Access to information on adult education and training (AET) is crucial for making lifelong learning accessible. This chapter explores the diverse landscape of non-formal AET, assessing how well information platforms and policies help adults navigate it from a human capability perspective. It reviews how effectively AET information supports lifelong learning by enabling informed choices, identifying relevant opportunities, and understanding the benefits of skills development. Examples from countries like Finland, France, Scotland (United Kingdom), and Singapore illustrate platforms linked to qualifications frameworks or subsidised funding. However, such platforms alone do not fully empower adults to navigate AET or appreciate lifelong learning's benefits. The chapter also discusses the importance of outreach and guidance for those uncertain about pursuing learning. It concludes with recommendations for integrated information services to make education opportunities equitably accessible.
Quality Matters
Abstract
This chapter examines the systems and approaches that support informed choices about adult education and training (AET). It mainly focuses on non-formal AET, whether this is job-related training intended to improve performance and productivity at work, or learning activities in pursuit of personal growth, such as improving life skills or social and cultural development (see Box 1.1 in Chapter 1 for definitions).
Quality assurance in adult education and training (AET) is crucial for ensuring that individuals can access relevant, effective, and equitable learning opportunities. Information systems are a key component of quality assurance as they provide the necessary tools for adults to make informed decisions about their education and training pathways. Without accurate and accessible information, the overall quality of AET is compromised, as individuals may not be able to choose the programmes that best suit their needs, leading to unequal outcomes and further entrenching existing disparities. Therefore, understanding how information systems can be leveraged to support quality assurance in AET is essential for policymakers aiming to create more inclusive and effective learning environments.
The topic of information systems is important because these systems form the entry point to lifelong learning among adults. They encompass the tools, platforms, and resources that provide adults with the information they need to identify, evaluate, and choose appropriate learning opportunities. For individuals with an aspiration to learn, these systems enable them to navigate the diverse range of available AET options and select the pathway that best fits their personal or professional goals. This is particularly critical given the current emphasis on demand-driven provision, self-directed learning, and learner agency in AET policies (Broek et al., 2023[1]). Current policies often call for individuals to take responsibility for, and show agency towards, their own learning (European Commission, 2021[2]; Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid and Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 2018[3]). Having access to information about learning opportunities is seen as a necessary condition for self-directed learning.
This chapter considers the availability of information as a necessary but not a sufficient condition for individuals to choose the appropriate training for them – or even to make a choice at all. Adults need other services besides the provision of information to encourage them to learn. In this sense, the starting point is not the perspective of potential adult learners who already know what they want and how to find and assess the available information about training courses. Instead, it is the perspective of adults who might not have an immediate desire to learn or who do not yet know how information systems might enable them to do so (Broek et al., 2023[1]). This is in line with the OECD Skills Strategy approach to developing relevant skills over the life course, looking at raising aspirations for lifelong learning, making it affordable and sustainable, visible, and rewarding, and accessible and relevant (OECD, 2019[4]).
In 2016, 11.6% of 25-65 year-old adults in the European Union (EU) (the 27 current EU countries plus the United Kingdom) were not participating in AET but wanted to. Almost half – 43.4% – were not participating and did not want to participate (Eurostat, 2023[5]). These statistics show that participating in AET is not a common practice among Europeans. The OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) in 2012 and 2015 found similar results for OECD countries (OECD, 2019[6]). Additional efforts are therefore needed not just to lower barriers to learning, but also to persuade adults of the benefits learning offers.
There are many reasons why adults may not want to participate in learning. Some of these are situational and structural barriers, such as time, lack of training on offer or financial constraints. Others are dispositional barriers, where adults have no interest in learning, or lack ideas about what they should learn. These latter barriers are among the most significant reasons why disadvantaged adults might not even considering learning (Pennacchia, Jones and Aldridge, 2018[7]; Roosmaa and Saar, 2017[8]). It is on these dispositional barriers that this chapter focuses: what is needed by way of the provision of information to help lower those barriers and put adults in a position where they might realistically desire learning and be able to make an informed decision about which training course would benefit them most.
The question is therefore not so much whether information is generally available, but whether adults have equal opportunity to make use of it. Starting from a human capability approach to the role of information in making informed decisions (Nussbaum, 2013[9]; Sen, 1993[10]), “support” will mean different things for adults in different situations. The human capability approach does not look at equality in terms of rights to access to specific services, but equality in terms of whether individuals have equal practical opportunities to access services, or even to want to access them.
To make this more concrete, a country might have a policy giving all adults equal rights to access learning programmes. Some might exercise this right because they understand the value of AET, have enough mental time and space to contemplate what value learning might bring to them, and know how to navigate the funding sources available. Other adults, in contrast, might not exercise it because – among other reasons – they might not see added value in further learning, perhaps due to negative experiences with school, have other more pressing issues to deal with (e.g. precarious housing, low income, poor health situations), or find it difficult to navigate funding possibilities. As a result, the equal right to AET results in an unequal outcome, bringing greater benefits to already advantaged adults and no benefits to more disadvantaged ones (often referred to as the Matthew effect of cumulative advantage and cumulative disadvantage (Boeren, 2009[11]; Boeren, 2017[12]; Marcaletti, Iñiguez Berrozpe and Koutra, 2018[13]).
Therefore, this chapter looks at whether and how information systems and accompanying measures are supporting all adults – not only those who are already in an advantageous position towards learning – to make an informed decision on education and training. It discusses approaches to supporting informed education and training choices, prioritising the inclusiveness of AET systems (OECD, 2019[6]). This means not simply considering approaches that make information available, but also approaches that actively inform specific groups of adults about learning opportunities with the aim of stimulating them to learn, even if this would not have been their first choice given their position or their general (negative) stance towards learning.
Information systems are therefore particularly relevant to the question of quality in AET. Quality in this context can refer to aspects of relevance, effectiveness, efficiency and sustainability of AET provision, but it also relates to its equity, meaning that it is accessible for all (Broek and Buiskool, 2013[14]; UNESCO UIL, 2010[15]). Information systems provide a step towards making quality AET provision accessible for all adults (OECD, 2021[16]).
This chapter is based on desk research into academic sources, policy papers and policy studies. Literature-based case studies were carried out into information platforms, using the descriptions available in academic literature and policy research, and information from online sources. This study does not provide a comparative mapping and analysis of practices in all OECD countries, but instead uses existing studies and descriptions of current practices. The chapter provides detailed recommendations, primarily focused on how governments and stakeholders should present information to the public about AET to better support adults in making informed decisions.
This chapter is divided into three sections. The first sets the scene and establishes the importance of information to the topic of quality in adult education and training. It also lists some conditional policy initiatives and developments at international level and national level. The next section presents different approaches to supporting adults in making informed decisions. It describes existing policies and also discusses recent developments and innovations. The final section draws the overarching conclusions and provides policy pointers for the future.
In a world of fast-moving developments and frequently changing professional practices, lifelong learning is increasingly regarded as a prerequisite for remaining engaged with society and the labour market. It is now widely accepted that all adults, no matter what their initial education pathway, are likely to face moments in their lives and careers that require them to learn new skills and competences (ILO, 2023[17]; OECD, 2019[4]). More and more countries, especially in Europe, but also more widely among OECD member countries, are reforming their lifelong learning or skills systems to better facilitate learning among adults (European Commission, 2024[18]).
