Ensuring accessible, high-quality and cost-effective services in rural areas requires long-term planning and restructuring. Castilla y León would benefit from adapting its service delivery models to demographic realities through consolidation, integration and digitalisation. Policy solutions include improving mobility, expanding broadband and adapting education and healthcare to the regional needs. Strengthening local capacities, engaging stakeholders and innovation will be essential for sustainable development.
Preparing for Demographic Change in Castilla y León, Spain
Abstract
Castilla y León, a vast but sparsely populated region in north-central Spain, faces long-term challenges in delivering key public services due to a combination of low population density, demographic decline, and rapid ageing (see chapter 2). These demographic trends significantly impact the region’s ability to provide education, healthcare, social services, and digital infrastructure efficiently and equitably. As a result, the region faces rising service provision costs and persistent difficulties in recruiting essential professionals such as doctors, teachers, and caregivers. In addition, quality public service provision is critical not only for resident well-being but also for sustaining economic activity and retaining workers and families. Policy responses need to adapt to local contexts while improving efficiency through economies of scale, tailored service delivery, digital tools, and good practices from other regions and countries. This will support cost management and sustainability across demographic scenarios. Castilla y León is already using EU Cohesion Policy funds, including its ERDF 2021-27 programme, to address demographic challenges through a transversal approach across different priorities. Investments focus on local infrastructure that supports more efficient, accessible, and place-based service delivery in shrinking areas.
Demographic change increases demand for services such as healthcare, long-term care, and social assistance, while reducing demand for others like schools and childcare facilities. In sparsely populated areas, infrastructure such as schools or health centres often operates below capacity, while human resource gaps – exacerbated by youth outmigration – undermine service continuity. A place-based approach is needed to address these mismatches and tailor services to local demographic realities.
This chapter examines the accessibility of services in Castilla y León and the role of physical and digital connectivity in enhancing access. It begins with an overview of service accessibility in the region taking into account its settlement patterns and age composition. The chapter then explores the role of public transport and digital connectivity in equitable access to education, healthcare, and social services (e.g. childcare and elderly care). The chapter also assesses how demographic shifts influence service needs, costs, and future projections. Finally, it presents key policy recommendations at the local, regional, national, and EU levels to enhance service delivery in Castilla y León.
Connectivity is key to public service access, whether through transport networks for physical mobility or digital infrastructure for remote services. While digital options are expanding, in-person access still remains essential for services like childcare, surgery, and health check-ups. Ageing and rural depopulation are reshaping settlement patterns, which in turn bring new accessibility challenges, demanding adaptive strategies to ensure equitable service provision (Annex 5.A).
Bridging gaps: service accessibility across Castilla y León
Accessibility to services in Castilla y León varies significantly across the region and the types of services. Urban areas benefit from better availability of service and shorter travel times against rural municipalities, where services are more limited, particularly for hospitals and secondary schools. Essential services such as primary education and pharmacies are generally within easy reach across the region, but spatial disparities persist.
Service accessibility also varies across type of services, with some requiring considerably longer travel times than others. Childcare, primary education, and pharmacies are generally reachable within five minutes, while upper secondary education and shops take an average of 10 to 15 minutes and hospitals around 20 minutes (Figure 5.1). Compared to the EU average however, travel times in Castilla y León are on average longer. According to OECD calculations, travel times to hospitals and primary schools are 44.6% and 45.7% longer, respectively.
Urban and rural disparities also shape accessibility patterns. Urban areas benefit from shorter travel times due to higher population density and service concentration. In rural municipalities, while most services remain accessible, travel times are longer – reaching close to 35 minutes for hospitals.
Average driving time (assuming no congestion) to closest service facility
Note: Assuming car driving at speed limit without congestion. Averages are weighted by population. Shops refer to supermarkets and convenience stores.
Source: OECD calculations based on GISCO and ESPON.
However, average travel times can hide significant differences between municipalities, highlighting deeper spatial inequalities. A more detailed analysis of service distribution reveals that pharmacies, primary schools, and childcare centers are relatively widespread across the territory, ensuring some coverage even in sparsely populated areas. In contrast, hospitals remain concentrated in cities and serve as regional hubs, while upper secondary schools and shops are primarily located in towns and suburbs, where they serve both local and nearby rural populations (Figure 5.2). Targeted ERDF funding is supporting investments in multi-functional service hubs and shared infrastructure to improve access in these low-density areas.
The DEGURBA definition identifies settlements from clusters of adjacent 1 square kilometre (km2) grid cells with medium or high population density. Such clusters meet the criteria for settlements if their total population is also above a certain threshold (see below). The DEGURBA definition also incorporates built-up areas, in addition to population, to avoid the identification of multiple urban centres for a single city. However, with DEGURBA, settlements such as cities are defined by their population density, not including the surrounding commuting areas.
Table 5.1. shows the mapping of Level 1 definitions for local area units and Level 2 definitions for grid-based DEGURBA classifications. The Level 2 definition of DEGURBA distinguishes towns and villages, which are settlements, from suburbs and dispersed rural areas, which are not. The minimum population thresholds are shown in the right-most column: villages have at least 500 residents while cities start at 50 000 residents. This report uses the original DEGURBA definition, which defines towns as having at least 5 000 residents.
Average number of accessible services in reasonable time, by municipality
Note: Assuming no congestion. Reasonable access is defined as under 10 minutes’ drive to primary education, under 15 minutes’ drive to childcare, secondary education, pharmacies, and shops, and under 30 minutes’ drive to hospitals.
Source: OECD calculations based on GISCO and ESPON.
A key policy concern is whether residents can access essential services within a reasonable distance. In cities and towns and suburbs, access to at least three key services – which include child-care centers, primary schools, upper secondary schools, hospitals, pharmacies and shops – is common. In contrast, rural municipalities experience more uneven provision. Around 68% of rural municipalities in Castilla y León have access to at least two services, but only 49% can access three or more. This varies significantly by province. In Palencia and Valladolid, over 80% of rural municipalities meet the two-service threshold. In Soria, however, fewer than 35% reach this level (Figure 5.3, Panel A). While rural municipalities account for 97.6% of all municipalities in Castilla y León, they are home to a smaller share of the population. Most residents live in urban and suburban areas, where service availability is generally stronger. As a result, gaps in service access are concentrated in low-density areas, affecting a small but spatially extensive share of the population (Figure 5.3, Panel B).
Share of rural municipalities with reasonable access to services and breakdown by degree of urbanisation
Note: Assuming no congestion. Reasonable access is defined as under 10 minutes’ drive to primary education, under 15 minutes’ drive to childcare, secondary education, pharmacies, and shops, and under 30 minutes’ drive to hospitals.
Source: OECD calculations based on GISCO and ESPON.
In addition to service availability and travel times, broader physical and digital connectivity plays a crucial role in facilitating accessibility. Public infrastructure – including roads, rail, and broadband – improves mobility and expands the effective catchment area of services, particularly in areas where travel distances are higher. Where service facilities are sparse, strong connectivity can help reduce the impact of distance. For instance, good road access allows faster travel to hospitals or schools, while reliable broadband, supports remote delivery of services such as telehealth or online learning. In this way, infrastructure supports both traditional and digital service models (Figure 5.4).
Castilla y León’s performance on selected connectivity indicators, % above the EU average (2022)
Note: The individual indicators refer to the following: Enterprises with fixed broadband access – Enterprises that are connectable to an exchange which has been converted to support xDSL-technology, to a cable network upgraded for internet traffic, or to other broadband technologies. It includes fixed and mobile connections. Households with broadband access – Share of households with broadband access (%). Road transport performance – Population accessible within 1h30 by road in a neighbourhood within a 120 km radius. Access to high-speed broadband – Percentage of population that lives in a Local Administrative Unit (LAU), where a (fixed or mobile) broadband speed of at least 100 Mbps has been observed. Rail transport performance – Population accessible within 1h30 by rail (using optimal connections) in a neighbourhood within a 120 km radius.
Source: Dijkstra et al. (2023[3]).
Enhancing mobility: the public transportation system in Castilla y León
While Castilla y León has a solid public transportation system, the region continues to develop innovative solutions to address rural accessibility and sustainable mobility challenges.
The region has a modern, largely toll-free motorway network amounting nearly 2 600 km, connecting major population centres and linking Castilla y León with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula and Europe. The main motorways include the A-1 (Burgos-Madrid), A-6 (Madrid-Galicia), A-62 (Portugal-France corridor), A-66 (León-Salamanca), and A-67 (Valladolid-Santander). This infrastructure plays a crucial role in both passenger and freight transport and contributes to Castilla y León’s strong performance in transport efficiency, which is 14% above the EU average (Figure 5.4).
In addition to road transport, Castilla y León benefits from an extensive air and rail network that enhances both regional and international connectivity. The region has four airports that primarily offer domestic flights, with some seasonal international connections. These include Valladolid (Villanubla), Salamanca (Matacán), León (Virgen del Camino), and Burgos (Villafría). International routes, such as León-Oporto and León-Fez, enhance connectivity and tourism potential (AENA, 2025[4]). At the same time, the rail network, spanning over 3 000 km, provides high-speed connections that significantly reduce travel times. Madrid is linked with Segovia in 20 minutes, Valladolid in 55, and Zamora in 63. The region also plays a strategic role in the Atlantic Corridor of the Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T), supporting multimodal integration across several EU countries. As a result, Castilla y León ranks over 50% above the EU average in rail transport accessibility, with 12.16% of the population able to reach a neighbourhood within 120 km radius in under 90 minutes by rail, compared to 5.87% across the EU (Figure 5.4). To strengthen international rail links, the region has invested in key infrastructure projects, including the Venta de Baños-Burgos-Vitoria high-speed line (operational since 2022), improving connections to the French border. The electrification of the 125 km Salamanca-Fuentes de Oñoro section will strengthen rail access to Portugal (La Moncloa, 2022[5]) (Ministerio de Transportes, Movilidad y Agenda Urbana, 2023[6]).
