action.

• For instance, subject/content knowledge can be relatively easily developed, but as mentioned beginning teachers tend to find it much harder to develop the aforementioned ‘pedagogical content knowledge’ that relates to mobilising this knowledge of a subject to actually support student learning. This type of knowledge is grounded in the actions and decisions of teaching, and thus locally-situated in the classroom.

• It means that opportunities to actually experience the process of mobilising and transferring knowledge into teaching actions is particularly important.

• Again, opportunities to reflect on grounded practice is particularly important to support candidate teachers to identify areas for further development, as well as better identifying the rationale of certain decisions or actions.

Notably, there is variation across countries in how school-based grounded practice occurs (OECD, 2019[1]; OECD, 2019[11]). This is partly shaped, again, by whether a more concurrent or consecutive approach is adopted to ITE, or whether alternative pathways are pursued.

• Broadly speaking, grounded practice can be seen as either an extensive or an intensive model. There is limited research on the effectiveness of different approaches.

• The former sees grounded practice spread across a prolonged period of time and with normally a breadth of experiences.

• The intensive model sees a more concentrated period in schools during a shorter time frame, but with more immersion in the sustained or interconnected nature of experiences.

• There are also several important implementation considerations that inform the design process (see below).

Notably, in some systems, such as Ireland, increased emphasis in recent years has been placed on the time that is spent in schools in ITE. The ‘school placement’ as defined in the underpinning ‘Standards for Initial Teacher Education’ includes direct teaching of 200 hours, as well as beginning teachers experiencing a variety of placement settings so they have a wider range of experiences to draw on. Notably, ITE providers are also expected to schedule an ‘extended period’ school placement. This should constitute a minimum of 10 weeks in one school in the second half of the programme, meaning that beginning teachers experience more immersion in a school community (see Annex B).

Attend to the wider knowledge, skills, values and attitudes for their career ahead

ITE not only prepares teachers for the classroom, but for a career as a teacher and their active contributions to the profession throughout this career. The fast-paced nature of the 21st century has heightened the need and challenge of nurturing a future-proof profession.

In this context, one key area of consideration is the wider knowledge demands that are placed on teachers, and thus ITE programmes too.

• An increasingly important area of content for countries is supporting teachers to broaden their knowledge from expertise in only standalone subjects to also accommodate knowledge of transversal themes grounded in global trends. The aforementioned OECD Teaching Compass reflects these changing knowledge needs (OECD, 2025[21]).

• There are examples of content coming to increasingly incorporate knowledge of digitalisation, including AI and digital literacy; student’s social-emotional development, including well-being and health; and the environment, including sustainability and civic values (see Box 2.2).

• Similarly, as the example of Singapore in Box 2.2 shows, this has also included teaching this content through new methods to reflect the type of learning environments future teachers may seek to nurture.

A second key area is how ITE develops and nurtures the disposition of teachers.

• A key aspect of this is their disposition towards ongoing learning. For instance, it is in ITE that a critical stance towards one’s own practice can be first developed, with early career teachers learning how to self-inquire into their practice and adapt.

• Coupled with this process of self-inquiry is a willingness to and understanding of how to update their practice as new evidence or needs emerge. ITE can build the foundations of research literacy in education and engender the habits of research-use that can develop evidence-informed practitioners long into the future.

A third key area is how ITE lays the foundations of teachers’ identity as a teacher and professional.

• Establishing a solid and evolving sense of self is crucial for teachers' professional identity, development and effectiveness, as exemplified in the role that teacher’s sense of self plays in anchoring teachers in the OECD Teaching Compass (OECD, 2025[21]).

• In particular, working with experts and policymakers from a number of countries, the OECD’s Initial Teacher Preparation Study outlined some of the most important qualities for beginning teachers to endeavour to develop (OECD, 2019[11]), such as strong communication and relationship skills, confidence, resilience and proactivity, and values such as a sense of mission, responsibility and ethics.