Making lifelong learning systems, adult education and training systems or, more broadly, skills development systems better suited to supporting adults’ learning, involves a number of actions. These include making learning opportunities more widely available and the offer more transparent; offering flexible, and short learning programmes; supporting the development of learning cultures (in both companies/organisations and societies (e.g. learning cities); offering information, advice and guidance services to match individuals to learning programmes; and providing financial incentives to learn (Broek, Buiskool and Hake, 2010[19]; Broek and Buiskool, 2012[20]). Together, these actions are aimed at developing the ability for adults to reflect on their own learning needs in a self-directed way and take steps to start learning.
A number of trends and developments at both international and national level are particularly affecting the ability of adults to make informed decisions about whether AET is relevant to them and, if so, which programme would be appropriate. These shape the current and future role of information in making decisions, what information is needed to make informed decisions, and how this information should reach the target audience. This section briefly introduces these developments, to set the scene for the discussion in the next section about approaches to supporting adults in making informed education and training choices.
The diversifying landscape of adult education and training
The expansion of online learning opportunities creates the potential for confusion about learning providers, types of learning programmes, trust in the value of the qualifications, and arrangements for the quality assurance of providers and courses. This potential confusion makes it more difficult for adult learners to make informed decisions about what programme would be best for them. Up until 20-30 years ago, learning opportunities were mainly offered within a specific local context, usually municipal. A region or city would have their key learning institutions – formal education and training institutions, or liberal adult education institutions – that would have a near monopoly on the learning opportunities that were available to the public, as opposed to those offered by employers to their employees. There were exceptions, including distance learning opportunities provided by post, such as the Open Universities in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Finland; the Fernuniversität Hagen in Germany; and community college extensions in the United States (McIsaac and Gunawardena, 2001[21]).
With the emergence of the Internet and the continuing digitalisation, further strengthened by the COVID‑19 pandemic, learning increasingly takes place in online environments and it is significantly less bound to specific localities (OECD, 2020[22]). This has hugely affected the form and delivery of AET making it more flexibly available, and also allowed new education and training providers to emerge, such as the educational technology (Ed-Tech) companies offering massive open online courses (MOOCs) or other options to adults (McKinsey, 2022[23]). The diversification of the learning on offer increases the need for systems to enable adults to navigate the vast amount of information and to choose the course that meets their needs in terms of quality, accessibility, relevance, effectiveness, and efficiency (against reasonable costs), and which will lead to the outcomes they expect.
A focus on skills over formal qualifications
Adults face a dual challenge in making informed decisions about their educational journeys: a lack of reliable proxies for an individual’s abilities and the proliferation of training options, both of which make it hard to determine the most relevant next step. Traditionally, a person’s initial formal qualifications have served as a stand-in for their overall skill set. However, the fast-paced changes in the labour market, technological advancements, evolving work methodologies and longer working lives necessitate continual learning and upskilling (Cedefop, 2012[24]; OECD, 2019[25]). Initial qualifications may have become outdated, although they may still form the base for further professional development, allowing individuals to remain relevant and competitive in the labour market. Furthermore, the emphasis on initial qualifications neglects the reality that individuals continuously acquire new skills through additional training or learning on the job. The expansive array of training opportunities further complicates decision making. There are now a multitude of shorter courses, often referred to as micro-credentials or nano-credentials. These offerings, while providing flexibility, pose a dilemma by challenging the conventional pathways of educational progression.
Addressing these challenges requires a shift in societal and labour-market perceptions. Recognition of learning acquired after initial education becomes imperative, and mechanisms such as the accreditation of prior learning must be implemented. There is also a growing need to make the value of non-formal qualifications and shorter courses more transparent and trustworthy. This involves acknowledging the “currency” of these credentials (Cedefop, 2012[26]), ensuring they are seen as reliable indicators of an individual's skills. Current discussions highlight the importance of balancing the flexibility of having a plethora of shorter training courses with maintaining the quality and trustworthiness of the certificates and diplomas awarded (European Commission, 2021[27]; OECD, 2021[28]). Countries around the world are seeking to reach this balance, which involves tackling the evaluation of these shorter courses and determining how to assess the value of prior experience and previously acquired competences. Ultimately, the evolving AET landscape demands more flexible and tailored provision, abandoning the traditional clarity of educational progression routes. In this context, making informed decisions about the relevance of a specific course or programme becomes an increasingly complicated task for individuals.
An increased emphasis on self-directedness
Adults’ self-resilience and self-directedness in learning are increasingly taken as the underlying principle of AET policies (European Commission, 2021[2]; Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid and Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap, 2018[3]). In other words, these policies start from the assumption that adults are in a position to take responsibility for their own learning pathways. Many policies assume adults have a certain level of individual autonomy and responsibility when making choices about their life decisions. This also implies that individuals who do not make the right choices (for instance to start learning, or adopt a healthy lifestyle) are accountable for their decisions and should bear the consequences. In the literature, however, individual autonomy and responsibility in relation to learning is considered a condition for learning, or key characteristic of the adult learner (Knowles, 1984[29]), and also an outcome of AET, in terms of being empowered (Freire, 2000[30]).
Policies which have individual autonomy and responsibility as an underlying principle can be assessed on whether they contribute to securing the social right of AET for all or whether they exclude people who have limited ability to take agency. Policies can aim to increase individuals’ autonomy and responsibility by providing financial support (for instance through vouchers or individual learning accounts), offering guidance, and making information about the training on offer readily available. Hence, an increased emphasis on individual autonomy and responsibility also means paying increased attention to whether adults are in a position to see the courses available and make well-informed decisions about them.
The role of qualifications frameworks
One condition which enables individuals to make informed decisions about learning opportunities is for different learning opportunities to be comparable and that their “currency” – the value they add to someone’s career or life progression – is clear (Coles and Oates, 2005[31]; Cedefop, 2021[32]). This idea has been the basis for the development of qualification frameworks. These frameworks may be developed at national level, for instance by Australia, Singapore and South Africa and various EU member states, and also at the regional level (such as the European Qualifications Framework, Asian National Qualifications Reference Framework and the African Continental Qualifications Framework) (Cedefop, ETF, UNESCO and UNESCO UIL, 2019[33]). By describing qualifications in terms of learning outcomes, all these frameworks aim to support transparency and comparability and, eventually, to enable recognition of qualifications between education and economic sectors, and between countries, supporting the mobility of learners and workers. Although the development and implementation of national qualification frameworks have been primarily focused on formal qualifications, the inclusion of non-formal qualifications is also envisaged (European Parliament and Council of EU, 2017[34]).
Initiatives are also being taken at the global level to compare qualifications from different parts of the world. This might be through accepting linkages between qualifications frameworks, for instance between the European Qualifications Framework and Singapore or Australia (European Commission and Australian Government, 2016[35]), or by building a meta framework allowing qualification levels in different frameworks to be compared, such as the World Reference Levels (Cedefop, ETF, UNESCO and UNESCO UIL, 2019[33]).
These initiatives will not immediately help adult learners in making informed decisions, and nor were they consciously designed to do so. However, the experience of countries with more mature qualification frameworks is that offering clarity at least about the levels of performance of qualifications does contribute to adults’ understanding of the value of qualifications and the role they play in the labour market. For instance, in Scotland, where a large share of sectoral qualifications and certifications are included in the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework (SCQF), its levels are used in job vacancies to clarify the level of skills being sought. Similarly, in Ireland, the qualifications framework is widely perceived to have had – and still be having – a major influence on the transparency, comparability, and portability of qualifications in the country (Indecon, 2017[36]). In the Netherlands, the Dutch Qualifications Framework is increasingly becoming the foundation of the AET market, offering clarify on the level and value of qualifications offered and potentially reducing the use of vague and ambiguous level indications (European Commission: Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, 2024[37]).