Despite its extensive network, public transport in Castilla y León faces several challenges, particularly through low demand and low route efficiency. The region has 19 bus stations, 13 of which manage more than 30 routes. Around 47% of transport routes start or end at a station. The concession system involves 238 contracts managed by 146 companies. However, many routes operate with low occupancy – just 10 passengers per vehicle-kilometre on average – indicating limited use relative to capacity. Moreover, 63% of regular routes serve fewer than 5 000 passengers annually – equivalent to around only 0.2% of the regional population. According to the International Transport Forum (ITF), such low occupancy rates in rural areas suggest that fixed-route bus services may not be the most efficient option. The ITF recommends demand-responsive transport (e.g. shared taxis or flexible minibus services) when occupancy falls below 10-20 passengers per kilometre, as is the case in much of Castilla y León (ITF, 2015[7]). In this context, the region has expanded its demand-responsive transport system (Box 5.2). Unlike fixed routes, this system only operates based on bookings and serves only requested localities. This approach offers flexibility and efficiency, reducing unnecessary travel and operating costs.
Castilla y León has developed an adaptive public transport service designed to meet the mobility needs of rural residents through the use of ICT tools. This demand-responsive system allows users to book their journeys in advance, at least 24 hours before departure, via telephone. Payment is made at the start of the journey, with return fares paid upfront when applicable.
The transport network has been expanding significantly, building on more than 20 years of operation. Recognised as a fundamental public service in 2018, the system now includes 400 vehicles operating daily, serving over 350 000 users across 5 094 localities. The network covers 123 zones and 1 965 routes, with an ambitious goal of expanding coverage to 1.7 million potential users. Since 2021, the Bono Rural initiative has enabled free, unlimited travel across 1 840 rural routes, further enhancing accessibility for remote communities.
As a flexible and sustainable mobility model, the service provides an efficient alternative in sparsely populated areas, reducing the distance travelled by 85% compared to conventional transport services. By optimising vehicle usage, the system supports environmental objectives, having prevented an estimated 8.7 million kilograms of CO₂ emissions since 2004. It plays a crucial role in connecting rural residents to essential services such as healthcare, retail centres, and major transport hubs.
This innovative approach has gained national and international recognition, with acknowledgements from European research institutions and the European Mobility Week Prize in the Valencian Community.
Innovative school transport initiatives help improve mobility, particularly in rural and industrial areas. The region operates 1 915 school transport routes serving about 33 000 students (17% of the student population). Since 2013, 893 school transport routes have been integrated with general public transport. Seats are reserved for students, with remaining capacity open to the public, improving efficiency and access for all users (Junta de Castilla y León, 2024[10]). The region has also introduced innovative transport projects. In Palencia, the Guardo line offers transport for workers in industrial areas. The Dipucar platform, launched in December 2024, enables shared electric vehicle transport via a digital booking system in co-ordination with local taxi services. If no regular service is available, a shared ride is confirmed at a subsidised fare of EUR 4 per person (Diputación de Palencia, 2024[11]).
Public transport in rural areas remains particularly challenging due to long distances, low demand, and high operational costs, but the region has introduced measures to improve sustainability and accessibility. The region has launched initiatives such as the ‘Use of Vehicles and Fuels’ programme, promoting low-emission transport, and the “Promotion of Public Transport and Healthy Travel” plan, aimed at reducing car dependency. Additionally, 16 projects totalling EUR 51 million have been submitted under the Recovery, Transformation and Resilience Mechanism to improve mobility infrastructure, digitalisation, and accessibility. The Regional Strategy for Alternative Energy Vehicles (2020–23) has also allocated over EUR 32 million to expand green transport and support the transition to electric vehicles and charging infrastructure (Junta de Castilla y León, 2024[10]) (Junta de Castilla y León, 2023[12]).
Connecting Castilla y León: digital access, inclusion, and innovation
Digital connectivity in Castilla y León is a key driver of regional development, supporting public services, business competitiveness, and social inclusion. The region has a broadband coverage slightly above the EU average and has made progress in expanding high-speed internet access. Approximately 95% of households have broadband access, and businesses report strong connectivity. Castilla y León also performs well in high-speed broadband, which is essential for the provision of digital public services such as telemedicine, online education, and remote administration (Figure 5.4). However, disparities persist, especially in rural areas, where further investment in infrastructure and digital skills is still needed. Castilla y León lags behind the Spanish average in certain digital infrastructure indicators. In 2023, Fibre-to-the-Home (FTTH) coverage stood at 83.3%, below the national average of 92.4% and ahead only of Galicia and Asturias. 5G coverage was 80.8%, 11.5 percentage points below the national average of 92.3% (Ministerio para la Transformación Digital y de la Función Pública, 2023[13]).
Internet speeds have improved since 2019, aligning more closely with national averages. In 2023, Valladolid had download speeds 15% above the national average. Other provinces, such as Palencia, León and Burgos, caught up in recent years. However, Soria, Zamora and Ávila still remain more than 10% below the national average (Figure 5.5). These gaps may affect the provision of digital services in rural and remote areas. To reduce digital divides, Castilla y León’s ERDF programme (Priority 1: "A Smarter Europe") is co-financing broadband infrastructure and digital training initiatives, especially in rural areas.
Relative user-experienced download speeds, % deviation from national average (2019-23)
Note: This figure shows the deviation of the region’s mean fixed download speed from the country’s mean fixed download speed for all fixed technologies, measured in megabits per second (mbps). Speeds are user-measured, such that speed tests only are captured when a request has been made from an individual’s computer or mobile device. Estimates are weighted by number of tests, and approximate population weighted estimates, but are not capturing speeds when no tests are requested in a 1km by 1km grid cell.
Source: OECD elaboration using data from OECD forthcoming, Bridging Connectivity Divides.
Moreover, digital services play an important role in improving public service delivery, especially in rural and low-density areas. Technology helps reduce costs, improve sustainability and can ensure equitable access. In this context, the Smart Rural Territory programme supports the modernisation of local government services by promoting more efficient and data-driven management (Box 5.3).
Launched in 2017, the Smart Rural Territory (Territorio Rural Inteligente) programme leverages digital technologies such as the Internet of Things, Big Data, and Artificial Intelligence to improve local service delivery. The system integrates real-time data collection through a network of sensors with a centralised management platform, enabling data-driven decision-making and more efficient resource allocation.
The programme currently operates over 3 000 sensors across more than 400 municipalities, supporting a range of public services. These include waste management, energy-efficient street lighting, parking systems, cultural heritage protection, water use monitoring, and winter road maintenance (e.g. monitoring salt depots, brine tanks, and weather conditions). By providing real-time insights, the initiative enhances service efficiency, reduces operational costs, and improves sustainability in rural areas.
To further develop the programme, a co-financing agreement with provincial councils will invest over EUR 1 million in system expansion. Castilla y León will contribute 50% of the funding, ensuring continued digital transformation at the local level. Additionally, the Smart Rural Support Office will be established to provide municipalities with technical guidance, helping them design and integrate smart solutions tailored to their specific needs.
Ensuring equal access to digital technologies and training is essential in a region with an ageing population and geographical dispersion. Digitalisation can support inclusion, improve quality of life, and boost regional competitiveness, but gaps in digital skills and connectivity remain, particularly in rural areas. While Castilla y León has 6.4% more individuals with above-basic digital skills than the EU average, it ranks 17th among 19 Spanish TL2 regions for both digital skills and recent internet use. In 2023, 90.7% of people aged 16-74 reported using the internet in the last three months, 2.5 percentage points below the national average (93.2%). To address these challenges, initiatives such as CyL Digital are helping reduce the digital divide, particularly among older adults, the unemployed, immigrants, and persons with disabilities (Box 5.4).
CyL Digital is a regional initiative aimed at equipping citizens with essential digital skills to navigate daily tasks and access public services online. The programme places a strong emphasis on supporting vulnerable groups, particularly in rural areas, where digital exclusion remains a key challenge.
The initiative operates the Digital Spaces Network in provincial capitals, complemented by associated centres in rural areas. The number of rural centres has expanded significantly, increasing from 71 in 2022 to 211 in 2024, broadening access to digital training. Additionally, a network of 40 digital mentors provides on-demand support, tailoring training to local needs and ensuring personalised assistance.
CyL Digital offers a mix of face-to-face and virtual training to accommodate different learning preferences. Courses cover practical digital skills, including Word and Excel, online administrative procedures, and device configuration. Since 2022, the programme has delivered over 3 100 in-person training sessions (totaling 23 000 training hours and 26 400 participants) alongside 500 online activities (equivalent to 6 150 training hours and 38 700 participants).
Additional services support digital inclusion. The BiblioCyL Digital platform provides free e-books, audiobooks, magazines and podcasts in accessible formats. A regional support service offers remote help via telephone, WhatsApp or email for any digital questions or issues. Castilla y León is also participating in the development of artificial intelligence applications through initiatives such as the Digis3 European Digital Innovation Hub and the RETECH-Artificial Intelligence programme. The latter has a total budget of over EUR 42 million and aims to strengthen digital capacities in both public and private sectors (Junta de Castilla y León, 2024[10]).
With a well-established education system and consistently high student performance, Castilla y León remains a leader in educational quality, exceeding national, EU, and OECD averages in PISA scores. However, shifting demographic trends, regional disparities, and rising per-student costs highlight the need for strategic resource allocation and adaptive policies to ensure continued accessibility and efficiency in the education sector.
Strengthening education policy in Castilla y León
Since the adoption of the Spanish Constitution in 1978, education has undergone a comprehensive decentralisation process, transferring powers and resources to the Autonomous Communities. Basic education is compulsory and free in both state and publicly subsidised private schools, covering two stages: primary education (ages 6-12) and compulsory secondary education (ESO, ages 12–16). After ESO, students may pursue Bachillerato, Vocational Education and Training (VET), or enter the labour market. The two-year Bachillerato programme offers four specialised pathways: Arts, Science and Technology, Humanities and Social Sciences, and General. VET combines theoretical and practical training and is structured into basic, intermediate, and advanced cycles. Basic VET is compulsory and free of charge, leading to a basic professional qualification, while intermediate and advanced cycles lead to Technician and Higher Technician titles.