Box 2.2. International examples of preparing teachers for the classroom and profession

Singapore

In Singapore, there is one single provider of initial teacher education to prepare teachers for the classroom and profession: the National Institute of Education. Preparation seeks to develop the knowledge and skills related to teaching, as well as imbuing candidates with the purpose and values of teaching and the education system.

In 2023, the Enhanced TE²¹: Empowering Teachers for the Future Model was launched to help develop teachers that are ready for the future, insofar as they themselves can develop students’ 21^st-century competencies so they are also future-ready. The new model builds on the original model but with a particular focus on preparing teachers and the school systems for the fluctuating changes of the future. As outlined in PISA 2022 Volume V (OECD, 2024[22]), the new model is rooted in:

• Three core values:

  • Commitment to the learner: believing that all children can learn, nurturing each learner holistically, and valuing diversity.

  • Commitment to the teaching profession: engaging in lifelong learning not only for one’s personal and professional growth but as a role model to students.

  • Commitment to the community: being cognisant of their role in the ecosystem and contribute to society by impacting the next generation of learners.

• Knowledge of the self as a teacher, the learners, the subject content and pedagogy. In particular, there has been a focus in the new model of expanding teachers’ knowledge of topics such as sustainability, global and environmental issues, and health and mental health.

• Skills for teachers of 21st-century learners such as promoting reflection and metacognition, digital and data literacy and cross-cultural literacy.

• Three core competency dimensions: professional practice, personal growth and development, and leadership and agency. These aims to help teachers to enable teachers to perform five roles, namely, shapers of character, creators of knowledge, facilitators of learning, architects of learning environments and agents of educational change.

In terms of delivery, there has been a focus in the past decade or so on promoting a learning environment in ITE that is more centred on and driven by teacher candidates rather than teacher educators. This was grounded in seeking to develop more self-directed, inquisitive learners. Simultaneously, there was also a focus on strengthening the link between theory and practice. A manifestation of these shifts is that candidates were, for instance, increasingly asked to engage in inquiry and reflection in the classroom, such as through using real-life school scenarios as a basis for this. More problem-based, blended and flipped learning have become more important.

Finland

There are eight universities and five universities of applied sciences with responsibility for teacher education in Finland. Teacher education is organised by different groups depending on one’s future career, such as class teacher (primary education), subject teachers (lower secondary education or general upper secondary education), or special needs teachers, among others.

Finland’s preparation of teachers has a strong focus on the development research skills. Student teachers learn to produce and consume research-based knowledge.

• ITE often includes courses on qualitative and quantitative research methods.

• Teachers are typically required to complete a master’s degree, including a master’s thesis.

• Similarly, there is often use of inquiring teaching methods in ITE, such as case-based approaches or project-based learning.

• Notably teacher educators are immersed also in this research-based model of ITE. Teacher educators do research in their own teaching and draw upon this.

Overall, this seeks to develop the type of reflective thinking that is necessary in the profession and ongoing, self-driven learning. This also seeks to foster a strong level of research literacy that prepares teachers with the capacity to undertake their own research and to critically evaluate their work. It leads to an overall competence in research methods, including broad knowledge of a range of methods and more detailed, specialised knowledge in at least one.

ITE in Finland is also characterised by concerted efforts to foster robust pedagogical content knowledge. Teacher education is a shared responsibility between the teacher education faculty and the academic subject faculty. This combination means that there is substantial attention to the type of more subject-specific pedagogy necessary for robust pedagogical content knowledge. It avoids treating pedagogy as generic and devoid of particular subject contexts (e.g. questioning approaches in different subjects). This notably applies to the preparation of upper-grade teachers, but there are also some opportunities for classroom teachers as the primary level to complete more studies in a certain subject.

A focus on more theoretical pedagogical studies is coupled with guided teaching practice. Candidates to the profession practice in specific teacher training schools during their studies. These schools provide a space not only for candidates to the profession to practice but also support experiments, research and continuous professional learning too. Such practice is not an additional ‘extra’, but an essential part of achieving the credits to complete specific programmes.