The developments discussed above set the scene for the question of how to support and activate adults as they navigate the education and training landscape. These developments mean that the offer has become less transparent in recent decades: the diversification of AET on offer raises the question of whether it is possible to make the “training market” fully transparent at all. The reduced relevance of qualifications as proxies for a person’s capacities also raises questions about how to evaluate very disparate courses in an individual situation: what would be most relevant for a specific person is more and more dependent on the specific context that person is in. Yet the policy focus on individual autonomy and responsibility increases the need for transparency in the learning offer in order for individuals to exercise agency over their learning. Finally, the quest for transparency implies that AET offers should be mapped against some key pieces of information. Whether this is possible for all courses may be questioned, bearing in mind the trends discussed above.
This section aims to delve deeper into the question of how adults can be supported in making informed education and training choices. It uses the following guiding questions to explore the landscape of information platforms and accompanying policies.
1. What is the role of information in supporting adults in making informed decisions?
2. To what extent do these systems support all adults? Are there specific groups that remain unsupported?
3. To what extent does the provision of information increase the “agency” of adult learners and what innovative systems are in place to support individual agency?
4. What are the success factors for policies that support adults in making informed decisions?
This section considers the available statistics on information provision to adults, followed by an examination of existing policies and approaches, and then highlights recent developments and innovations. The conclusions and policy recommendations section will formulate answers to the four guiding questions above, and provide recommendations for future work in this area.
Statistics on the provision of information about adult education and training
There are no global-level statistics available on how adults search for AET opportunities. There are regional level data, however, for instance for Europe. The European Adult Education Survey in 2016 measured the extent to which adults searched for learning opportunities. Figure 3.1 provides an overview of the share of adults who had searched for information, broken down by whether they were looking for formal or non-formal courses and by educational attainment level. Only one in five adults had searched for information on learning possibilities, while for less well-educated adults the figure was as low as one in ten. Among those who had searched for opportunities, 61% consulted the Internet, 30% employers, and 25% education or training institutions. Relatives, mass media, career guidance and books were less common sources of information. Broken down by country level, the northern European countries perform the best, with 46% of adults seeking information on learning opportunities in Denmark, 42% in Finland, 40% in the Netherlands and 39% in Sweden. These countries are also among those with the highest AET participation rates, as measured by the Adult Education Survey in 2016 (Eurostat, 2023[38]) and also by the Labour Force Survey in 2022 (Eurostat, 2023[39]).
% 25-64 year-olds, EU27+UK, 2016
Source: Eurostat (2023[40]), Search for information on learning possibilities by type of learning and educational attainment level [TRNG_AES_184], https://doi.org/10.2908/TRNG_AES_184; Eurostat (2023[41]), Distribution of sources to look for information on learning possibilities [TRNG_AES_187] https://doi.org/10.2908/TRNG_AES_187.
As these statistics show, online information, employers, and education and training providers are the main source of information. The latter two would be able to provide information about what education and training programmes are on offer in their economic sector or institute, while employers could also indicate what courses might be relevant for their employees and their career development. Meanwhile, online searches might take different forms. Adults can go directly to an information platform that includes different courses and allows them to compare courses, or they can just use a search engine and look at the first hits. In the first instance, they would enter a supervised platform in which the courses and programmes included have been subject to some form of quality assurance and validation, allowing an informed decision. In the latter instance, the results will reflect the training providers’ marketing efforts, so prospective adult learners might not get the information they need to compare the different courses and be able to make the best choice.
Existing policies and approaches to information provision
This section covers different approaches to providing information through online platforms, and their limitations, and then considers the use of outreach and guidance to help adults make informed decisions about AET. The platforms in question are those with a database containing validated information (in whatever form) about courses, as opposed to the use of general Internet search engines such as Google. There are a wide variety of such platforms. Some cover all formal qualifications, including those accessible to adults; some provide catalogues of courses within specific economic sectors; and some aim to also include non-formal courses for adults. The examples include platforms from Denmark, Finland, France, the Netherlands, Scotland, and Singapore. They represent the more comprehensive initiatives aiming to map the majority of AET courses, rather than the more fragmented and compartmentalised systems on offer in countries such as Germany, Ireland, and Sweden. They can be categorised into i) platforms linked to funding eligibility; ii) platforms primarily linked to offering transparency in the context of qualifications frameworks; and iii) platforms restricted to a specific economic sector.
Information platforms linked to funding eligibility
Whatever the type of information platform, training providers often have an incentive to include their courses or programmes in the underlying database. This incentive might relate to market exposure, but is usually to do with being eligible for public or private funding. The costs of attending the courses listed on these platforms will be covered or partly covered by a third organisation, usually the government or intermediary organisation like a training fund. These information platforms are therefore often linked to supporting demand-side funding instruments, such as vouchers, individual learning accounts or tax incentives for companies or individuals (Cedefop, 2020[42]). Box 3.1 gives examples of such platforms from France, Korea, and the Netherlands.
In France, the established course platform is linked to the wider policy to stimulate AET take up through the introduction of the individual learning account (Compte Personnel de Formation, CPF). The CPF system grants individuals the ability to acquire training entitlements which they can use throughout their careers. Introduced in 2015, the CPF ensures that every individual entering the workforce possesses the right to training, regardless of their employment status or job type. This feature makes it a valuable tool for working-age adults navigating forthcoming employment transformations, such as those linked to eco-friendly and digital shifts. The core of this system revolves around individual autonomy. Under this scheme, individuals are entitled to receive an annual allocation ranging from EUR 500 to EUR 800, with disabled individuals and those with limited skills eligible for an upper limit of EUR 5 000-8 000. Funding for the CPF is facilitated through automatic deductions directly from an employee's salary, facilitated by their employer. Public entities such as public employment services and regional authorities, along with companies, can also contribute supplementary funds to bolster individual CPF accounts.
The successful execution of the CPF relies significantly on the comprehensive digital platform called Mon Compte Formation (French Government, n.d.[43]). This platform was developed to provide information about courses that are eligible for the CPF. It offers a convenient way for individuals to verify their entitlements, connect with career advisors, explore available training opportunities, secure extra financial support, make payments for training programmes and ultimately obtain their certifications. The underlying course database covers courses offered by public and private providers. The organisation responsible, France Compétences, has developed quality conditions which providers need to meet to be included in the database. Training providers also need to offer guidance to support adult learners in making their choice (Perez and Vourc’h, 2020[44]).
Over the years, the system has identified and resolved quality concerns as it was rolled out. For example, the platform recently raised the quality standards for training courses to be included. This change led to a 50% reduction in courses on offer, while overall participation remained unaffected. Another example was the imposition of supplementary regulations on the promotion of training programmes, intended to curb aggressive marketing practices and instances of fraud (European Commission, 2024[45]).
Since 2015, 20 million individual training accounts have been activated, representing approximately half of the working population in France (aged 15 to 64). Over the past three years, the number of training courses covered by the CPF has increased fourfold, with the number of participants rising from 489 000 in 2019 to 1 million in 2020, and further to 2.1 million in 2021. Currently, the CPF provides access to a diverse range of 219 036 distinct training courses, facilitated by 16 020 training providers. Sectors heavily impacted by COVID-19 lockdowns, such as accommodation and catering, have shown the highest levels of use. The most sought-after courses are in transportation, modern languages, social integration, and information and communications technology, as well as security training (European Commission, 2024[45]).