Castilla y León has consolidated a teacher training model that is recognised as a key factor in the region’s educational performance results. Through a network of 16 innovation and training centres, 90% of teachers participate in continuous training annually, exceeding the national average of 80%. Each teacher completes around 80 hours per year, focusing on methodologies, digital skills, and rural-specific instruction. The model ensures that geography is not a barrier, with distance learning available to all.
VET in Castilla y León offers a flexible pathway for young people and adults. A network of 200 educational centres – 120 public and 80 subsidised – delivers 1 100 courses across 134 qualifications to around 47 000 students. The system is overseen by the Castilla y León Vocational Training Council, which prepares five-year strategic plans in line with national and EU policy frameworks. Course offerings are reviewed annually to respond to labour market needs, although challenges remain in aligning student preferences with labour market demand. Collaboration with chambers of commerce and sectoral clusters is being strengthened to address this gap. The region has adopted a modular catalogue system that supports flexible and personalised training. However, access to courses remains limited in municipalities with fewer than 10 000 inhabitants. Dual VET, which integrates classroom instruction with work-based learning, has become an important tool for boosting employability.
To promote equity and innovation, Castilla y León has implemented several policies tailored to its demographic trends. One key initiative is the network of Centros Rurales Agrupados (CRAs), which group together small schools in sparsely populated areas and deliver multi-grade teaching to 5-20 students per class. Introduced in 1986, this model supports educational continuity and quality in rural zones. In some cases, students are transported to larger schools in nearby municipalities to ensure access to comprehensive education services. Additionally, bilingual education has expanded in recent years. Currently, 525 schools in the region offer programmes in English, French, German, Italian or Portuguese, reaching over 104 000 students – approximately 30% of the total student population. The region has also introduced measures to support work-life balance, including the “Madrugadores” (Early Birds) and “Tardes en el Cole” (Afternoons at School) programmes, which extend school hours. In the 2022/23 academic year, these initiatives supported 12 400 families. To promote equal access to learning materials, the RELEO PLUS programme has provided free textbooks to students from low-income households since 2017/2018, reducing financial barriers to education. Under its ESF+ 2021-27 programme (Priority 4: "To promote gender equality, equal opportunities and non-discrimination"), the region is also investing in inclusive education initiatives, digital resources for students, and school infrastructure in shrinking areas. Finally, digital transformation is also being supported. In 2022/23, the regional government awarded 2 400 grants for digital device purchases to help improve digital literacy and support technology integration in classrooms.
Enhancing education access and performance in Castilla y León
Castilla y León’s education system serves a broad student population across various levels, with a strong presence in rural areas. In the 2023/24 academic year, Castilla y León’s education system included 1 593 school centres and 18 908 educational units1 across all municipalities, serving 347 771 students. The compulsory education network covers pre-school, primary, and secondary levels and includes 178 Centros Rurales Agrupados (CRAs), which provide multi-grade education to over 14 300 students in sparsely populated areas.
Vocational Education and Training (VET) has expanded steadily, supported by diverse learning options and strong private sector collaboration. In 2022/23, enrolment reached 4 260 in basic VET, 17 795 in intermediate VET, and 21 153 in advanced VET. Growth has been supported by an increasing range of in-person and distance learning options. Collaboration with the private sector is a key element of the system, with 36 984 companies involved in training activities – nearly 2 000 more than the previous year.
The higher education sector has also grown, with university enrolment rising and institutions expanding their offerings. Castilla y León is home to nine universities: four public (Burgos, León, Salamanca, and Valladolid), five private, and centres affiliated with UNED (the National Distance University). In 2022/23, university enrolment rose to 91 712 students, a notable increase over the previous year.
Technology integration is a key feature of Castilla y León’s education system, improving digital access in schools. In 2022/23, 1 527 public schools had broadband access – 20 more than in the previous year. The regional government added 10 000 computers, bringing the total number of digital devices in public schools to over 109 000. The student-to-device ratio improved to 2.13, facilitating access to digital learning tools (Consejo Económico y Social de Castilla y León, 2024[15]).
The education workforce has been reinforced to maintain quality teaching and favourable student-teacher ratios. In 2023/24, the number of non-university teachers increased to 39 052 – up by more than 2 000 from the previous year. Student-teacher ratios vary by settlement type (Figure 5.6): rural areas average 5.3 students per teacher, compared to 8.8 in towns and 9.4 in urban areas. The national average is 12 students per teacher in primary and 11 in lower secondary education.
Average student-teacher ratio across Castilla y León (2023/24)
Note: Averages are unweighted municipality means.
Source: OECD calculations based on data received by the region.
Castilla y León continues to achieve high educational outcomes, with strong international assessment results and low early school leaving rates. In the 2022 PISA tests, the region scored 20-30 points above the national, EU, and OECD averages across reading, science, and mathematics (Figure 5.7), equivalent to nearly one year of additional schooling (Avvisati and Givord, 2021[16]). Additionally, in 2023, the early school leaving rate was just 9.9%, well below the national average of 13.6%, reinforcing Castilla y León’s reputation for strong educational performance.
PISA scores for mathematics, science, and reading relative to national and international benchmarks (2022)
Source: OECD calculations based on OECD (2022[17]).
Diverging trends in student enrolment and teacher employment
Student enrolment in Castilla y León has declined over time, with different patterns emerging in primary and secondary education, while teacher employment has continued to rise. In primary education, enrolment rose slightly after 2005/06 but began to fall significantly around 2019/20 (Figure 5.8, Panel A). By 2023/24, primary enrolment had dropped below the 2005/06 baseline. Zamora experienced the sharpest decline, with a reduction of over 20%, while Valladolid still had more than 10% additional students compared to 2005/06. Burgos also recorded net growth, whereas other provinces saw declines.
Secondary education trends have followed a different trajectory: enrolment declined until 2016/17, followed by a partial recovery (Figure 5.8, Panel B). However, in 2023/24, enrolment remained nearly 10% below 2005/06 levels. Only Valladolid and Burgos saw net increases over the entire period, while Zamora lost over 30% of its secondary students.
Student enrolment in primary and secondary education, relative to 2005/2006 baseline (=100)
Note: Panel A shows the development of primary students, and Panel B shows that of secondary students, relative to the 2005/06 baseline (=100). The Castilla y León average is population-weighted.
Source: OECD calculations based on data received by the region.
Despite declining student numbers, especially in primary, teacher employment has continued to rise, particularly in secondary education. In primary education, the number of teachers increased by around 15% region-wide, although Palencia, Zamora and Soria recorded decreases (Figure 5.9, Panel A). In secondary education, all provinces experienced growth, with overall teacher numbers rising by more than 35% since 2005/06 (Figure 5.9, Panel B).
This growing divergence between enrolment trends and staffing levels highlights potential long-term budgetary challenges. While reduced class sizes can enhance learning, Castilla y León already has lower student-teacher ratios than the national average. Maintaining rising staffing levels despite falling enrolment could increase long-term costs, placing further pressure on public budgets in a context of population decline and ageing.
Teacher employment in primary and secondary education, relative to 2005/2006 baseline (=100)
Note: Panel A shows the development of primary teachers, and Panel B shows that of secondary teachers, relative to the 2005/06 baseline (=100). The Castilla y León average is population-weighted.
Source: OECD calculations based on data received by the region.
Improving access to education facilities in Castilla y León
Castilla y León’s school transport network plays a crucial role in ensuring educational access. The region has a school transport network of 2 500 routes that serve 36 000 pupils daily. For these students, access to education facilities is crucial, yet it varies depending on settlement type, education level, and province (Figure 5.10). Travel times to schools are longer in rural areas. On average, rural students face travel times nearly four times higher than those in urban areas, for both primary and upper secondary education. This reflects lower population density and greater distances between settlements. Upper secondary schools are less accessible than primary schools across all settlement types. In cities and towns and suburbs, average drive times to upper secondary schools are around three times longer than for primary schools. In rural areas, the gap is smaller but still evident, highlighting the centralised location of upper secondary schools, typically based in regional centres. There are also differences across provinces. Valladolid shows some of the shortest travel times for both school levels, while Zamora records the highest, particularly in rural zones. In these areas, rural travel times in Zamora can be twice as long as in Valladolid, underscoring territorial disparities in educational access.
Average driving time (assuming no congestion) to closest education facility
Note: Assuming car driving at speed limit without congestion. Averages are weighted by population.
Source: OECD calculations based on GISCO.
Changing cost and future projections of education provision
Rising education costs in Castilla y León, driven by declining enrolment and increasing teacher employment, pose long-term financial challenges, particularly in rural areas. Education spending primarily covers current expenditure, including staff salaries, retirement contributions, teaching materials, school maintenance, and student support services, while excluding capital expenditure and private education costs. Due to demographic shifts, per-student costs are increasing, especially in provinces with sharp population losses, where maintaining small schools reduces economies of scale.
Projected cost increases in both primary and secondary education will put additional financial pressure on the region. While in 2011, the average cost per primary student in Castilla y León was already 10% above the national average, by 2035, it is projected to rise to 15% above, increasing from EUR 4 257 to EUR 4 460 per student (Figure 5.11, Panel A). Zamora is expected to see the sharpest rise, with costs reaching 33% above the national average, increasing by EUR 460 per student (from EUR 4 714 to EUR 5 173). In contrast, Valladolid is projected to maintain its relative position. This divergence may potentially reflect differences in demographic trends across provinces – particularly in Zamora, where stronger enrolment declines could be driving up per-student costs due to smaller class sizes and reduced economies of scale. If enrolment remains stable, total cost increases by 2035 would amount to EUR 23 million for Castilla y León, with nearly EUR 3 million in Zamora. These estimates represent upper bounds and do not reflect anticipated enrolment declines.