Underlying this is a blend of both autonomy but also evaluation, transparency and cooperation. There is no single ‘curriculum’ for ITE programmes and universities have autonomy in determining this. At the same time, universities are required to evaluate their education and research work and its effectiveness, as well as to engage in external evaluation activities too. The outcomes of evaluations are published.

There is also a notable degree of co-operation, with the Teacher Education Forum funded by the Ministry of Education and Culture supporting this. It has been particularly significant in supporting providers to respond to emerging needs and challenges. For instance, the Teacher Education 2050 Vision has been recently developed, which invites greater consideration of the challenges to be increasingly accounted for such as eco-crisis, digitalisation and well-being.

Estonia

There is a strong focus on linking theory and practice in ITE in Estonia. In particular, ITE seeks to prepare teacher candidates for the realities of the classroom through a range of school-based experiences. These occur in the two years of the master’s programme, and include:

• Observations to help teacher candidates relate their theoretical knowledge to practice.

• Teaching practice of 6-10 weeks in a school, organised through a range of partnerships with schools.

• A university-based supervisor and a school-based mentor to support reflection on practice, and to provide general oversight or guidance.

• In some cases, simulated pedagogical practice also occurs in a university setting (e.g. the University of Tartu).

There is also a notable focus on research skills, grounded in bridging theory and practice. This is evidenced by the writing of a master’s thesis, for instance. Or, in some settings, building teacher candidates’ research capacity through involvement in research projects (e.g. the University of Tartu).

There is no standardised curriculum for ITE, but institutions use the aforementioned teaching standards to inform the content of ITE programmes. The standards define a broad range of knowledge areas teachers need (e.g. development psychology, basics of research, basics of reflection, age-related peculiarities) and competencies, as well as particular tasks. Analysis has suggested that the breadth of tasks teachers undertake demands a wide knowledge base that is both theoretical – stretching across general pedagogical knowledge and more specific content-based pedagogical knowledge – and including knowledge of research methods (Révai, 2018[16]).

Notes: Finland and Singapore shared insights in the organised peer-learning event of 13-14 May 2025 in Kyiv, Ukraine for the Ukrainian Ministry of Education and Science that have informed this box.

Source: (OECD, 2024[22]), PISA 2022 Results (Volume V): Learning Strategies and Attitudes for Life, https://doi.org/10.1787/c2e44201-en; (Révai, 2018[16]), What difference do standards make to educating teachers?: A review with case studies on Australia, Estonia and Singapore, https://doi.org/10.1787/f1cb24d5-en

Lever 3: Attending to the transition into the classroom and school

No matter the quality and extensiveness of a teacher’s initial preparation, the transition to the classroom will always be a key moment. The nature of teaching and the rhythm of school life means that it can be hard to ever fully capture these realities for candidates to the profession.

Accordingly, the transition process of teachers truly stepping into the classroom for the first time as a responsible teacher – whether they have already been certified, are on probation, or preparing for a final certification – is an important foundation in building an effective and meaningful career.

Research has documented how beginning teachers can experience a very acute ‘shock’ in encountering the realities of teaching and schools.

• One worrying consequence is an elevated risk of burnout.

• A second is the tendency to resort to so-called ‘survival strategies’ in the face of initial challenges, which is unlikely to expose students to quality teaching (OECD, 2019[11]).

Establish induction programmes with coaching and mentoring

As noted in TALIS 2024 (OECD, 2025[8]), the literature has noted that induction programmes have been found to have positive effects on teacher quality (as perceived by students) (Maulana, Helms-Lorenz and van de Grift, 2015[23]) and student achievement (Rockoff, 2008[24]). They may also help reduce teacher attrition (Smith and Ingersoll, 2004[25]; Helms-Lorenz, van de Grift and Maulana, 2015[26]). TALIS 2024 also points to a positive relationship between induction programmes and job satisfaction, and in some systems with well-being for teachers (OECD, 2025[8]).

