Quality Matters

1. Introduction: Building a robust quality assurance system for adult education and training

Abstract

Megatrends such as the digital transformation, the green transition, population ageing, and globalisation are reshaping societies and economies in ways that will require most adults to undergo up-skilling or re‑skilling at some point during their working lives. Rising demand, not just for formal traditional education, but also non-formal adult education and training (AET), has led governments in OECD countries to invest in strengthening their AET systems and supporting access, including through measures such as individual learning accounts (ILAs). This introductory chapter underscores the need for strong quality assurance systems as programmes and providers proliferate. It considers the multiple functions of quality assurance, and what “quality” means in the context of adult education and training, distinguishing between structural and process quality. It then identifies some of the barriers to reforming and strengthening existing quality assurance processes, which in many cases have been developed piecemeal, resulting in highly varied systems.

The changing landscape of skills needs

The skills needed by both labour markets and society are constantly changing. This is due to various factors such as new technologies, globalisation and significant trends like ageing populations and climate change. The introduction of artificial intelligence (AI) and technological advances are accelerating the automation of jobs, leading to the displacement of tasks previously performed by humans (Lassébie and Quintini, 2022[1]). This situation requires displaced workers to seek new jobs that align with their skills or undergo up-skilling and re-skilling to remain competitive in the job market. Simultaneously, emerging technologies offer considerable opportunities in areas where machines and algorithms cannot easily replace human workers. Consequently, there is a growing demand for skills such as creativity, problem-solving, critical thinking, communication, and collaboration. Employers consistently report difficulties in filling positions that require these skills across OECD countries (OECD, 2022[2]).

Globalisation is also changing the workplace skills landscape. As economies and cultures become more integrated, there is an increasing demand for language and communication skills. Likewise, companies operating on a global scale require stronger cross-functional and managerial skills due to the complexity of their operations. Globalisation creates new prospects for workers while reshaping their perspective on careers and the skills necessary for success in the global economy. Furthermore, the transition to low-carbon economies driven by climate change amplifies the demand for skills in sectors like renewable energy, energy efficiency and sustainable agriculture.

Population ageing, resulting from declining fertility rates and increased life expectancy, is also significantly affecting skill requirements. The healthcare sector is experiencing increased demand for specific skills as the older population requires more medical and support services, including elder care services. However, as societies age, the working-age population also falls, meaning labour productivity will need to rise to maintain economic growth levels. Moreover, as people are expected to work for longer, they will need to engage in retraining more frequently to keep their skills up-to-date, further underscoring the importance of accessible and effective adult education and training (AET) programmes.

The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated these trends. The health crisis and associated lockdowns have particularly hindered skills development among adults (Fana, Tolan and Torrejón, 2020[3]). Moreover, the pandemic’s impact has been unevenly distributed, with the rapid shift to online learning further exacerbating existing social and digital divides. This situation makes it more challenging for vulnerable groups to access continuing education, putting them at risk of falling further behind (OECD, 2020[4]). On the positive side, the pandemic has also greatly accelerated access to digital learning opportunities, widening opportunities for remote education and training among diverse populations.

Government and individual reactions to emerging skill requirements

People’s increasing need to develop new skills throughout their lives is leading to changes both at the individual level and the governmental level. People are recognising the value of continuous learning and are taking active measures to update their skills and knowledge throughout their lives. This understanding has led to an increase in the demand for AET opportunities that extend beyond basic education. Demand has risen not just for formal traditional educational routes such as master's degrees or graduate programmes, but also for non-formal AET (Box 1.1): flexible and readily available professional development opportunities, like online courses and micro-credentials (OECD, 2023[5]; OECD, 2023[6]; Kato, Galán-Muros and Weko, 2020[7]).

Box 1.1. Formal versus non-formal adult education and training (AET)

Formal adult education and training:

Education that is institutionalised, intentional and planned through public organisations and recognised private bodies that leads to a formal qualification. Formal education programmes are thus recognised as such by the relevant national education or equivalent authorities.

Non-formal adult education and training:

Any institutionalised, intentional, and planned educational programmes and processes which are an alternative and/or complementary to formal education. Non-formal AET mostly leads to qualifications that are not recognised as formal or equivalent to formal qualifications by the relevant national or sub-national education authorities or to no qualifications at all. Typically, the delivery of non-formal AET is more flexible than formal AET in terms of when and where learners engage with the programmes and may take in variety of places including community centres, workplaces, or the providers’ premises.