Secondary education costs are also expected to increase but at a slower rate. Castilla y León’s cost per student is projected to rise by three percentage points by 2035, staying closer to the national average (Figure 5.11, Panel B). In absolute terms, secondary school costs are expected to increase from EUR 6 702 in 2011 to EUR 6 870 in 2035. Ávila and Segovia are projected to record the largest increases, reaching EUR 7 311 and EUR 7 169 respectively. Assuming constant enrolment (87 716 secondary students in total), overall costs would rise by approximately EUR 30 million, with Ávila and Segovia each accounting for around EUR 2 million. However, as with primary education, this is also an upper-bound estimate.
Modelled per student cost of primary and secondary education in 2011 and 2035, relative to Spanish average (=100)
Note: The cost indicator reflects current expenditure per primary school student (in Euros) for 2011 and 2035. It includes teacher and staff compensation, as well as goods and services. Future estimates are based on the baseline scenario, which assumes 2035 supply and demand. The averages for Spain (excluding the Canary Islands) and Castilla y León are weighted by population in 2011 and projections for 2035.
Source: OECD calculations based on OECD/EC-JRC (2021[18]).
At the municipal level, rising costs will disproportionately affect rural areas, with a growing number of municipalities expected to be among the most expensive nationwide. Around 380 municipalities in Castilla y León could see education costs reach two to three times the national average, exceeding EUR 10 000 per student in some cases (Figure 5.12). Given the combination of rising costs, declining student numbers (Figure 5.8), and increasing teacher employment (Figure 5.9), optimising the school network while maintaining quality and access is a key challenge (Box 5.6).
Modelled per student cost of primary education in 2035, by municipality
Note: The cost indicator reflects current expenditure per primary school student (in Euros) for 2035. It includes teacher and staff compensation, as well as goods and services. The estimates are based on the baseline scenario, which assumes 2035 supply and demand.
Source: OECD calculations based on OECD/EC-JRC (2021[18]).
In view of the rising cost of service delivery associated with demographic change, regions such as Castilla y León face increasing challenges in ensuring accessible, high-quality education services. While efforts to improve service accessibility continue, shrinking and ageing populations, alongside a declining tax base, highlight the need to carefully balance accessibility, cost-efficiency, and quality. These trade-offs represent a growing concern for regional and local policy makers, particularly in the context of long-term service sustainability (Box 5.5).
Public service provision must balance three key principles: accessibility, cost and quality. However, demographic change makes this difficult, as ageing populations and longer life expectancies are driving increased demand for elderly care and specialised health services, while declining fertility rates are leading to lower school enrolments and evolving educational needs. At the same time, a shrinking working-age population is reducing the tax base, placing additional pressure on public finances and challenging regional and local governments to allocate resources effectively.
As populations decline and age, maintaining the accessibility and quality of public services becomes increasingly costly. Rising demand for healthcare and long-term care, coupled with higher per capita education costs due to shrinking student cohorts, will drive up service provision expenses.
Balancing accessibility and cost containment may compromise service quality. Budgetary constraints that restrict investments in infrastructure, workforce retention, professional development and technological innovation can lead to a significant decline in service standards. Conversely, preserving quality while limiting expenditure often requires service reductions and facility closures, disproportionately impacting vulnerable groups, particularly those in remote areas.
With demographic change maintaining public service accessibility and quality while balancing costs forms a challenging trinity without innovative policy solutions
As ageing and population decline persist, service provision must evolve. Developing resilient public services in the context of demographic change will require innovative policy solutions that balance cost, accessibility and quality (OECD, 2022[19]), (OECD, 2022[20]), (OECD, 2021[21]). This can include strategies to enhance efficiency through service integration and administrative simplification. Service networks can be restructured and optimised to maintain quality and equitable access while managing costs effectively. Alternative provision can be explored, including public-private partnerships or community-based initiatives. Physical service delivery should be complimented with remote and mobile solutions.
School mergers may offer cost-saving opportunities through economies of scale and facility repurposing. Based on municipal-level data, 27 primary schools across 14 municipalities could be considered for consolidation, affecting around 1 291 students. Most are combined primary and childcare centres, while a smaller number serve secondary and higher-level education. Assuming 50-75% of students are in primary education, projected costs for these schools in 2035 range from EUR 4-6 million in current expenditure.
Potential savings could come from two main channels:
Economies of scale: Most candidate municipalities have small student populations (average of 92), and in 8 of them, fewer than 50 students. Merging could reduce administrative and staffing costs.
Facility repurposing or closure: Consolidation could reduce leasing or maintenance costs and create opportunities for alternative uses of school buildings.
For example, in Pradoluengo, two schools serve 32 students. The projected 2035 cost is EUR 8 132 per student. Merging them could consolidate resources. Similarly, in Lubián, two nearby schools serve only 13 students, with a projected cost of EUR 10 981 per student. A merger could improve efficiency and sustainability (Figure 5.14). However, school mergers may also lead to increased travel time for students and reduced local accessibility, particularly in sparsely populated areas. In the cases analysed (Box 5.6), however, the additional travel time is limited – within around a five-minute drive – suggesting that accessibility impacts may be modest. Nevertheless, these impacts should be carefully assessed and mitigated – for instance through improved transport options or complementary digital learning solutions, to ensure equitable access. Where nearby secondary schools exist, further integrated restructuring could create unified education hubs, improving access and reducing operational costs.
Opportunities exist to achieve savings without compromising access and quality. Several primary schools – all in rural areas – have per-student costs above the 75th percentile and are located within a five-minute drive of another school. Merging these could offer broader curricula, enhance extra-curricular activities, and reduce per-student costs through scale economies. Where alternative schools are not nearby, other solutions will be needed to maintain local service delivery.
Primary school cost in relation to travel time to the nearest primary school
Note: Travel times assume no congestion. Candidates for merger are identified by those modelled to be above the 75th percentile for costs and have another primary school located within 5 minutes’ drive. Cost data is available only at the municipality level, so all schools in the same municipality share the same modeled per student cost.
Source: OECD calculations based on OECD/EC-JRC (2021[18]).
Location of merger candidates in Castilla y León based on cost and proximity to a nearby primary school
Note: Travel times assume no congestion. Candidates for merger are identified by those modelled to be above the 75th percentile for costs and have another primary school located within 5 minutes’ drive. The color gradient represents the average driving time in minutes to the nearest primary school per municipality.
Source: OECD calculations based on OECD/EC-JRC (2021[18]).
With the second highest dependency ratio in Spain, and a chronic disease rate of 68%, significantly higher than the national average of 54%, the healthcare system in Castilla y León must balance accessibility with sustainability (Ministerio de Sanidad, 2020[22]). Although the region has a well-developed healthcare infrastructure, demographic changes and rising costs call for strategic investments in digital health, workforce retention and service optimisation.
Strengthening healthcare policy and infrastructure in Castilla y León
Castilla y León stands out as one of Spain’s top-performing regions in healthcare delivery, achieving strong outcomes across a wide range of indicators despite its vast territory, low population density, and ageing population. This performance reflects long-term investments in primary care, an adaptive approach to service delivery, and growing use of digital models to overcome geographic and demographic challenges.
The regional healthcare system operates under the legal framework of the Statute of Autonomy and Law 8/2010. The system is territorially organised into 11 Health Areas, each of which enables co-ordinated healthcare planning and service delivery in response to population needs and geographic specificities.
Primary care in Castilla y León is a pillar of its healthcare strategy and one of its major strengths, especially in rural and low-density areas. The region has developed Spain’s most extensive primary care network, with 247 health centres – 65% of which are located in rural municipalities – complemented by 196 Continuous Care Points (PAC) and over 3 600 local clinics (Junta de Castilla y León, 2023[23]). On average, each health centre is associated with 14.7 local clinics, far exceeding the national average of 3.3 (Ministerio de Sanidad, 2023[24]) (Ministerio de Sanidad, 2022[25]). Nearly half (42.3%) of these facilities are located in municipalities with fewer than 50 inhabitants, and 450 clinics operate with fewer than 10 Individual Health Cards (TSI), reflecting Castilla y León’s commitment to service continuity even in the smallest localities. The region also benefits from relatively high staffing ratios: there are 1.06 primary care doctors per 1 000 residents, compared to a national average of 0.77, and 0.86 nurses per 1 000 residents, the second highest ratio in the country (vs. 0.70 nationally). Patient loads are also among the lowest in Spain: only 8% of family doctors manage more than 1 500 TSIs (vs. 60% nationally), with an average of 931 TSIs per family doctor and 847 per pediatrician (FADSP, 2024[26]) (Ministerio de Sanidad, 2025[27]). To reduce administrative burden and improve responsiveness, Castilla y León has hired additional administrative staff and implemented a citizen service module that guarantees patient contact within 24 hours for non-clinical issues. Online and mobile appointment booking, telephone follow-ups, and automatic medication renewal have also improved access. Since April 2024, the region has participated in the EU electronic prescription system, further enhancing cross-border healthcare continuity.
Hospital and specialist care is delivered through a well-structured network that reflects the region’s two main territorial axes – East and West – and comprises 14 public hospitals and 14 specialist centres offering a combined 73 health services. Recognising that long travel distances can limit access in rural areas, Castilla y León has expanded its local healthcare model to bring hospital services closer to patients. This includes regular specialist consultations in 40 rural health centres and 7 satellite clinics, helping to reduce the need for long-distance travel and support early diagnosis. High-Resolution Consultations (CAR) are another key innovation, allowing diagnostic tests, consultations, and treatment decisions to be completed in a single visit. These efforts have improved efficiency and outcomes: Castilla y León has one of the lowest surgical waiting list rates per 1 000 inhabitants in Spain and ranks second nationally in reducing the proportion of patients awaiting surgery (Junta de Castilla y León, 2025[28]). Average waiting times remain below the national average (Ministerio de Sanidad, 2025[29]). Co-ordination between hospital and primary care is reinforced through joint planning within each of the 11 Health Areas, allowing for service alignment across levels of care and adapting provision to demographic trends and local realities.