In terms of specific activities for induction, there is no clearcut understanding of what it should constitute, with research still relatively nascent (OECD, 2019[11]), though providing multiple types of support seems to be particularly significant (OECD, 2025[8]). Broadly speaking, induction may consist of mentoring and coaching, as well as the integration of teachers into professional learning opportunities with other colleagues (e.g. department teams):

• Mentoring can be understood as a means of providing more general support to beginning teachers, such as in relation to their well-being and developing their reflective thinking. This may also focus on some of the acute early challenges beginning teachers can frequently encounter, such as managing workload. Mentoring is the most visible, implemented and researched of induction practices (Valenčič Zuljan and Marentič Požarnik, 2014[27]). TALIS 2024 reports that in about one-third of education systems, novice teachers with an assigned mentor are more likely to report fulfilling their lessons’ aims and enjoying higher job satisfaction (OECD, 2025[8]).

• Coaching can be understood as being more orientated to improving specific practices of beginning teachers. This may see more directed guidance from a coach through the identification of bespoke strategies for particular challenges or weaknesses. Again, an initial focus of coaches may be on acute early challenges, such as behaviour.

• Integration into the school community may consist of how beginning teachers are provided with opportunities to collaborate and learn from new colleagues, such as in department or age-group teams. It may also consist of specific onboarding opportunities that share the more tacit ‘ways of working’ in the school and its institutional knowledge.

In recent years, rates of participation in induction activities have seemingly increased. TALIS 2024 notes that participation in any induction programme (whether formal or informal) increased by 31 percentage points, on average, when considering education systems that participated in both TALIS 2018 and TALIS 2024 (OECD, 2025[8]). This is an indication of the potential that induction may hold.

In particular, due to the potentially high positive impact of initiatives such as coaching (Kraft, Blazar and Hogan, 2018[28]), there may be a need to attend to induction being systematic across schools if it is to fairly support all teachers and their pupils. For instance, TALIS 2024 noted that in almost one-third of education systems, public school teachers who have started working in their current schools in the five years before the survey have lower chances to benefit from induction activities – be it formal or informal activities (OECD, 2025[8]).

Align induction as a coherent continuum with professional learning

One identified limitation with induction has been how it is still typically viewed in a very narrow way.

• Specifically, induction has been primarily seen as a standalone one-year feature. This is despite the fact that it has been documented that certain practices, such as adapting to student thinking, can be particularly challenging for beginning teachers (van de Grift, van der Wal and Torenbeek, 2011[29]).

• Moreover, this rigidity does not meet the varied needs of teachers, and that some may need more sustained support. This may be particularly relevant for more challenging contexts.

There has been, accordingly, arguments for induction to be viewed more broadly (OECD, 2019[11]):

• For instance, induction can be viewed in terms of a two-to-seven-year duration form of support. This can be adapted to individual teachers or schools.

• Coupled with this may be a more ‘faded’ approach, where induction supports are steadily removed. For instance, the regularity of coaching and mentoring can be reduced. Naturally, features such as orientation largely become irrelevant, too.

• There may also be scope for not only fading induction but also strategically reorientating it; for instance, concentrating on more complex, relational practices once certain fundamentals of the classroom (e.g. behaviour management) have been first addressed (OECD, 2025[20]).

One example of this more open-ended support can be seen in the example Singapore (see Annex B). Beginning teachers receive a mentor in the school who then supports them with their eventual identification of a particular ‘track’ in its career structure. This identification of a track comes when there is agreement with the mentor that a teacher is ready for this step.

Lastly, the case of Singapore also serves as a reminder of the need to consider alignment between induction and the wider career structure and professional learning.

• Induction may be combined with a probationary period that is part of the certification process, as set out above.

• Induction may also be orientated towards preparing teachers for specific standards and certain evaluation processes (see Chapter 3).

• Induction may also be fused with efforts to support ongoing professional learning, such as the use of teacher development plans or wider school development plans.