Operating in the Korea since 2003, the HRD-net is another example of an online database of AET opportunities. The website offers tailored information on training institutes, subsidised training courses and other topics for both individuals and businesses. The information offered covers the duration of courses and associated costs as well as information on the training quality (OECD, n.d.[46]). The website also offers diagnostic consultations for adult learners (Government of the Republic of Korea, 2024[47]). The list of courses is constantly updated, and online course registration can take place through the portal. Since its launch, the portal has achieved an accumulated number of 12 504 000 users (1 764 000 new subscribers in 2020), and an accumulated number of 8 422 000 vocational training courses (643 000 new courses in 2020). In 2020, the portal’s average daily number of visitors was 429 000.
Information platforms primarily aimed at increasing transparency
As well as those directly linked to funding opportunities, information platforms are also being developed to better structure the education and training market, make the overall offer more transparent, and promote trust in the resulting qualifications and certificates offered, regardless of the source of funding. There are plenty of examples of platforms linked to the development of national qualifications frameworks (Cedefop, ETF, UNESCO and UNESCO UIL, 2019[33]). Some of the more interesting ones do not just cover formal qualifications, but also populate their frameworks with non-formal qualifications to provide all-encompassing overviews. Two examples are the Scottish SCQF and Singapore’s Workforce Skills Qualification Framework and related SkillsFuture initiative (Box 3.2).
The Singapore initiative MySkillsFuture (Singapore Government, n.d.[48]) is similar to the French platform described in Box 3.1, in that it provides a one-stop shop for individuals to enhance their skills throughout their lifelong learning path, access their SkillsFuture Credit, gain insights into the currently most sought-after skills, and explore over 20 000 courses in the Course Directory that are eligible for SkillsFuture Credit. Skills development is considered essential for Singapore’s future competitiveness and the SkillsFuture initiative was launched in 2014 to serve this goal. It is designed to help individuals to make well-informed choices in education, training and careers; develop an integrated, high-quality system of education and training that responds to constantly evolving industry needs; promote employer recognition and career development based on skills and mastery; and to foster a culture that supports and celebrates lifelong learning (OECD/ILO, 2017[49]).
Users can search for courses by selecting an occupational field and then filtering the results by rating, language, training provider, duration, time commitment (part-time/full-time) and minimal qualification level. The MySkillsFuture course database is tightly integrated with the Singapore Workforce Skills Qualification (WSQ) Framework, creating a comprehensive structure for the enhancement and development of skills. The WSQ Framework functions as a national system for validating individuals’ competences and skills across diverse industries and occupations.
The integration of MySkillsFuture with the WSQ Framework is established through:
Course alignment: Courses featured in the MySkillsFuture database are aligned with the WSQ Framework. This alignment ensures that the offered courses correspond to the competences and skills acknowledged and prized by employers and industries within the WSQ framework.
SkillsFuture Credit eligibility: Courses present on MySkillsFuture that are in line with the WSQ Framework often qualify for SkillsFuture Credit. Individuals can use their SkillsFuture Credit to offset the expenses associated with WSQ-aligned courses, thereby opening more accessible avenues for skill improvement.
Skills mapping: MySkillsFuture’s platform informs users of the specific competences and skills they will acquire upon completing each course. This information is cross-referenced with the WSQ Framework, enabling learners to understand the industry relevance of the skills they are attaining.
Career progression: MySkillsFuture actively encourages individuals to explore career pathways and identify the skills needed for career advancement. By referencing the WSQ Framework, users gain a comprehensive grasp of how the skills they would acquire would fit into the broader spectrum of professional growth and career advancement in their chosen sectors.
Industry relevance: The WSQ Framework is designed in consultation with industry specialists, ensuring that the developed skills are aligned with both present and future job market demands. This industry relevance is manifest in the courses highlighted on MySkillsFuture, all of which are seamlessly integrated with the WSQ Framework (Singapore Government, n.d.[50]).
In Scotland, the Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework (SCQF) aims to support individuals in various age groups and situations to gain access to education and training suitable for their particular needs. To this end, it defines qualification levels, and has assigned levels to a large share of qualifications and certifications. The SCQF Database of qualifications and related AET programmes includes more than 10 000 courses (SCQF, n.d.[51]). The database allows users to filter by interest field, title or key word and owner of the qualification/ programme.
Another initiative is the Finnish Studyinfo platform (Studyinfo, n.d.[52]), providing an overview of all degree and non-degree courses. In total, the database includes more than 5 600 courses. This one-stop shop also allows users to apply for courses and to track those they have completed. Courses can be filtered by topic, language, timing of courses, location, prior education, and admission procedures. This platform is further embedded in the Service Centre for Continuous Learning and Employment, offering information, advice, and guidance. The centre fosters the enhancement of competences among individuals of working age and ensures the availability of a skilled workforce. The centre assesses competence requirements and labour-market demands; funds educational and training initiatives aimed at working-age individuals; shapes information, counselling, and guidance services; and supports regional co-operation (SECLE, n.d.[53]).
In the United States, the National Literacy Directory, supported with private funding, has provided a searchable national database of education and training programmes for low-skilled adults since 2010. As starting point for searches, the platform offers a selection of final outcomes such as “I want to read and write better” or “I want to help my children learn” (National Literacy Directory, 2024[54]; OECD, n.d.[55]). The directory also offers personal guidance through a phone call.
Denmark has taken a similar approach to the Finnish Studyinfo example, combining information from previously separate platforms in 2018 (Voksenuddannelse.dk, n.d.[56]). In both the Finnish and Danish examples, the platforms do not provide a direct link to funding arrangements, but this is due to the fact that AET is generally free of charge.
Information platforms linked to economic sectors
Platforms for workers in specific economic sectors, or those organised by social partners and the related (sectoral) training funds are less visible than those in the other two categories discussed above. These platforms have more restricted access, aimed at those working in a specific sector. They are often also linked to specific labour conditions, such as training rights and educational leave arrangements included in collective labour agreements, or where obtaining a specific qualification result in higher wages. Examples can be found in many countries, where sectoral organisations maintain training catalogues and develop sectoral skills and qualifications frameworks. One interesting example of a digital approach to providing information about AET courses and easing the application and reimbursement process are the competence funds overseen by PensionDenmark (Box 3.3).
Starting from 2008, competence funds have emerged as a product of negotiated collective agreements. These funds offer supplementary financial support to companies when their employees engage in adult education and training programmes. PensionDenmark oversees 20 competence funds within the private sector job market, covering a total 250 000 employees in 14 000 companies. These funds have take steps to establish digital platforms, compile comprehensive online catalogues of training options, and offer personalised digital accounts for both individuals and companies. These efforts have led to better outcomes compared to more conventionally operated competence funds (European Commission, 2024[45]).
Limitations of information platforms in supporting informed choices
The three categories of information platforms discussed above are all trying to build trust by only incorporating training courses that are subject to some form of quality assurance. These underlying quality assurance mechanisms may relate to either which training providers are allowed to publish their training programmes or qualifications on the platform (institutional quality assurance) or, more directly, to the quality of the training programmes and qualifications (programme quality assurance). Quality assurance systems for AET differ widely across countries, and across sub-sectors of the AET systems (OECD, 2019[57]; OECD, 2021[16]). Transparency and trust in the quality of what is on offer should provide an environment in which adults can select the most suitable and relevant training programme.
The interfaces of the information platforms discussed above have a number of common features which mean that some adults will need additional support in order to use them to make informed decisions. First, they tend to use similar filtering questions to allow adult learners to find the relevant course information. These filtering options include the field of study, level of study, duration, location and whether courses lead to a formal qualification.
Second, although these platforms are related to AET opportunities, they often describe course levels in terms that are associated with initial formal education systems, such as secondary education, higher education or vocational education and training (VET). It could be argued that it would be better to use alternative terminology, making reference to a qualification framework if one is available, as AET programmes are not always the same as initial education programmes, even if they might be at a similar level (Cedefop, 2022[58]).