Non-formal AET includes courses, programmes, up- and re-skilling opportunities, such as:

• Job-related training that is expected to impact individuals’ performance and productivity at work.

• Learning activities undertaken for the pursuit of personal growth (e.g. life skills, social and cultural development).

Note: Authors’ own definition based on the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011.

Meanwhile, governments are responding by investing more in strengthening AET systems across OECD countries. They are promoting the importance of lifelong learning, implementing training programmes to help individuals acquire new skills, retraining displaced workers, and making AET more accessible and affordable. Particularly in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic, governments are considering new funding mechanisms to support lifelong up-skilling and re‑skilling. Initiatives under consideration include vouchers, subsidies, and individual learning schemes, such as ILAs (European Commission, 2021[8]).

Quality assurance is a key supporting policy for adult education and training

Governments can increase spending in AET swiftly through direct or indirect subsidies to learners and institutions, which will result in increased participation in the short term. However, financial support on its own is not enough to ensure that skills policies achieve their intended goals. To make these investments truly effective in the long term, a robust AET system needs a strong quality assurance system.

Without robust quality assurance, there is a risk that increased spending might lead, for example, to a proliferation of low-quality programmes. These not only potentially waste resources but also fail to equip learners with the relevant skills, affecting their well-being and professional development. It is therefore crucial to ensure that the provision meets minimum quality standards. Additionally, it is vital to design programmes in a way that incentivises learners not just to participate, but to actively engage in and benefit from the training.

But quality assurance in AET is not just about maintaining or ensuring minimum standards. Impactful skills strategies need to be designed in such a way that they are aligned with market and societal needs. As such, quality assurance should be central to any forward-thinking skills strategy, making it arguably one of AET's most important components.

For investments in adult education and training to yield the expected results, quality assurance must also be supported by well-functioning complementary policies. For instance, career guidance plays a critical role in helping individuals make informed training decisions and understand the implications of different career choices (OECD, 2021[9]; OECD, 2023[6]). This enables individuals to align their skills and interests with learning opportunities and identify possibilities in the job market. Strong engagement mechanisms with stakeholders are crucial for the effective and efficient design and implementation of AET (OECD, 2020[10]). Stakeholders can provide valuable information about labour-market trends, contribute to the design of training curricula, and support the financing of training policies.

Additionally, a system for recognising prior learning (RPL) can also be beneficial as it allows individuals to gain formal recognition of their past education and work experiences. The opportunity to have skills recognised can stimulate participation in AET, saving adults time and money by allowing them to bypass parts of a training programme if they are already proficient (OECD, 2022[11]). Finally, qualifications frameworks are a vital part of AET systems as they provide a structure and common reference for comparing qualifications. This makes it easier to choose between training opportunities and allows learners to understand how different training options relate to each other within the overall qualifications system.

What is quality assurance?

Quality assurance refers to the systematic process of evaluating and improving the quality of a product or service to meet customer requirements and standards. Quality assurance includes establishing quality criteria, developing, and implementing processes to meet those criteria, and conducting evaluations to ensure the ongoing improvement of quality of the product or service. The concept of quality assurance originated in the manufacturing industry. Historically, quality assurance mechanisms were put in place to prevent mistakes and defects in the development and production of manufactured products. Nowadays, quality assurance is extensively used in a variety of industries and sectors, including healthcare, transportation, and education.

Within the educational sector, quality assurance denotes the processes that evaluate and elevate the quality of educational institutions and programmes. It sets up standards and criteria for educational quality and assesses performance against these benchmarks. Moreover, it aids in identifying successful practices and areas for further improvement.

Quality assurance mechanisms theoretically serve multiple functions. For example, they could be employed for public accountability, where quality assessment protocols are instituted by a local or national authority. This approach enhances external scrutiny and regulation of educational providers and helps guide educational choices for students and their families. Quality assurance can also be employed for quality enhancement, identifying challenges, and offering tools for perpetual advancement. This form of quality assurance centres more on prospective performance rather than retrospective evaluation (Kis, 2005[12]).