• Indeed, induction can also be conceptualised as a cycle; there are examples of approaches that transition those who received induction into eventually becoming the mentors of the next generation of beginning teachers (see Box 5.6 in OECD, 2025_[11], p.159).

Facilitate feedback loops between schools, ITE providers and stakeholders

A fundamental tool for ensuring the transition process goes well is that there is alignment between the needs of schools and ITE institutions. Is the content that ITE preparing teachers with what schools need? And are schools able to provide ITE institutions with what they need if their content is to be sufficiently supported and built upon through practical experiences hosted by schools and induction as schools assume more responsibility for teachers?

Accordingly, opportunities for meaningful dialogue between schools and ITE providers are important.

• Loops can help to promote quality and efficiency, and that resources from different stakeholders are being channelled in the best way.

• As the OECD’s Flying Start study noted (OECD, 2019[11]), the use of ‘meaningful’ is particularly important; dialogue should not be purely informative and logistical based (e.g. orchestrating the times when schools will host teachers for practical experiences) but engage both actors in really designing the content to ensure different needs are effectively met.

• Moreover, these feedback loops may also be significant for ensuring more localised needs of schools are met. For instance, those needs of rural schools or those with particularly high proportions of second language learners, or with special education needs.

Box 2.3. International examples of attending to the transition

Estonia

Teachers beginning their careers in a school have the opportunity to voluntarily participate in a 12-month induction programme. This is funded by the Ministry of Education and Research and the induction programme is provided by both of the public comprehensive universities that also provide ITE.

The induction programme hinges on the allocation of a mentor to supervise the work of the beginning teacher. The mentor is a teacher at the receiving school and is appointed by the school principal. There are certain criteria that the mentor must fulfil too, namely having at least three years of experience in pedagogical work and having passed a specific training in supervision.

In terms of tasks, the mentor provides a support for beginning teachers as well as supervising their work. The beginning teacher will, in particular, prepare an individual development chart which contains self-reflections of their experience. The mentor is also required to provide feedback to the ITE provider from which the new teacher received their qualification. In this respect, there is a feedback loop between schools and institutions.

The beginning teacher also has access to tailored workshops that address the frequent challenges of the first years in a school. These seek to address experiences and explore solutions, be that individually or jointly with other teachers.

Japan

Boards of Education (BOE) in Japan are required by law to provide induction training for one year for all beginning teachers with a regular-term contract. Candidates who have been successful with the examinations of their BOE to be hired, are on a probationary status in their first year of employment.

The induction training process includes assigning a mentor teacher for every new teacher, who are commonly selected by the principal of the school from among their pool of vice principals or senior teachers in the school. It often includes in-school professional learning opportunities too.

More broadly, Japan has seen more concerted efforts in recent years to foster collaboration and closer connections between different stakeholders. For instance, the system of affiliated schools in Japan are an example of strong university-school partnerships that seek to support practical insights into the classroom. More than 250 affiliated schools provide opportunities for on-site innovative teaching experiences for teacher candidates, as well as serving as a space for collaborative research between the school and university. Such experiences can mean that induction is not beginning teachers’ first exposure to the realities of the classroom.

Chile

Chile’s Induction and Mentoring Program provides dedicated support to new teachers and their integration into the education community. It reflects their ongoing efforts to recognise and attend to the importance of the first years of teaching.

Induction is a right of all beginning teachers who are appointed or contracted to a state-funded institution. It lasts for 10 months during the school year, and beginning teachers receive an allowance for the time spent on induction.

Beginning teachers have an assigned mentor who is an experienced teacher (at the upper stages of the career structure: Advanced, Expert I or Expert II) and who has received specific training to be able to lead and support effective induction.

• Mentors may be from the same institution or another.

• Mentors may oversee up to three beginning teachers.

• Mentors are also entitled to receive allowances for each beginning teacher they mentor and support.

• Mentors must design, implement and evaluate a mentoring plan based on the beginning teachers’ needs. Guidance is published by the Ministry to support this, including a rubric for self-assessment with beginning teachers.