Third, it is noticeable that the filtering options tend to require users to already have a good idea of what they want to learn. Potential learners have to understand the implicit logic behind the options and the consequences of selecting one and how that might lead to what they have in mind when looking for a learning opportunity. Many adults are not in this position and have no reference point to make decisions on the various options they encounter. What these platforms often fail to do is give an idea of the final outcome, or use, of a given education and training programme, although the US National Literacy Directory does provide a positive example of this approach (National Literacy Directory, 2024[54]). The users’ final goal is not to enrol in a training programme, but to be able to learn and do something new, progress in their career or seek alternative careers. This final outcome is not included as filtering option in any of the information platforms.
As argued in the introduction, it is not enough only to focus on passively making information on training opportunities available to all as this requires individuals to already have a sense of agency – or self-directedness – in relation to learning. Self-directedness involves someone having an aspiration to learn; having an idea of what they want to learn; and having the ability to access, assess and validate the information before making a decision (Broek et al., 2023[1]). Not all adults would feel the need to consider training in the first place, can access these (online) platforms alone or can navigate the amount of information provided, hampering the ability of information systems to support them in making informed decisions. This rest of this section therefore considers national approaches to two support mechanisms that help specific groups of adults use the information available: outreach strategies and the provision of guidance.
Use of outreach to support inclusion
To train adults, first you need to reach them. Reaching disengaged adults and making them aware of how they could benefit from AET is an important first step towards enabling them to use information platforms. This first step is often referred to as outreach, and is an important condition for supporting the inclusiveness of AET systems. Outreach can be defined as “an effort to bring services or information to people where they live or spend time” (Cambridge Dictionary, 2023[59]). The objective is to tailor any service provision to make it available and accessible to specific target groups by listening and responding to their needs. Outreach can lead to informed decisions in so far as it uses the right messages, language and approach to enable adults to choose a training course in the first place. Adults who have become disengaged from education and training can require substantial outreach efforts to convince them that learning will be beneficial for them. Hence it is especially important that outreach activities make people aware of the benefits of AET. Outreach efforts can also prioritise groups facing multifaceted exclusion due to factors such as poverty, illiteracy, migration and addiction.
Outreach means essentially meeting the target groups on their terms, in their environments and engaging with them on an equal footing to hear from them what they need. It should not be confused with simply communicating the training available and hoping the target group will enter the door of the training provider. Outreach activities, especially aimed at disadvantaged adults, mean going to places where those adults are, building a relationship with them, assisting them and exposing them to the opportunities that are relevant to them. This includes both physical and online spaces. The COVID-19 pandemic has shown that online environments can be as much a trusted meeting space as physical spaces (EAEA, 2020[60]). And just as spaces can differ, so too can the actors doing the reaching out.
Outreach involves a wide range of institutions, often at the local level (Atchoarena and Howells, 2021[61]). It can be conducted by providers (further differentiating between formal providers such as VET colleges and universities, and non-formal providers, such as community centres or libraries but also EdTech companies); employers (stimulating their employees to get involved in training); and policy makers and civil society (reaching out to vulnerable adults more generally). Partnership approaches play an important role in effective outreach approaches, supporting co-operation between different educational institutions, governments, welfare organisations and healthcare institutions. Such approaches can help sensitise professionals working in those institutions to enable them to recognise when someone would benefit from AET and would need support (Yang, 2012[62]). This involves breaking down institutional barriers to participation, particularly among youth who have dropped out from education, low-skilled workers, unemployed individuals, job-seekers and older workers. Successful strategies often involve collaborations between AET providers, employment agencies and social service organisations to reintegrate these individuals into the labour market (Broek, Buiskool and Hake, 2010[19]).
Examples of outreach initiatives can be found in many countries, in a variety of forms. They often involve local level initiatives and partnerships between education and training providers and organisations that operate close to the targeted adults. For instance, in Slovenia, study circles bring together groups of adults to learn in a collaborative and experiential manner and mobilise specific expertise through partnerships with organisations working in finance, health, environment and culture (ACS, 2023[63]). A more national example can be found in Ireland where a joint framework for collaboration has been developed for community education, emphasising the need for partnerships to reach adult learners (AONTAS, 2021[64]). In Japan the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare organises a Human Resources Development Promotion Month, during which events involving national and local governments and employers are held to promote various measures related to human resource development (OECD, n.d.[65]). There are also many online learning initiatives that try to reach out to adults with online offerings (European Commission, 2024[18]).
In operational terms, outreach strategies range from the use of learning ambassadors or role models from the target group, connecting with parents through schools and reaching out to risk groups via healthcare services and welfare agencies, aiding financially challenged individuals and households with financial literacy education, and collaborating with voluntary organisations. Outreach efforts extend to public information campaigns, such as adult learners’ weeks and literacy campaigns, as well as tailored media content, such as Open University advertisements during sports broadcasts. Some outreach initiatives have also explored digital avenues, using social networks to enhance accessibility among targeted groups (Broek, Buiskool and Hake, 2010[19]).
Use of guidance to support informed decisions
Once adults have engaged with the idea of learning, through outreach, the next step is to support them in articulating what they could gain from AET and which learning pathways would help them to progress, whether in life (European Commission, 2020[66]), or in their careers (OECD, 2022[67]). This support can be provided through guidance and counselling.
Career guidance, according to the consensus among various global organisations such as the OECD, UNESCO and CEDEFOP, encompasses the range of services designed to help individuals of all ages to navigate their career paths and make informed decisions about their educational, training, and occupational pursuits. It supports individuals as they contemplate their aspirations, interests, qualifications, competences, and talents, facilitating the connection of self-awareness with their potential roles in both personal and professional life (WGCG, 2021[68]). Guidance services help adults to navigate the options available and to overcome specific barriers to joining a training course. Adults also need guidance to uncover their learning needs, increase their motivation and urgency to learn, and make them aware of how learning could benefit them. In a changing world, where adults – especially those in vulnerable situations – face increasing uncertainty, guidance is considered essential to increasing resilience and supporting skills development (OECD, 2021[69]). Combined with outreach, therefore, guidance plays a crucial role in encouraging adults to learn and inform them about the relevant learning opportunities that would improve their situation.
Guidance services can be organised in different forms and through different means. The forms include activities such as careers information, advice, counselling, skills assessment, and mentoring (Cedefop, 2009[70]). An OECD study of six countries (Chile, France, Germany, Italy, New Zealand, and the United States) found that the most important providers of guidance were the countries’ public employment services and private providers, followed by AET institutions and employers (OECD, 2021[69]). Guidance can be provided both in person and online. The OECD study found that face-to-face guidance was most common, but that online career guidance portals are becoming an increasingly important source of information on labour-market changes in many OECD countries (OECD, 2021[69]). However, they do not always lead to better employment outcomes than face-to-face guidance (OECD, 2021[69]). Whatever its form, guidance should ideally give adults a sense of direction about which AET opportunities could best help them to realise their ambitions whether at work or in their personal lives.
Studies suggest that the effectiveness of guidance systems can be increased by establishing partnership approaches, tailoring guidance provision to specific needs, providing guidance through multiple channels and prioritising online guidance portals, investing in quality services and professional staff, and reducing the fragmentation of systems to offer a seamless delivery of services (Cedefop, 2021[71]; OECD, 2021[69]).