Emergency services are a vital part of Castilla y León’s healthcare system, particularly in remote and sparsely populated territories. The Emergency Co-ordination Centre (CCU-Sacyl) oversees a fleet of 194 Emergency Healthcare Units, including 4 medical helicopters, 23 Emergency Medical Units, 143 Basic Life Support Units, 18 Health Transport Units, and 6 Medicalised Ambulances. The 62% of these units are based in rural areas, covering 38% of the population. Castilla y León ranks fourth nationally in terms of ambulance availability, with 8.2 units per 10 000 inhabitants – well above the national average of 6.5. Investments have been made to ensure helicopter services can operate at night, and to upgrade land transport in mountainous and difficult-to-access areas, ensuring timely response in emergency situations regardless of location.
Digitalisation and telemedicine are increasingly central to Castilla y León’s strategy for ensuring service continuity and efficiency in low-density areas. More than 350 telepresence units have been installed across health centres to improve co-ordination between primary and hospital care. Teledermatology is a particularly successful example, with over 35 000 consultations carried out in 2023 – double the previous year – and nearly half resolved without the need for in-person hospital care. Remote consultations between professionals increased by 255% in 2023 to reach 100 000, with over 40% resolved without referral. The Sacyl Conecta app and the digital Patient Folder have also been expanded to facilitate online access to health records, appointment management, and prescription renewals. Castilla y León has been participating in the EU’s electronic prescription programme since 2024. These innovations are supported by the 2023-27 Strategic Plan for Research and Innovation in Health, which prioritises ageing, cancer, precision medicine, and humanised care. The region’s four accredited health research institutes – IBSAL, IBioVALL, IBIoLEÓN, and IBIoBURGOS – co-ordinate research and technological adoption across the healthcare system.
Community outreach and mobile services complement the region’s formal healthcare infrastructure and help address specific needs in rural and ageing communities. For example, in Palencia, a mobile ophthalmology unit operated by the Recoletas Salud Institute screened 897 older adults across 21 municipalities, improving early detection and preventing avoidable vision loss. Similar initiatives are being piloted in other provinces. More broadly, Castilla y León is strengthening integration between health and social care services, particularly for older adults and people with chronic conditions, through locally adapted care pathways and cross-sectoral co-ordination mechanisms. These efforts aim to reduce unnecessary hospitalisation and increase the quality and continuity of care delivered at home or in the community.
Despite strong infrastructure and staffing ratios, Castilla y León faces challenges in attracting and retaining medical professionals, particularly in general practice. The number of physicians declined from 10 789 in 2013 to 8 898 in 2022 – an 18% drop (Figure 5.20, Panel A), with family and community medicine facing critical shortages. Hospital bed and pharmacy availability have improved, though trends vary by province. Between 2003 and 2023, hospital beds per capita rose 2%, while pharmacy numbers rose 7% between 2004 and 2023 (Figure 5.15). Palencia has the highest hospital bed ratio (approx. 55 per 10 000 residents), while Segovia, Salamanca, and Zamora have the lowest (30-35). Notably, Zamora increased from 25 beds in 2003 to 35 in 2023.
Hospital beds and number of pharmacies per 10 000 people
Note: The ratio of hospital beds and pharmacies is scaled by the regional population for each respective year.
Source: OECD calculations based on data received by the region.
Access to outpatient care varies across the region, with significant disparities in waiting lists and structural delays. Zamora has the highest share of residents on waiting lists – more than 1 in 500 – while Burgos has the lowest (1 in 1 400) (Figure 5.16, Panel A). The regional average is 1 in 1 000, with around 75% of these classified as structural waiting. These differences are influenced by factors such as healthcare infrastructure, demographic pressures, and workforce shortages, with rural provinces like Zamora facing higher demand and more limited service capacity. Structural waiting refers to patients exceeding standard timeframes due to capacity or resource limitations, rather than clinical prioritisation. These differences correlate with the average number of days spent in structural waiting (Figure 5.16, Panel B). Zamora also has the longest average wait – over 150 days – while the regional average is closer to 90 days, illustrating broader challenges in service capacity and access.
Average number of patients waiting relative to population and average waiting time
Note: The values serve as proxies for each region, based on data from the largest hospital in that region. For Burgos, León, and Valladolid, where multiple hospitals reported data, values were aggregated. The "number of patients waiting relative to the population" includes all individuals awaiting their first outpatient consultation, encompassing both those within the standard waiting period and those on the structural waitlist (i.e. experiencing longer delays), relative to the total population of the respective region. The “average number of days in structural waiting” is a weighted average for Burgos, León, and Valladolid, where multiple hospitals reported data.
Source: OECD calculations based on Junta de Castilla y León (2024[30]).
Improving healthcare accessibility in rural Castilla y León
As with other services, hospital access in rural Castilla y León is more limited than in urban areas. Rural drive times vary across the region: in Valladolid and Palencia, residents typically reach the nearest hospital in under 30 minutes, while in Ávila, travel times exceed 50 minutes (Figure 5.17, Panel A). This reflects differences in geography, population density, and infrastructure distribution – Ávila’s more mountainous and dispersed settlements contrast with the denser and better-connected networks of provinces such as Valladolid and Palencia. In addition, Palencia and Salamanca also report long hospital drive times in towns and suburbs, nearly matching those of rural areas. In Palencia, towns and suburbs face travel times nearly five times higher than cities; in Salamanca, nearly four times higher – revealing significant gaps in hospital distribution.
Pharmacy density also differs across provinces. Valladolid and Burgos have the lowest densities, with just over five pharmacies per 10 000 residents, while Zamora has the highest, nearing 10. Although most regions saw increases in pharmacy numbers, Segovia and Soria remained stable or declined (Figure 5.15, Panel B). Despite differences in supply, accessibility is relatively consistent in urban areas. However, rural access shows more variation (Figure 5.17, Panel B). In Burgos, rural residents reach pharmacies in around six minutes – among the shortest times – despite low density. Ávila, by contrast, has one of the highest densities but the longest rural travel times, at nearly 14 minutes. These disparities underscore the need to assess both service density and travel time when planning healthcare provision in sparsely populated areas.
Average driving time (assuming no congestion) to closest education facility
Note: Assuming car driving at speed limit without congestion. Averages are weighted by population.
Source: OECD calculations based on GISCO and ESPON.
Changing cost and future projections of healthcare provision
Healthcare costs in Castilla y León vary by service type, region, and scale. Unlike education, where costs are more uniform, healthcare spending depends on treatment complexity, patient volume, and facility specialisation. Larger hospitals benefit from economies of scale: a 1% increase in population reduces per capita cardiology costs by 0.57% and maternity and obstetrics (M&O) costs by 0.33% (OECD/EC-JRC, 2021[18]). The analysis estimates costs based on patients’ residence rather than facility location.
For M&O services, Castilla y León’s per user costs are about 10% above the national average but are projected to decrease slightly by 2035 (Figure 5.18, Panel A), driven by faster declining birth rates. Regional trends vary: Palencia shows the largest cost drop (–30 percentage points), followed by Valladolid (–20 p.p.), Ávila and Segovia (–10 p.p. each). In contrast, Burgos and Salamanca have experienced cost increases of 20 and 10 percentage points, respectively. Meanwhile, cardiology costs are around 20% below the Spanish average and expected to remain relatively stable (Figure 5.18, Panel B). All provinces except Segovia are below the national benchmark. Segovia is projected to converge to the national average over time.
Modelled per user cost of healthcare provision in 2011 and 2035, relative to Spanish average in cities (=100)
Note: The annual cost per user for maternity and obstetrics (M&O) services is indexed to the national average in cities (cities = 100). Costs are estimated based on modeled service locations and potential demand. Annual costs are inferred using a regression model trained on 2020 NHS England Reference Costs data. The index shows deviations from national city average costs, presented for 2011 (present) and 2035 (future).Source: OECD calculations based on OECD/EC-JRC (2021[18]).
While these projections refer to annual per user costs, overall healthcare spending is set to rise due to demographic ageing. Public health spending in Castilla y León is expected to increase from EUR 2 000 per capita in 2022 to over EUR 2 600 by 2035 (Figure 5.19), reflecting growing financial pressures. At the same time, physician numbers have declined by about 18% since 2013. If this trend continues, the region could face a shortfall of around 6 000 physicians by 2050 (Figure 5.20, Panel A). Ageing will increase demand, requiring more professionals than current trends would support. For nurses, data from 2018-22 suggest a moderate upward trend (Figure 5.20, Panel B). If this continues, Castilla y León would exceed the number needed to maintain current care levels while accounting for demographic change. By 2050, approximately 5 500 additional nurses will be required to meet projected needs.
Public health spending per capita for Castilla y León and Spain, 2002-35
Note: Values from 2023 onward are forecasts. Public health spending is measured in EUR per capita.
Source: Junta de Castilla y León.
Modelled need for physicians and nurses in Castilla y León to align with rising old-age ratio
Note: Values from 2023 onward are forecasts, linearly scaled based on the past observed trend. The old-age ratio represents the share of the population aged 65 and older relative to the total population. The projected need for physicians and nurses was calculated by holding quality constant while scaling their numbers in proportion to both the population forecast and the old-age ratio, relative to the base year 2022.
Source: OECD calculations based on Eurostat.
Castilla y León’s regional social services system provides social assistance, community development, and support for vulnerable groups, including children, families, and the elderly. Managed by the Social Services Department since 1995, it serves 575 000 people annually (24% of the population) across 134 service types. The 2022-25 Strategic Plan prioritises technological innovation, particularly for rural care. Beyond its social role, the sector is a key employer in this sparsely populated region, with a 19% workforce increase in four years, reaching 52 000 professionals. With 66 jobs per million euros of public spending – well above the national average of 41 – the system is supported by 190 Social Action Centres (CEAS) and a centralised resource co-ordination system. Castilla y León ranks third in Spain’s Social Services Development Index (DEC). This section highlights childcare and elderly care, two essential services for supporting families and addressing demographic ageing.