The induction process requires a commitment of between four and six hours a week for the beginning teacher and mentor to meet and reflect on practice and challenges, as well preparing classroom work, analysing learning outcomes, and considering integration into the education community. Notably, the emphasis is on mentoring and formative development, rather than supervision and evaluation.

High-performing schools have the right to implement and manage their own induction processes.

A commissioned evaluation of the system of professional learning noted that induction was highly valued, but has yet to fully permeate the school culture. It also did not have wide coverage yet. This has been a valuable evaluation for further refinement of the system of professional learning, including induction. For instance, now there are now ongoing efforts to enhance the relevance of induction to specifical, more localised contextual needs. This includes trying to better match beginning teachers with mentor teachers from that particular local context.

Notes: Chile shared insights in the organised peer-learning event of 13-14 May 2025 in Kyiv, Ukraine for the Ukrainian Ministry of Education and Science that have informed this box.

Source: (OECD, 2019[1]), Working and Learning Together: Rethinking Human Resource Policies for Schools, https://doi.org/10.1787/b7aaf050-en; (Santiago et al., 2016[17]), OECD Reviews of School Resources: Estonia 2016, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264251731-en; (Révai, 2018[16]), What difference do standards make to educating teachers?: A review with case studies on Australia, Estonia and Singapore, https://doi.org/10.1787/f1cb24d5-en; (OECD, 2018[18]), Education Policy in Japan: Building Bridges towards 2030, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264302402-en

Key implementation considerations

Building the initial foundations of an effective and meaningful career is complex. It demands the co-ordinated effort of a range of different stakeholders and the alignment of different structures and resources. Some key implementation considerations that surface from international examples and best practice include:

• Coordinating across multiple actors: Initial teacher education is a complex system that depends on multiple actors. In many systems, it is increasingly a case that initial teacher education depends on multiple ITE institutions, as well as a range of key partners. For instance, schools are especially key partners in a system seeking to balance theory with practice. Similarly, if ITE is to serve as a foundation for a continuum of learning, then in-service providers of continuous professional learning are also important actors if they are to appropriately build on the foundations that are laid. More broadly, the actors that build the evidence base any initial teacher education and professional learning occurs on are important, be that researchers, knowledge brokers and networks of practitioners. There is a need for systems to understand, first, who is involved, and, second, how they are and how they should be connected if there is to be alignment and coherence.

• Facilitating buy-in of different actors: Coordinating across multiple actors may also constitute facilitating their collective ownership of the ITE approaches. Some systems have sought to reflect the multi-stakeholder and complex nature of ITE by engaging different stakeholders in its design and development. For instance, in Norway, collective guidelines were developed with different stakeholders (OECD, 2019[1]). In Ireland, the Teaching Council is very much a partnership-based organisation and as part of the review of the policy on initial teacher education undertook four rounds of consultations, constituting some 12 meetings, with different stakeholders. This ranged from teacher unions, parent bodies, principals’ bodies to student unions, to name but a few. A similar picture unfolded in Ireland with the professional induction programme for new qualified teachers (“Droichead”). This was also developed by the Teaching Council in Ireland in consultation with the profession. Moreover, it was also launched first as a pilot, in 2013, and, following a positive evaluation of the pilot in 2016, expanded to all newly qualified teachers (OECD, 2024[30]).

• Delivering quality school-based experiences: Ensuring grounded practice or quality observation through school-based experiences demands considering resources:

  • One aspect is who enables a school’s teachers to engage in supporting beginning teachers, such as watching their lessons and providing feedback.

  • Moreover, as it is about exposure to good practice, the most appropriate schools for teacher candidates to undertake grounded practice also need to be identified. This often demands a central oversight. It may also mean trying to expose teacher candidates to good practice in similar contexts to where they will eventually work as an independent teacher to support their transition.

  • There may also be some training needs for preparing those teachers who are supporting new colleagues. For instance, in how to best be observed and share the more tacit expertise of their decision-making. This is also a significant point in relation to mentoring and induction, as outlined below.