Integrated approaches to information provision, guidance and outreach
As the preceding section has shown, a combination of information platforms and additional support services providing outreach and guidance are needed to enable all adults, including those who do not (yet) see learning as a valuable activity, to make informed decisions about what programme might be relevant for them. Integrating these three services together could offer significant benefits. For example, Integration can enhance cost-effectiveness and efficiency by enabling collaborating entities to share knowledge, expertise and resources, while also fostering capacity building and innovation. Efforts to build effective integrated systems should incorporate well-structured financial or administrative incentives to promote co-operation. Integration reforms should also ensure performance indicators recognise collaborative efforts, thereby eliminating counterproductive competition among service units (European Commission and Budapest Institute, 2014[72]).
Policy attempts have been made at the European level to stimulate the development of more integrated AET services. For instance the Upskilling Pathways initiative from 2016 (European Council, 2016[73]) invited EU member states to offer personalised support to adults with lower skill levels via an integrated pathway consisting of three steps: i) skills assessment; ii) provision of tailored and flexible learning opportunities; and iii) validation and recognition, complemented by outreach, guidance and support measures. Similarly, focusing on empowering disengaged adult learners, the European Member States’ working group on adult learning developed an overview of the different aspects that needed attention when supporting adults throughout their learning journey (Figure 3.2). As the figure shows, an integrated approach should combine outreach, guidance, and transparency in the offer. These aspects are further supported by quality assurance mechanisms and by financial arrangements that incentivise adults to learn.
Source: European Commission (2020[66]), Empowering Adults to Undertake Up-/re-skilling: Pointers for Better Policies, https://epale.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/empowering_adults_policy_pointers_final.pdf.
The examples of information platforms discussed in the previous section vary in terms of how integrated an approach they represent, with the French (Box 3.1) and Finnish (Box 3.2) examples seeming to show the greatest degree of integration. Some of the platforms act solely as standalone information platforms without substantial linkages to other services. For instance, the Dutch platform is an example of this approach (Box 3.1). It really only provides information about learning opportunities although it also allows users to see whether there are opportunities for financial support for a selected programme. The platform assumes that individuals will opt to use the platform on their own initiative and find the relevant course without help. The Singapore and Scottish platforms are similar in this sense (Box 3.2).
Other national platforms provide stronger integration with guidance services to help users find the right training offer and financial instruments to fund the learning. For instance, the French system provides users with direct insight into the funding available to them (added to their account by the government, employers and others), and allows them to connect with a counsellor to discuss career development and training options, search for relevant training courses, and enrol in the course directly. Outreach is less emphasised, but individuals will be attracted by the fact that there is funding available in their individual training account, and that the system is relatively easy to navigate. The US example also allows users to contact a counsellor for support in finding a suitable course (Box 3.2). In Finland, the institutional framework means AET information provision, guidance and delivery are fully integrated into a single training provider at municipal level. This allows the provision of services (guidance and information provision) to be organised close to the citizens. However, even here, the outreach dimension receives less emphasis.
Main findings
This chapter explored systems and approaches that support adults in making informed education and training choices. In particular, it considered to what degree information systems and accompanying measures support all adults, not just those who are already in an advantaged position towards making an informed decision about AET. The chapter also looked at approaches that actively inform specific groups of adults about learning opportunities with the aim of stimulating them to learn. Based on these discussions and reflections on existing practices, the four guiding questions asked at the start of this chapter can be answered; the first three as conclusions and the fourth in the policy recommendations that follow.
1. Optimising information delivery helps adults to make informed decisions, but the interfaces of the existing information platforms do not always deliver the most relevant information.
Information platforms play an important role in supporting adults in making informed decisions. However, they only help the adults with the skills and motivation to access them. They do not support those potential learners who might have difficulty accessing them or who are not aware they exist; nor do they help adults who do not consider learning to be a valuable and relevant option for them, or who do not know what to learn. Hence, information platforms do not necessarily help to broaden the base of potential adult learners.
Furthermore, aiming for transparency by providing all the information available does not always support informed decision making if users cannot digest, sort and use the information to decide what is relevant. Too much information can even hold people back from making decisions. Individuals need to receive the right amount of information at the right time to make use of it. The existing information platform interfaces often rely on input-oriented information, such as course duration, hours of study, location and the type of qualification (often related to initial education qualification levels, and not described in terms that work for adults, or that work in the labour market). In contrast, adult learners might be more interested in outcome-oriented information: what they can do with the learning once they have completed a course.
2. For many adults, engaging in learning is not a first choice and may even be seen as a risk. Outreach and guidance are especially important for these adults, and hence for widening inclusion.
Combining services can create conducive environments that support a wider group of adults than just those adults who already have a positive disposition towards learning and know what education and training programme they need. Outreach and guidance is important if services are also to engage with adults at distance from education and training and convince them that the pros outweigh the cons (Kantar Public and Learning and Work Institute, 2018[74]). It needs to be emphasised that for many disadvantaged adults, engaging in learning can be seen as taking a risk: it forces them to step out of their comfort zone; they need to invest time and money in it; they might have to reorganise themselves, their work, or their caring responsibilities; and, above all, they will be exposing themselves to potential failure, which might remind them of earlier negative experiences with school.
3. Making information available is not enough to create self-directed learners; integrated services, combining information provision, outreach, guidance and other services, are needed to support all adults to make informed decisions.
There is an increasing focus on an integrative approach to services in both policy making and international research supporting policy development. Cedefop is currently conducting a study into individual learning accounts (ILAs) and the potential for integrated support policies and systems for continuing VET and AET. This looks specifically at how integrating financial instruments, validating prior learning and guidance services could better support adults. OECD work to support the development of skills strategies focuses on improving the governance of skills systems and avoiding fragmented approaches in countries (OECD, 2020[75]). However, all these approaches somewhat undervalue the role of outreach in making systems work for all adults; more attention could be paid to developing AET systems that are inclusive and support all adults to engage in learning. Further integration of services, including outreach and guidance, is needed for developing individual agency. The examples from France and Finland – as well as the Netherlands and Singapore to some extent – show how such integration can support individual agency even for those adults who are more difficult to engage in learning.
Policy recommendations
To better support adults in making informed decisions about their education and training pathways, the following recommendations are proposed. These focus on how governments and other key stakeholders should improve the presentation and accessibility of information on adult education and training (AET) opportunities to the public.
Recommendation 1: Make all information on adult education and training opportunities available in a single simple to use platform.
Information on education and training opportunities for adults need to be made available in a user-friendly platform that allows them to see all the relevant opportunities in one place. Platforms need to strive to present a complete training offer, covering both formal qualifications and also non-formal qualifications and shorter courses, potentially linking all the qualifications to a qualifications framework. This also means developing a single quality assurance mechanism that applies to the whole sector, or at least a large part of it, entailing a more systematic approach towards the AET system.
Recommendation 2: Present information about education and training opportunities in terms of their outcomes or final use.
The information platforms need to include filtering options such as field of study, duration, formal/non-formal qualification, location, but should also provide information about the final outcome, or use, of the AET programme. This might include information on what graduates can do with the qualification (which jobs might be available or what learning programmes might be accessible) and even information on what previous graduates have done after completing the programme.1 Information about final outcomes can help adults who have an idea what they want to achieve but not which training programme might help them with this (see Chapter 4 for more details). A focus on programme results and impact can help build trust in provision, not just in terms of the quality of the provider and the training programme, but that the programme really could support those wanting to take the next step in life or in their career (OECD, 2019[6]).
Recommendation 3: Take an integrated and holistic approach to providing information, combining complete course catalogues with outreach and guidance.
Information systems need to take a holistic approach, particularly towards finding ways to reach out to disadvantaged adults so that the developed systems also work for them. This will help translate opportunities that are equal in principle into genuinely equal opportunities to engage in AET. Prior guidance can be essential to clarifying training needs and helping adults select the most relevant course for them to engage in.