Ensuring early education: childcare and family support in Castilla y León
Castilla y León has strengthened its commitment to early childhood education by making public education for children aged 0 to 3 free – similar to initiatives in other regions such as Asturias and Cantabria. The latter is organised into two cycles: the first up to age three, and the second to age six. In 2022/23, 17 981 children were enrolled in the first cycle, across 442 centres – 241 of which were public, up by 74 from the previous year (Consejo Económico y Social de Castilla y León, 2024[15]). Rural coverage remains significant, with 24.8% of pupils in rural areas. The number of children in rural centres rose by over 83%, reflecting efforts to improve access in low-density areas.
Beyond schooling, Castilla y León promotes work-life balance through childcare programmes and direct financial support for families. The Crecemos programme, launched in 2004 via an agreement between the regional government and provincial councils, provides childcare in municipalities with fewer than 15 children and no private alternatives. In 2023, Crecemos operated 295 centres with 4 395 places. Unlike regional nurseries offering five-hour school days with optional paid extensions, Crecemos centres offer up to eight hours, giving families more flexibility. Family policies are consolidated under the Plan Familias, launched in 2022. Measures include the Bono Nacimiento (EUR 500-2 500), distributed via prepaid cards to buy childcare essentials from local businesses. Nearly 9 000 families have benefited, with amounts adjusted based on income, number of children, and disability status. In addition, the Conciliamos programme, managed by the Ministry of Family Affairs, provides childcare during school holidays for children aged 3 to 12. In 2023, participation increased by 16.6%, showing its growing role in supporting working parents (Consejo Económico y Social de Castilla y León, 2024[15]).
Additional support measures help working families manage early childcare costs. For instance, the Bono Concilia provides EUR 750 per child aged 0 to 3 to support working families. It is compatible with the Bono Nacimiento, offering additional support during early childcare years.
While childcare enrolment has fluctuated over the years, post-pandemic recovery has pushed numbers above pre-2005/06 levels, though regional disparities remain. Enrolment peaked in 2012/13, declined until 2020/21, and has since rebounded. Zamora recorded the largest decline, ending 10% below its initial level (Figure 5.21, Panel A), primarily due to more pronounced depopulation and declining birth rates, which have reduced the number of children eligible for enrolment. In terms of accessibility, average rural travel times vary by province. Valladolid and Palencia report the shortest rural drive times (under six minutes), while Zamora has the longest (nearly 12 minutes). Across the region, average drive times are just over two minutes in urban areas and around eight minutes in rural areas (Figure 5.21, Panel B).
Childcare enrolment (Panel A) and average driving time to closest childcare facility (Panel B)
Note: Childcare enrollment is measured relative to 2005/06 baseline (=100) in Panel A. Panel B shows the average driving time to the nearest childcare facility, assuming car driving at speed limit without congestion. Averages are weighted by population.
Source: OECD calculations based on GISCO and data received by the region.
Caring for an ageing population: elderly care in Castilla y León
As Castilla y León faces an ageing population and growing levels of isolation among the elderly, the region has strengthened its leadership in long-term care by prioritising home care initiatives and active ageing programs.
Enhancing social policies for the elderly in Castilla y León
Population ageing in Castilla y León is accelerating rural depopulation and increasing the number of elderly people living alone or in vulnerable conditions. Currently, 25.6% of individuals over 65 live alone, with projections estimating this will rise to 34% by 2033 (Junta de Castilla y León, 2025[31]). In response, the region has adopted a comprehensive strategy aimed at improving elderly well-being through preventive policies and direct care. Despite the challenges of sparsity and social isolation, Castilla y León maintains a strong position in elderly care at the national level, focusing on well-being and social inclusion.
Strategic initiatives aim to prevent social isolation and improve elderly care through a mix of residential services and community-based support. The Strategic Plan against Unwanted Loneliness and Social Isolation 2022-27 outlines 30 actions across three pillars: prevention and awareness, personalised social support, and the creation of community meeting spaces. Residential care is governed by Law 5/2003 and Law 39/2006, regulating temporary and permanent stays. In 2023, care home capacity rose by 1.1%, reaching 49 321 places, of which 73.8% are privately managed (including subsidised places), and 26.2% are publicly operated. The region maintains the highest national rate of publicly funded residential care, with 8.2% of people over 70 in care – more than double the national average (3.9%). Additionally, Castilla y León leads in dependency care, scoring 8.3 in the national Dependency Observatory ranking, tied with Castilla-La Mancha (Asociación de Directoras y Gerentes de Servicios Sociales, 2024[32]).
Complementary to formal care, the region promotes active ageing through programmes that enhance engagement, learning, and intergenerational connections. The Comprehensive Active Ageing Programme includes various initiatives such as the Travel Programme, which encourages senior participation in tourism, and the Inter-university Experience Programme, which promotes lifelong learning through university courses. The Inter-generational Outreach Programme fosters exchanges between students and older adults through shared accommodation, while the 60s Club Card offers discounts for cultural, recreational, and social activities, reinforcing elderly participation in community life.
Expanding home care and supportive housing in Castilla y León
Alongside institutional care, Castilla y León has developed a comprehensive home care strategy to enable elderly and dependent individuals to remain at home safely and with quality of life. These policies include direct care services, housing adaptations, and workforce solutions. The region’s flagship programme, A Gusto en Casa (Feeling Well at Home), offers personalised care to support ageing in place (Box 5.7). Complementing this, the INTECUM programme provides home-based palliative care, allowing individuals with limited life expectancy to remain in familiar surroundings. Both initiatives deliver personal assistance, healthcare, family support, and access to care technologies. Since its launch, INTECUM has reached 2 336 people (Junta de Castilla y León, 2025[33]).
Most older adults in Castilla y León prefer to remain at home, even when support is needed. “A Gusto en Casa” supports this choice by delivering comprehensive care to individuals with dependency, chronic illness, or disability. The model integrates social and health services through a care team that includes a case manager and a co-ordinator from the Social Action Centre (CEAS). Services include personal care, home healthcare, home adaptations, remote assistance, support for informal carers, and participation in community activities that reinforce the inclusion and well-being of the elderly.
Launched in 2018, the programme has supported 4 575 users across 981 municipalities. At the end of 2024, 2 569 people were enrolled, with the largest numbers in Palencia (404), Zamora (438), and Burgos (310). Women account for 61% of participants. The region is working to expand the programme and ensure financial accessibility.
These initiatives also generate employment and contribute to rural revitalisation. It is estimated that for every 100 beneficiaries, 64 jobs are created. The gradual expansion of “A Gusto en Casa” and INTECUM has followed a model of experimentation and learning, positioning home-based care as a viable alternative to institutional care. To address key challenges, including housing suitability and workforce availability, Castilla y León has introduced two complementary programmes: Viviendas en Red and Proyecto Zamora (Box 5.8).
“Viviendas en Red”: adapted housing for elderly care
This programme is a fundamental complement to "A Gusto en Casa" and INTECUM. Many homes do not meet the necessary accessibility and safety requirements. In other situations, users simply lack housing in the municipality where they wish to reside.
To respond to these needs, “Viviendas en Red” rehabilitates municipally owned housing for use by dependent individuals at symbolic rents. Some units are also reserved for care professionals to promote rural retention. The housing is adapted for safety and accessibility and accommodates visits from family and friends. By early 2025, 31 homes in 13 municipalities had been subsidised; 19 were completed and inhabited by December 2024.
“Proyecto Zamora”: addressing workforce shortages in elderly care through migrant family integration
This pilot initiative addresses labour shortages by attracting descendants of Zamorans living abroad -particularly in Argentina and Cuba – who hold Spanish nationality. The programme supports relocation and integration, including temporary financial aid, school enrolment for children, and employment in the care sector. Sixteen people and their families have participated so far. Many joined “A Gusto en Casa”, with others progressively employed in nearby towns.
The success of the pilot relied on co-ordinated action between regional, provincial, and local governments through a unified information system. While expansion to other provinces is under consideration, the pilot has shown that the region has the necessary institutional capacity to develop similar initiatives.
Advancing innovation and senior entrepreneurship in Castilla y León
Castilla y León is fostering the silver economy by promoting innovation in products and services tailored to the needs of older people. The 2021-2027 Smart Specialisation Strategy (RIS3) identifies this sector as a key priority, with a focus on telemedicine, telecare, robotics, artificial intelligence (AI), and digital platforms for integrated care. These initiatives aim to support independent living and active ageing through technological solutions. A key event in this field is the International Fair of Innovation and Technology at the Service of Care (FITECU), whose second edition, held in Zamora in February 2025, focused on “The Future of Care” and was organised by the regional government and the SIVI Cluster.
Technological advancements in elderly care are supported through the Dependence 5.0 initiative, which develops assistive solutions for independent living. Funded by the EU’s Next Generation funds, the project has introduced innovations such as a motorised walker with GPS, an adapted toilet system requiring no home renovations, and a home automation app to enhance safety and autonomy. The initiative involves public authorities, care providers such as the Intras Foundation, universities, and technology institutes, fostering collaboration across sectors.
In parallel, Castilla y León promotes senior entrepreneurship and mentorship, linking ageing with economic innovation. Through the SECOT association, a national network of retired professionals and business leaders, older adults provide advisory services to entrepreneurs and small businesses. With regional offices in Valladolid and León and branches across the region, SECOT supports business creation while encouraging active ageing and social inclusion. These initiatives position Castilla y León as a leader in integrating ageing with technological innovation, benefiting both the care system and regional development.
Ensuring sustainable and inclusive development in Castilla y León requires innovative policies to address rural service provision, labour market needs, connectivity, and mobility challenges. With population decline, youth outmigration, and an ageing workforce, national, regional, and local policy makers must implement targeted strategies to enhance economic resilience, service accessibility, and digital transformation. This section outlines five key recommendations to optimise rural services, strengthen healthcare and social services, align skills with labour market demands, improve transport and mobile services, and expand broadband access. Leveraging EU Cohesion Policy funding will be essential to ensuring financially sustainable reforms that support long-term regional revitalisation.