Establishing consensus on quality standards and assessment methods is a practical challenge, given the complex, multidimensional and relative nature of quality. Quality holds different meanings for different stakeholders. For instance, students and their families may have differing perceptions of quality compared to teachers or educational administrators. Likewise, employers often measure the quality of education against the practical skills students gain and their applicability in the workplace. Policy makers and educators may evaluate education quality using a more comprehensive approach, focusing on the broader benefits to individuals and society.

Definitions of quality, as well as assessment tools and methods, can also vary across educational levels. For instance, in early childhood education and care, quality assurance prioritises the provision of a safe and healthy development environment. In primary and secondary education, it focuses on preparing students for tertiary education. The literature identifies two concepts at these levels: structural quality and process quality. Structural quality pertains to aspects such as infrastructure, student characteristics, curricula, and staff qualifications. Process quality relates to the interaction between students, educators and the environment during the learning process, for example, pedagogical practices.

In upper levels of education (e.g. tertiary education, adult education and training, and vocational education and training), the emphasis is on ensuring students receive an education of high quality and that is well-aligned with labour-market needs, preparing them for the job market. Consequently, quality assurance involves evaluating institutional policies and structures, staff qualifications, and student outcomes.

In the context of AET, quality assurance refers to the processes and standards that ensure the learning experience of adults is effective, relevant and of high quality. It encompasses the use of quality standards and assessment instruments to evaluate different aspects of the provisions of AET with the objective of ensuring that learners receive high-quality instruction, have a positive learning experience, and receive the necessary knowledge to advance their professional or personal development goals. It also ensures AET programmes provide learners with skills and knowledge that are applicable to the job market and the broader societal context.

Challenges to strengthening quality assurance in adult education and training

Quality assurance in AET is a vital yet challenging area of policy interest for many countries. The primary hurdle is the significant investment required in terms of both financial and human resources. An efficient quality assurance system requires specialised staff and robust physical and digital infrastructures. These resources are crucial to implementing effective quality assurance measures. Given that the benefits of such an investment are typically only felt in the medium term, policy makers might hesitate to invest in quality assurance, especially during periods of financial strain or when there are other urgent spending pressures.

Furthermore, attempts to refine or modify quality assurance protocols may meet with substantial resistance within countries. This resistance may stem from an inherent preference for existing systems, mistrust, and apprehension about potential changes in the system introduced by new approaches. It is worth noting that such reluctance is not unique to the area of quality assurance, but is typical of reactions to many policy changes. Institutions and individuals often fear policy changes due to potential disruptions and changes to familiar workflows and protocols. Concerns can increase if the benefits of the change are not clearly communicated or if stakeholders feel left out of consultations. Consequently, the evolution of quality assurance systems is often a slow and gradual process.

Complicating matters further is the complex nature of the AET system. AET caters to a wider variety of learners than other educational domains, each with unique goals and expectations. Factors such as learners’ ages and initial skill levels, teaching methods, and learning environments vary widely. AET also occurs in numerous settings including online platforms, physical classrooms and workplaces and can differ greatly between economic sectors. Additionally, the dynamism of the AET system, wherein the supply of skills adapts faster than other educational levels in response to demand changes, adds another layer of complexity. This vast array of variables makes it challenging to standardise practices and establish common quality frameworks and standards.

As a result, in some countries quality assurance mechanisms tend to emerge from grassroots initiatives, which are devised and executed on a case-by-case basis. This leads to AET quality assurance mechanisms being typically fragmented and governed in a highly decentralised manner. Responsibility is allocated to various entities, including ministries, agencies, and regional and local bodies, contributing to this decentralised structure (OECD, 2021[13]).

In response to this evolving AET landscape, this publication delves into three areas that have become increasingly salient within the field of quality assurance: informed decision making for learners (Chapter 3), tracking outcomes of learners (Chapter 4) and ensuring the quality of digitally delivered education (Chapter 5). These topics were selected based on consultations with experts and practitioners in the field, reflecting current trends and pressing needs within the sector.

Chapter 2 provides an overview the existing quality assurance mechanism in use in OECD countries. It proposes a framework for characterising and comparing the governance, processes, outcomes, and benefits of these mechanisms, facilitating cross-country mapping to aid comparison and benchmarking.