Recommendation 4: Build information provision around the perspective of the end-users, rather than that of education and training providers.
Information provision should be seen from the perspective of end-users, which refers to individual learners but also employers and wider society, instead of the perspective of AET providers. Rather than focusing on creating a competitive AET market, the emphasis should be on a well co-ordinated, and comprehensive landscape of relevant and accessible (including flexible, short and modular) training programmes.
Recommendation 5: Build partnership approaches that allow seamless provision of outreach, guidance and information.
Departing from understanding the individual experience in being confronted with the full landscape of AET offers, at policy level initiatives need to be taken to build partnership approaches that allow a seamless provision of outreach, guidance, and training offer.
References
[63] ACS (2023), Study Circles, Andragoški Center Republike Slovenije, https://www.acs.si/en/projects/national/study-circles/.
[64] AONTAS (2021), A Charter for Community Education, AONTAS, https://www.aontas.com/assets/resources/Submissions/CE-Charter-with-arial-text-and-branching-elements.png.
[61] Atchoarena, D. and A. Howells (2021), “Advancing learning cities: Lifelong learning and the creation of a learning society”, in S. Ra, S. (ed.), Powering a Learning Society During an Age of Disruption, Springer Nature, Singapore, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-0983-1_12.
[12] Boeren, E. (2017), “Understanding adult lifelong learning participation as a layered problem”, Studies in Continuing Education, Vol. 39/2, pp. 161-175, https://doi.org/10.1080/0158037X.2017.1310096.
[11] Boeren, E. (2009), “Adult education participation: The Matthew principle”, Filosofija- Sociologija, Vol. 20/2, pp. 154-161.
[14] Broek, S. and B. Buiskool (2013), Developing the Adult Learning Sector: Quality in the Adult Learning Sector (Lot 1): Final Report, Panteia, https://www.anc.edu.ro/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Research_study_on_Developing_the_adult_l-2.pdf.
[20] Broek, S. and B. Buiskool (2012), “Mapping and comparing mobilisation strategies throughout Europe: Towards making lifelong learning a reality”, Journal of Adult and Continuing Education, Vol. 18/1, pp. 4-26, https://doi.org/10.7227/JACE.18.1.3.
[19] Broek, S., B. Buiskool and B. Hake (2010), Impact of Ongoing Reforms in Education and Training on the Adult Learning Sector: Final Report, Publications Office of the European Union, https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/82ebbda8-35aa-4e5a-a815-1e1e0b434e6d.
[1] Broek, S. et al. (2023), “What makes adults choose to learn: Factors that stimulate or prevent adults from learning”, Journal of Adult and Continuing Education, Vol. 29/2, pp. 620-642, https://doi.org/10.1177/14779714231169684.
[59] Cambridge Dictionary (2023), Outreach, Cambridge University Press, https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/outreach.
[58] Cedefop (2022), Comparing Vocational Education and Training Qualifications: Towards Methodologies for Analysing and Comparing Learning Outcomes, Publications Office of the European Union, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/939766.
[71] Cedefop (2021), “A fresh look at guidance practitioner professionalism”, Briefing Note, Publications Office of the European Union, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/543840.
[32] Cedefop (2021), “Review and renewal of qualifications: Towards methodologies for analysing and comparing learning outcomes”, Research Paper, Publications Office of the European Union, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/615021.
[42] Cedefop (2020), Financing adult learning database, Cedefop website, https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/financing-adult-learning-db.
[26] Cedefop (2012), International Qualifications, Publications Office of the European Union, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/8721.
[24] Cedefop (2012), “Preventing skill obsolescence”, Briefing Note, Publications Office of the European Union, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/30920.
[70] Cedefop (2009), Lifelong Guidance, Cedefop website, https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/projects/lifelong-guidance.
[33] Cedefop, ETF, UNESCO and UNESCO UIL (2019), Global Inventory of Regional and National Qualifications Frameworks 2019, Volume II: National and Regional Cases, European Traning Foundation, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000372209.
[31] Coles, M. and T. Oates (2005), “European reference levels for education and training: Promoting credit transfer and mutual trust: study commissioned to the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, England”, Cedefop Panorama Series, No. 109, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.
[76] Dutch government (n.d.), Leeroverzicht website, https://www.leeroverzicht.nl/ (accessed on 29 August 2023).
[60] EAEA (2020), Improving Outreach and Access to Adult Learning in Times of COVID-19: EAEA Statement., European Association for the Education of Adults, https://eaea.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Improving-outreach-and-access-to-adult-learning-during-COVID-19_statement.pdf.
[45] European Commission (2024), Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, Working Group on Adult Learning Findings report PLA on financing of adult learning (12-13 May 2022, online), Publications Office of the European Union, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2767/369580.
[18] European Commission (2024), European Education Area Strategic Framework Working Group on Adult Learning: Findings report PLA on Skills for Life (9-10 March 2022, online)., European Commission, https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/d2c7f329-fbac-11ee-a251-01aa75ed71a1/language-en.
[27] European Commission (2021), Proposal for a Council Recommendation on a European approach to micro-credentials for lifelong learning and employability: SWD(2021) 367 final, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52021DC0770.
[2] European Commission (2021), Proposal for a Council Recommendation on Individual Learning Accounts: COM/2021/773 final., https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52021DC0773.
[66] European Commission (2020), Empowering Adults to Undertake Up-/re-skilling: Pointers for Better Policies: ET2020 Working Group on Adult Learning, European Commission, Brussels, https://epale.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/empowering_adults_policy_pointers_final.pdf.
[35] European Commission and Australian Government (2016), Comparative Analysis of the Australian Qualifications Framework and the European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning: Joint Technical Report, Publications Office of the European Union, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2767/899976.
[72] European Commission and Budapest Institute (2014), Literature Review and Identification of Best Practices on Integrated Social Service Delivery: Part 1, Publications Office of the European Union, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2767/35529.
[37] European Commission: Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion (2024), Study Supporting the Evaluation of the Council Recommendation of 22 May 2017 on the European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning-Final Report, Publication Office of the European Union, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2767/708989.
[73] European Council (2016), Council Recommendation of 19 December 2016 on Upskilling Pathways: New Opportunities for Adults: 2016/C 484/01, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32016H1224(01).
[34] European Parliament and Council of EU (2017), Council Recommendation of 22 May 2017 on the European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32017H0615(01).
[5] Eurostat (2023), Adult Education Survey Population by will to participate in education and training (2007, 2011, 2016) [dataset], Eurostat, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/TRNG_AES_175__custom_7258742/default/table?lang=en.
[41] Eurostat (2023), Distribution of sources to look for information on learning possibilities, Eurostat Data Browser, https://doi.org/10.2908/TRNG_AES_187.
[39] Eurostat (2023), Participation rate in education and training (last 4 weeks) by sex and age [TRNG_LFSE_01] 2022 [dataset], Eurostat, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/TRNG_LFSE_01/default/table?lang=en.
[38] Eurostat (2023), Participation rate in education and training by sex [TRNG_AES_100] 2016 [dataset], Eurostat, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/TRNG_AES_100/default/table?lang=en.
[40] Eurostat (2023), Search for nformation on learning possibilities by type of learning and educational attainment level [trng_aes_184], Eurostat Data Browser, https://doi.org/10.2908/TRNG_AES_184.
[30] Freire, P. (2000), Pedagogy of the Oppressed (30th anniversary edition), Continuum.