1. Optimising rural service provision and school networks in Castilla y León
Castilla y León faces major challenges in ensuring equitable access to essential services, particularly in rural areas where healthcare, education, and digital connectivity gaps persist. A declining population brings challenges to maintaining an extensive school network. To enhance efficiency while preserving access, the region should strengthen regional service centres, adopt a structured approach to school consolidation, and more actively leverage EU Cohesion Policy funding to scale up integrated and place-based service models that enhance rural attractiveness and help retain and attract residents.
Enhancing regional service centres
Ensuring access to essential services remains a challenge in Castilla y León, particularly in rural municipalities with long travel times and service gaps. While urban areas benefit from service concentration, rural provinces such as Soria, Zamora, and Ávila lag behind, whereas Palencia and Valladolid show higher service coverage and shorter travel times across education, healthcare, and internet connectivity. To improve equity and efficiency, an integrated approach should co-ordinate service delivery across sectors (e.g. health, education, transport, and digital infrastructure), align investments across government levels, and involve local stakeholders in planning and implementation. Spatial planning tools, including geospatial analysis, can guide the strategic location of schools, healthcare facilities, and digital services, while cost-benefit assessments can inform decisions on expanding or consolidating services (OECD/EC-JRC, 2021[18]).
Strengthening regional service centres could be a more effective strategy than maintaining a dispersed service network, particularly in areas with significant accessibility gaps. These centres could co-locate key services such as schools, early childhood education facilities, elderly day centres or residences, libraries, and basic healthcare services, creating multi-functional hubs tailored to local needs. By concentrating these services in strategic rural areas, travel times could be reduced, and service availability improved. Targeted investments in transport infrastructure and co-location strategies would also make rural areas more attractive for families, professionals, and businesses.
Given demographic trends, Castilla y León should also aim for a more balanced elderly care model that integrates home care with community-based services. While home-based initiatives like “A Gusto en Casa” are valuable, an over-reliance on home care may not be sustainable in the long term. A more balanced approach would incorporate accessible day centres, local support networks, and shared spaces for older residents, improving care outcomes, reducing isolation, and alleviating pressure on families and the health system.
Castilla y León is already using Cohesion Policy funding to support rural service accessibility through investments in healthcare infrastructure, school renovations, digital connectivity, and on-demand rural transport systems. For example, ERDF 2014-20 funded the improvement of basic public services in rural municipalities and supported digital infrastructure and public facilities through PO2 and PO11. Under 2021-27, investments in PO5 (Europe closer to citizens) offer a new opportunity to prioritise integrated service centres aligned with demographic and territorial needs. The region could also strengthen the demographic impact of ESF+ by linking adult education, digital literacy, and workforce re-entry programmes to rural service jobs (e.g. health, care, education), especially for women and older workers. This would address both labour shortages and service quality in underserved areas. In the mid-term review, Castilla y León could propose reprogramming ERDF and FTJ allocations to prioritise investment in multi-service hubs in municipalities with identified service gaps and demographic decline. This may include co-located services, mobility solutions, and digital access points. To ensure impact, EU funding should be guided by an updated map of functional service areas (e.g. UBOSTs), supported by local participation and inter-municipal governance structures.Optimising the school network to improve efficiency
Among essential services, education presents some of the most pressing challenges for network optimisation in Castilla y León. Maintaining the current structure of primary and secondary schools is becoming increasingly expensive, with some rural schools operating with fewer than five students. Population ageing and projected declines in student numbers will further reduce enrolment in the coming years, yet adapting the school network is not currently a priority for the regional government. To address this, the region should adopt a structured and transparent approach to school network consolidation, balancing cost-efficiency with accessibility. This could involve establishing minimum enrolment thresholds, ensuring reliable school transport, and exploring multi-grade or shared school models in partnership with local communities.
Consolidating the school network could improve efficiency without compromising access, particularly given the proximity of many small schools to alternative facilities. OECD analysis identified at least 27 primary schools in 14 municipalities with merger potential, all within a five-minute drive of another school. Broader analyses, adjusting cost and distance thresholds, or including secondary schools, could reveal further opportunities for consolidation. A data-driven approach should guide network adaptation, starting with a review of school expenditures to distinguish between unavoidable costs due to remoteness and excess costs that restructuring could address. Population projections should inform planning, helping to identify potential closures and areas suited to serve as education hubs – particularly for secondary education, where economies of scale are more feasible.
Castilla y León should adopt a phased and evidence-based approach to optimising its school network, balancing efficiency with accessibility and ensuring that education quality is maintained across all territories. While adjusting the school offer may help reduce fixed costs, such changes can also increase travel times, particularly in areas with limited public transport. The region could focus on adaptive planning that uses geospatial analysis and local data to assess different scenarios and guide decisions on school location, transport provision, and resource allocation. Simulation tools can help evaluate trade-offs and ensure that student travel remains reasonable. International experience offers useful guidance – Finland, for example, follows a structured legal process for school closures, including financial and demographic impact assessments, stakeholder consultations, and structured decision-making (Box 5.9).
Municipalities in Finland often face challenges when consolidating schools, particularly in rural and shrinking areas, where schools serve as vital community symbols. As a result, local resistance is common. To address these concerns, the Basic Education Act (628/1998) and the Administrative Procedure Act (434/2003) require municipalities to ensure that school journeys remain as short and safe as possible when preparing a school closure decision.
Finnish law mandates a transparent, inclusive, and structured approach to school closures and mergers. Municipalities must follow key steps, including financial and demographic assessments, stakeholder consultations, informed decision-making, and careful implementation oversight. They are also required to share relevant data and justifications with all affected parties – including school boards, teachers, parents, and students – and collect their feedback.
The 2023 closure of Teppana School in Kajaani illustrates this structured process. The education board’s decision, framed as a cost-saving measure, was integrated into the city's budget. A comprehensive impact assessment was conducted to evaluate financial, social, and environmental implications, and a parents’ meeting was held to discuss student transportation, emotional effects, and financial considerations. While such evaluations are not legally binding, Finnish municipalities increasingly use them to inform decisions and enhance transparency. Some also conduct child impact assessments to assess potential effects on student well-being.
Experiences in Juva, Kouvola, Heinola, and Hollola show that, despite initial opposition, school consolidations can lead to improved educational outcomes. Benefits include better facilities, a broader range of courses, and stronger student interaction, ultimately increasing satisfaction among students, parents, and teachers.
Source: (OECD, 2025 Forthcoming[37])
Given the projected rise in per-student costs, particularly in rural municipalities with very small enrolments, Castilla y León could introduce a formal framework for school closures and mergers, requiring standardised impact assessments. These assessments should evaluate potential savings, student accessibility, transport availability, and expected improvements in education quality. Public participation should also be central to any school network adjustment, with mandatory stakeholder engagement involving parents, teachers, and students through hearings, forums, or other consultation methods. Such a structured and participatory approach would ensure that consolidation decisions are justified, transparent, and community-supported.
Political reluctance remains a key barrier to school network optimisation, but targeted incentives and inter-municipal co-operation could facilitate change. Concerns over community backlash often deter school closures, yet linking education funding to more efficient service delivery could encourage proactive planning. Targeted subsidies for municipalities that merge schools could ensure that cost savings are reinvested in better infrastructure and services. Lithuania provides a relevant example, where inter-municipal co-operation has been used to optimise service delivery (OECD, 2024[38]).
Finally, any school consolidation efforts should be guided by educational benefits and local conditions – not cost alone. Larger schools may offer more extracurricular activities, a wider range of optional subjects, better support services for disadvantaged students, and enhanced facilities. Decisions should prioritise improvements in student learning environments while ensuring equity in access. A comprehensive transport policy must also accompany any changes to the school network, ensuring that students in remote areas retain equitable access to education.
2. Strengthening healthcare and social services for an ageing population in Castilla y León
Ensuring healthcare and social services in Castilla y León is increasingly difficult due to labour shortages, especially among physicians and elderly care professionals. The region’s vast, sparsely populated territory worsens accessibility, straining rural care delivery. While telemedicine helps, ageing-driven demand adds pressure on the workforce. Castilla y León’s home care model needs more investment in carers and innovative service models to stay viable. Strengthening healthcare and social care can also create stable jobs, attracting young professionals. A comprehensive strategy is essential to recruit and retain professionals, reinforce elderly care, and push for structural reforms ensuring long-term sustainability.
Attracting and retaining health care and elderly care professionals
To address persistent workforce shortages in healthcare and elderly care, Castilla y León should adopt a targeted strategy focused on improving job attractiveness, retention, and training. Enhancing working conditions, offering clearer career progression, and providing financial incentives such as salary supplements, relocation assistance, and housing subsidies can help attract professionals to underserved areas. Municipalities could also allocate vacant housing with subsidised rents to encourage healthcare workers to settle in remote communities. In parallel, the region could explore the use of AI-powered tools to support healthcare delivery and workforce efficiency – for example, through pre-screening of service requests, patient-service matching, or automating administrative tasks – especially in rural areas where staff shortages are acute.
Expanding rural medical training and adapting education programmes to healthcare needs will be essential to securing a stable workforce. Introducing internships and service obligation contracts, similar to Japan’s Jichi Medical University model – which offers scholarships in exchange for rural service – could encourage more graduates to work in primary care (M. Matsumoto & E. Kajii, 2009[39]). Education and training should also incorporate geriatrics and chronic disease management to align with the needs of an ageing population, while vocational education and training (VET) programmes should adapt their offer to healthcare and elderly care professions.
Improving job attractiveness through career development opportunities, mentoring, and flexible mobility between urban and rural facilities could help retain professionals. Hybrid work models, allowing specialists to split their time between hospitals and rural centres, could enable them to maintain research and professional networks while providing services in remote areas. Career guidance programmes should also highlight employment opportunities in care-related fields and the silver economy, while stronger collaboration between universities, VET institutions, and businesses would support youth employability by expanding internships and pathways into care professions. Reviving talent matching initiatives, such as those previously co-ordinated by the Instituto para la Competitividad Empresarial (ICE), could help connect students with SMEs and start-ups in the healthcare and ageing sectors.