• Enabling impactful induction through sufficient resources: Mentoring and coaching need to be both enabled and recognised. Enabling may be providing the time for mentoring or coaching meetings to occur in the school day by freeing up time in teachers’ timetables. Recognising it may include providing opportunities to develop as a mentor or coach through specific professional learning, or it being a recognised feature of career progression. For instance, mentoring is far from being universally available for teachers. TALIS 2024 finds that, on average across OECD education systems, about one in four novice teachers (teachers with up to five years of teaching experience) have an assigned mentor (OECD, 2025[8]). This share of novice teachers with an assigned mentor increased in about one-third of education systems since the previous TALIS cycle (2018). However, considering the value of mentoring that has been documented in the research, there remains scope for further growth still. There is also substantial cross-county variations in the prevalence of mentoring programmes for novice teachers; for instance, in Shanghai (China) almost 79% of novice teachers report having an assigned mentor.

• Concentrating sufficient attention and resources on teacher educators: For some time, it seems the role of teacher educators has been ill-defined and not properly considered (OECD, 2019[11]). This is despite their important role in shaping the profession. After all, teacher educators serve as role models for their student teachers. Their approach to the classroom as well as their disposition (e.g. towards research) are significant. Indeed, the motivation and skills of teacher educators in ITE institutions are important for shaping what is imparted. For instance, some teacher educators may be primarily researchers who are obliged to engage in supporting teacher candidates, and this may shape their motivation for this function and its subsequent quality. Alternatively, it is rare that teacher educators get induction or support in their role, as well as bespoke capacity enhancing measures such as professional learning.

• Look outwards and build on others’ experiences: Many challenges in teacher professional learning are not unique to individual systems. There may be inspiration and lessons to be drawn from the example of other systems. In developing its Procedures for the Professional Accreditation of Programmes of ITE, the Teaching Council in Ireland undertook a range of consultations. One particularly valuable step was their dialogue with representatives from Ontario (Canada) and Scotland. These international case studies helped to inform their policymaking process.

Box 2.4. Key reflection questions for system leaders

To build the initial foundations of an effective and meaningful career, system leaders may reflect on the following:

Process for selecting candidates for the profession

• How can entry requirements to ITE and, in connection, certification, best drive quality standards forward?

• How do the pathways to the classroom foster quality as well as a diversity of candidates?

• What could be the role of incentives to further attract quality candidates?

• How can the overall selection process send positive signals about the teaching profession?

Nature of the preparation for the classroom and profession

• What blend of mechanisms and criteria could best promote quality provision of initial teacher education?

• How is information on the quality of provision used to support further learning and development among ITE providers?

• What could be the balance of quality control with supporting the need for innovation and flexibility?

• How can teachers be supported to develop a coherent, foundational body of theory and knowledge?

• How might teachers be supported to go beyond theory to develop their actual classroom practice through quality experiences?

• How can coherence across the content taught by teacher educators, as well as other actors like schools, be ensured?

• How can the knowledge base and content of ITE programmes be updated in tune with evolving research and evidence?

• How can teachers be supported early on to develop a critical, reflective stance towards their own practice to help its ongoing development?

• How might foundational research and inquiry skills be developed to support a teacher’s lifelong learning?

• How might a teacher’s self-concept and sense of purpose as part of the profession also be attended to in ITE?

Attending to the transition into the classroom and school

• How can resources and capacity-building be used to promote quality coaching and mentoring experiences?

• What can support all teachers to have access to quality induction supports?

• What structures could enable meaningful dialogue between ITE providers and schools to ensure that different needs are being appropriately met?

• How might induction contribute to wider learning in the school by introducing new ideas or questioning received wisdom for greater clarity?

Implementation considerations

• How might the capacity of teacher educators be supported and developed to increase their impact?

• How can the different roles of stakeholders in ITE be defined and coordinated?

• How might the voices of different stakeholders be heard and considered to foster buy-in?

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