Chapter 3 explores how to support adults in making informed decisions about AET. With a multitude of training options available, adults often find it difficult to make decisions that best serve their needs. Information platforms can help by providing clear information about the quality of education and training programmes (OECD, 2023[14]; EUR-Lex, 2022[15]). However, on their own they are not enough to enable all adults to navigate the complex landscape of AET, or even to be aware of the benefits lifelong learning can bring. The chapter describes the need for an integrated approach offering not just information but outreach and guidance to make adult education accessible to everyone.

Chapter 4 focuses on measuring the effectiveness of AET programmes by monitoring learners’ outcomes. Such data are invaluable for making informed decisions about programme design and delivery, and for optimising resource allocation. Assessments of the quality of the providers and programmes should take into account the performance of their graduates in the labour market. However, less than 10% of countries include the analysis of performance indicators, which highlights the urgent need to incorporate more quantitative evidence into the quality assurance processes (OECD, 2021[16]; OECD, 2023[14]). This chapter considers existing AET data collection approaches, and how to ensure the data collected are consistent and comparable nationally and internationally. It presents a data taxonomy that can be customised to different contexts and concludes with recommendations to enable policy makers to track outcomes more effectively and in turn strengthen their AET systems.

Finally, Chapter 5 considers how to ensure the quality of digitally delivered adult education and training. With the rise of online learning, we must consider how to maintain the same high standards as traditional learning methods. Adapting existing quality assurance mechanisms for digital AET is crucial. This entails examining the specific features of digital education, like accessibility and learner engagement, and adapting the standards accordingly. This research could inform policies aimed at safeguarding the quality of digital AET.

References

[15] EUR-Lex (2022), EUR-Lex - 32022H0627(03) - EN - EUR-Lex, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32022H0627%2803%29.

[8] European Commission (2021), Proposal for a Council Recommendation on Individual Learning Accounts, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52021DC0773.

[3] Fana, M., S. Tolan and S. Torrejón (2020), “The COVID confinement measures and EU labour markets”, JRC Technical Reports, Publications Office of the European Union, https://doi.org/10.2760/079230.

[7] Kato, S., V. Galán-Muros and T. Weko (2020), “The emergence of alternative credentials”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 216, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b741f39e-en.

[12] Kis, V. (2005), Quality Assurance in Tertiary Education: Current Practices in OECD Countries and a Literature Review on Potential Effects, OECD, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/education/skills-beyond-school/38006910.pdf (accessed on 7 December 2023).

[1] Lassébie, J. and G. Quintini (2022), “What skills and abilities can automation technologies replicate and what does it mean for workers?”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 282, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/646aad77-en.

[5] OECD (2023), “Micro-credentials for lifelong learning and employability: Uses and possibilities”, OECD Education Policy Perspectives, No. 66, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9c4b7b68-en.

[14] OECD (2023), OECD Skills Strategy Luxembourg: Assessment and Recommendations, OECD Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/92d891a4-en.

[6] OECD (2023), “The OECD Skills Profiling Tool: A new instrument to improve career decisions”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 293, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/598ff539-en.

[2] OECD (2022), Skills for Jobs 2022: Key Insights, OECD, Paris, https://www.oecdskillsforjobsdatabase.org/data/S4J2022_results.pdf.

[11] OECD (2022), “The recognition of prior learning: Validating general competences”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 270, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/2d9fb06a-en.

[9] OECD (2021), Career Guidance for Adults in a Changing World of Work, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9a94bfad-en.

[13] OECD (2021), Improving the Quality of Non-Formal Adult Learning: Learning from European Best Practices on Quality Assurance, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/f1b450e1-en.

[16] OECD (2021), Strengthening Quality Assurance in Adult Education and Training in Portugal, OECD, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/portugal/Strengthening-Quality-Assurance-in-Adult-Education-and-Training-in-Portugal-Implementation-Guidance.pdf.

[4] OECD (2020), “Skill measures to mobilise the workforce during the COVID-19 crisis”, OECD Policy Responses to Coronavirus (COVID-19), OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/afd33a65-en.

[10] OECD (2020), Strengthening the Governance of Skills Systems: Lessons from Six OECD Countries, OECD Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3a4bb6ea-en.