[43] French Government (n.d.), Mon compte formation, https://www.moncompteformation.gouv.fr/espace-public/aide/mon-compte (accessed on 29 August 2023).
[47] Government of the Republic of Korea (2024), HRD-net: website, https://www.hrd.go.kr/hrdp/ma/pmmao/newIndexRenewal.do.
[17] ILO (2023), The ILO Strategy on Skills and Lifelong Learning 2030, International Labour Organization, https://www.ilo.org/skills/pubs/WCMS_886554/lang--en/index.htm.
[36] Indecon (2017), Policy Impact Assessment of the Irish National Framework of Qualifications, Quality and Qualifications Ireland, https://www.qqi.ie/sites/default/files/media/file-uploads/Policy%20Impact%20Assessment%20of%20NFQ_Indecon%20Report%20with%20Cover_FINAL.pdf.
[74] Kantar Public and Learning and Work Institute (2018), Decisions of Adult Learners, UK Department for Education, https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED590017.pdf.
[29] Knowles, M. (1984), Andragogy in Action (1st ed), Jossey-Bass.
[13] Marcaletti, F., T. Iñiguez Berrozpe and K. Koutra (2018), “Overcoming age barriers: Motivation for mature adults’ engagement in education”, International Journal of Lifelong Education, Vol. 37/4, pp. 451-467, https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370.2018.1505782.
[21] McIsaac, M. and C. Gunawardena (2001), “Distance education”, in The Handbook for Research for Educational Communications and Technology, http://members.aect.org/edtech/ed1/pdf/13.pdf.
[23] McKinsey (2022), Education technology: Five trends to watch in the EdTech industry, McKinsey website, https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/education/our-insights/five-trends-to-watch-in-the-edtech-industry.
[3] Ministerie van Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid and Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap (2018), Kamer brief Leven Lang Ontwikkelen 27 september 2018, Ministerie van Sociale Zaken, Den Haag, https://www.rijksoverheid.nl/documenten/kamerstukken/2018/09/27/kamerbrief-leven-lang-ontwikkelen.
[54] National Literacy Directory (2024), National Literacy Directory, https://www.nld.org/.
[9] Nussbaum, M. (2013), Creating Capabilities: The Human Development Approach, First Harvard University Press paperback edition). The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
[67] OECD (2022), “Leveraging career guidance for adults to build back better”, OECD Policy Responses to Coronavirus (COVID-19), OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ab7e7894-en.
[69] OECD (2021), Career Guidance for Adults in a Changing World of Work, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9a94bfad-en.
[16] OECD (2021), Improving the Quality of Non-Formal Adult Learning: Learning from European Best Practices on Quality Assurance, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/f1b450e1-en.
[28] OECD (2021), “Micro-credential innovations in higher education: Who, What and Why?”, OECD Education Policy Perspectives, No. 39, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/f14ef041-en.
[75] OECD (2020), Strengthening the Governance of Skills Systems: Lessons from Six OECD Countries, OECD Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3a4bb6ea-en.
[22] OECD (2020), “The potential of online learning for adults: Early lessons from the COVID-19 crisis”, OECD Policy Responses to Coronavirus (COVID-19), OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ee040002-en.
[25] OECD (2019), Getting Skills Right: Engaging Low-Skilled Adults in Learning, OECD, Paris, http://www.oecd.org/employment/emp/engaging-low-skilled-adults-2019.pdf.
[6] OECD (2019), Getting Skills Right: Future-Ready Adult Learning Systems, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264311756-en.
[57] OECD (2019), Mapping Quality Approaches and Monitoring Systems in the Netherlands: Improving the Quality and Monitoring of Basic Skills Education for Adults in the Netherlands, OECD, http://www.oecd.org/els/emp/skills-and-work/adult-learning/Better-quality-and-monitoring-systems-Netherlands.pdf.
[4] OECD (2019), OECD Skills Strategy 2019: Skills to Shape a Better Future, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264313835-en.
[65] OECD (n.d.), Dashboard on priorities for adult learning: Japan, OECD, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/employment/skills-and-work/Adult-learning/country-profile-JPN.pdf.
[46] OECD (n.d.), Dashboard on priorities for adult learning: Korea, OECD, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/employment/skills-and-work/Adult-learning/country-profile-KOR.pdf.
[55] OECD (n.d.), Dashboard on priorities for adult learning: United States, OECD, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/employment/skills-and-work/Adult-learning/country-profile-USA.pdf.
[49] OECD/ILO (2017), Better Use of Skills in the Workplace: Why It Matters for Productivity and Local Jobs, Local Economic and Employment Development (LEED), OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264281394-en.
[7] Pennacchia, J., E. Jones and F. Aldridge (2018), Barriers to Learning for Disadvantaged Groups: Report of Qualitative Findings, Department for Education, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5b7d2ea2ed915d14d88482d6/Barriers_to_learning_-_Qualitative_report.pdf.
[44] Perez, C. and A. Vourc’h (2020), “Individualising training access schemes: France – the Compte Personnel de Formation (Personal Training Account – CPF)”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 245, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/301041f1-en.
[8] Roosmaa, E. and E. Saar (2017), “Adults who do not want to participate in learning: A cross-national European analysis of their perceived barriers”, International Journal of Lifelong Education, Vol. 36/3, pp. 254-277, https://doi.org/10.1080/02601370.2016.1246485.
[51] SCQF (n.d.), SCQF Database, Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework, https://scqf.org.uk/about-the-framework/scqf-database/ (accessed on 29 August 2023).
[53] SECLE (n.d.), About Us, The Service Centre for Continuous Learning and Employment website, https://www.jotpa.fi/en/about-us (accessed on 30 August 2023).
[10] Sen, A. (1993), “Capability and well‐being”, in Nussbaum, M. and A. Sen (eds.), The Quality of Life, Oxford University Press., https://doi.org/10.1093/0198287976.003.0003.
[48] Singapore Government (n.d.), MySkillsFuture homepage, SkillsFuture website, http://www.myskillsfuture.gov.sg/content/portal/en/index.html (accessed on 29 August 2023).
[50] Singapore Government (n.d.), WSQ for Individuals, Employers, Training Providers, SkillsFuture website, https://www.skillsfuture.gov.sg/initiatives/mid-career/who-is-wsq-for (accessed on 29 August 2023).
[77] Studiekeuze123 (n.d.), Studiekeuze123 homepage, https://www.studiekeuze123.nl (accessed on 30 August 2023).
[52] Studyinfo (n.d.), Studyinfo: Explore lifelong learning in Finland, Studyinfo website, https://opintopolku.fi/konfo/en/ (accessed on 29 August 2023).
[15] UNESCO UIL (2010), Global Report on Adult Learning and Education, UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000186431.
[56] Voksenuddannelse.dk (n.d.), AMU-kursuspakker, Voksenuddannelse.dk website, https://voksenuddannelse.dk/uddannelse/amu-kursuspakker (accessed on 29 August 2023).
[68] WGCG (2021), Investing in Career Guidance: Revised edition 2021, The Inter-Agency Working Group on Career Guidance, https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/files/2230_en.pdf.
[62] Yang, J. (2012), “An overview of building learning cities as a strategy for promoting lifelong learning”, Journal of Adult and Continuing Education, Vol. 18/2, pp. 97-113, https://doi.org/10.7227/JACE.18.2.8.
← 1. See for instance the study information sheets for VET and higher education programmes in the Netherlands, mainly based on graduate tracking surveys. They provide essential information about a specific course of study, including details about the programme, curriculum, learning objectives, assessment methods, prerequisites, labour market opportunities and job chances, and other relevant information for potential students (Studiekeuze123, n.d.[77]).