Supporting informal carers – often female relatives – will also be crucial to strengthening the care system and improving carer well-being. Castilla y León should provide financial assistance, respite services,2 and training, drawing on models from Scandinavian countries. Norway’s national strategy includes subsidies, skills training, and psychological support for carers, while Sweden provides social benefits to ensure financial security for families looking after elderly or disabled relatives (Euro Carers, 2021[40]) (Norden, 2025[41]). Applying these best practices could enhance the region’s support framework for carers and improve the overall quality of elderly care.
Advocating for structural reforms in healthcare policy
Addressing Castilla y León’s healthcare challenges requires structural reforms at the national level, particularly to tackle workforce shortages and improve accessibility. Stronger co-operation between the regional and national governments should prioritise expanding training places in family medicine and ageing-related specialisations, such as cardiology and geriatrics, to align healthcare workforce supply with demographic trends. Additionally, rural health financing frameworks should be revised to offer targeted support for sparsely populated areas, ensuring service continuity. Closer collaboration with neighbouring Autonomous Communities, including Extremadura and Castilla-La Mancha, could also facilitate resource-sharing, workforce mobility, and the exchange of best practices.
Expanding the healthcare workforce will require improving skills accreditation procedures and simplifying recruitment processes. Fast-track certification for informal carers and healthcare workers would enable experienced individuals to obtain formal qualifications more efficiently. Additionally, recognising foreign qualifications and easing recruitment processes for international professionals could help attract skilled workers. In Spain, efforts are underway to simplify the recognition of foreign qualifications as part of the Medium-Term Fiscal-Structural Plan (MTFSP). Countries such as Canada have implemented targeted immigration policies to strengthen their care workforce by easing entry requirements and supporting professional integration (Moving 2 Canada, 2024[42]).
Germany’s Triple Win programme provides another example of targeted recruitment that Castilla y León could adapt to meet regional workforce needs. Developed jointly by the German Federal Employment Agency and the German Agency for International Co-operation, the programme recruits nurses from countries with healthcare labour surpluses, ensuring ethical hiring standards and integration support (Triple Win Programm, 2025[43]). As of 2021, over 4 700 nurses had been recruited, with high retention and satisfaction rates (S. A. Luciano & M. Schimpf, 2021[44]). Implementing similar practices in Castilla y León could strengthen the regional healthcare system while maintaining quality and ethical standards.
3. Aligning skills and talent with future labour market needs in Castilla y León
To sustain a skilled workforce, Castilla y León must strengthen vocational training, expand digital and healthcare upskilling, and position itself as a silver economy hub. With rising demand for healthcare, elderly care, and tech-driven solutions, aligning education with labour needs is key to reducing youth outmigration and attracting talent. Expanding training in digital healthcare and elderly care will equip professionals – especially younger individuals – with in-demand skills, encouraging them to stay. This requires reinforcing vocational pathways, upskilling workers, and integrating digital tools in elderly care. At the same time, a more diversified and forward-looking vision for regional development is essential to harness new economic opportunities and build long-term resilience.
Strengthening vocational training and upskilling for future needs
Castilla y León’s vocational education and training (VET) system provides a strong foundation for workforce development but needs better alignment with labour market demands, particularly in healthcare and elderly care. Offering over 1 100 courses across 134 qualifications, the system could play a key role in addressing workforce shortages by expanding VET programmes in geriatric nursing, physiotherapy, and social work – especially in rural areas. Strengthening dual VET models through partnerships with healthcare institutions and care providers would ensure that students gain practical experience in elderly care and digital health. Beyond care-related fields, Castilla y León could expand VET offerings in strategic sectors such as green technologies, advanced manufacturing, and sustainable mobility – supporting the region’s growing automotive and aeronautics industries.
Flexible learning pathways and digital training solutions could improve access to upskilling while allowing individuals to remain in the regional workforce. Micro-credentials and modular certification would enable professionals to update their skills without committing to long-term study, while expanding digital tools for remote and hybrid learning could improve training accessibility in rural areas. Awareness campaigns highlighting career opportunities in care-related fields could also attract new entrants, including career changers. Similar campaigns could promote emerging professional paths in the green and circular economy, digital public services, and technology-driven industry.
Integrating digital skills into VET and care training would prepare workers for telemedicine, remote monitoring, and assistive technology. Task-shifting strategies, such as expanding nurses’ roles, could further optimise workforce capacity. International examples include Canada’s MyHealthTeam, which integrates nurse navigators in primary care, and Sweden’s approach allowing nurses with advanced training to prescribe medication (OECD, 2019[45]).
Expanding partnerships between training centres, hospitals, tech firms, and care providers would ensure VET graduates are equipped for modern healthcare environments. Introducing specialised courses in assistive and digital health technologies could help carers operate new tools effectively. Castilla y León could draw from international models such as Germany’s Pflege 4.0 and the UK’s Skills for Care, which support carers in adopting digital tools and improving care quality through training and mentoring (Box 5.10). More broadly, partnerships between educational institutions and industries in fields such as clean energy, bioeconomy, and smart mobility would ensure that training systems remain responsive to a dynamic labour market.
In Germany, the Pflege 4.0 program focuses on training carers in the use of digital technologies to enhance the efficiency and quality of elderly care. It aims to integrate digital tools, such as telecare solutions and electronic record-keeping, into both home and institutional care settings. The program facilitates the adoption of technology by providing a market overview of available assistive products, an interactive platform that simulates a smart home with assistive devices, and educational materials for carers and seniors. Additionally, it promotes safe and responsible use of digital tools, especially for those unfamiliar with technology or caregiving.
In the United Kingdom, the Skills for Care program supports social care professionals in developing digital and technological skills to improve care delivery. It offers resources such as the Digital Skills Framework for workforce training, a four-day Digital Leadership Program for managers to drive digital transformation, and free online learning modules on topics like data management, online security, and person-centred care through technology. The program also includes Digital Champions, who mentor colleagues and promote technology adoption within care organisations. Together, these initiatives aim to modernise the care sector and enhance service quality through digital innovation.
Unlocking the full potential of the silver economy while promoting diversification
Castilla y León can position itself as a leading region in the silver economy by attracting skilled professionals, entrepreneurs, and investors in ageing-related industries. Establishing a dedicated innovation ecosystem – similar to France’s Silver Valley – would support start-ups and businesses developing age-friendly technologies, telemedicine tools, and home automation solutions (Silver Valley, 2025[48]). Events such as the International Innovation and Technology Fair at the Service of Care (FITECU) provide opportunities to showcase innovation and attract investment. Supporting entrepreneurship among older adults and promoting intergenerational knowledge transfer would further strengthen the sector, with initiatives like Spanish Seniors for Technical Co-operation (SECOT) playing a key role in mentoring start-ups and young entrepreneurs in ageing-related fields.
Public-private collaboration is essential for advancing R&D and accelerating the development of innovative solutions for ageing populations. Partnerships between universities, research centres, and businesses should be expanded to drive innovation in AI-driven care, digital health, and home automation. Additionally, Castilla y León could create a senior consumer network – similar to France’s Open Lab – where older adults test and provide feedback on new technologies, ensuring that innovation aligns with user needs and enhances the quality of life for ageing populations. This collaborative innovation approach should also extend to other strategic sectors, enabling the region to develop solutions that contribute to climate neutrality, circular production, and digital governance.
Castilla y León could also strengthen the labour market participation of older adults by promoting flexible work arrangements, phased retirement schemes, and targeted reskilling programmes. Sectors experiencing labour shortages – such as healthcare or elderly care – could particularly benefit from the expertise of older workers. Tailored upskilling initiatives, possibly co-financed through EU funds, could help older adults transition into new roles. In addition, older adults could be mobilised as mentors or trainers in emerging sectors where their industry experience remains relevant, supporting both intergenerational learning and talent retention.
To foster active ageing and community engagement, the region could invest in multi-functional senior social centres. These can offer spaces for social interaction, volunteering, part-time work opportunities, digital skills training, and intergenerational activities. Co-locating these centres with primary care facilities, libraries, or adult learning hubs could further enhance their reach and impact in Castilla y León’s rural areas. Such models not only reduce isolation but also support ageing in place and strengthen local social capital. Integrating these centres into broader regional innovation networks could also enhance their role in digital inclusion, skills development, and community-based service delivery.
4. Enhancing transport and mobile services to improve accessibility in Castilla y León
While Castilla y León’s on-demand transport has improved rural mobility, further optimisation is needed to better meet user needs. Many villages also lack essential services like ATMs, banks, grocery stores, and pharmacies, worsening economic decline, social isolation, and car dependency. Enhancing transport connectivity and mobile services is key to improving quality of life, supporting the economy, and making rural areas more attractive. This benefits both elderly residents and young people, reducing the need to relocate for better service access.
Optimising on-demand and multimodal transport
To improve transport accessibility, Castilla y León should leverage the predictive analytics from its current on-demand transport system and optimise scheduling, particularly for rural and elderly passengers. Enhancing real-time data collection and predictive analytics would allow services to adapt to actual usage patterns, reducing waiting times and improving efficiency. Co-ordinating on-demand transport with essential services such as medical appointments, public offices, and retail centres could enhance service effectiveness. For instance, aligning transport availability with health appointment schedules would help reduce unnecessary waiting times for patients. Increasing the number of operators at the on-demand call centre – currently limited to six – would enhance service quality and accessibility for residents who are less familiar with digital systems.
Beyond on-demand transport, the region should promote multimodal connectivity between rural and urban areas to improve mobility options. Synchronising village transport with regional bus and rail networks – through integrated ticketing, better transfer co-ordination, and on-demand taxis where applicable – would enhance convenience and accessibility. For example, Hedmark (Norway) operates an on-demand system linking rural areas to rail and bus services through scheduled taxi departures at public fares. Castilla y León could adopt a similar model, integrating its on-demand system with regional transport to provide cost-effective and reliable mobility for rural residents.
Expanding mobile service delivery in underserved rural areas
Given Castilla y León’s low population density and limited access to essential services, expanding mobile service delivery is key to improving rural coverage. While mobile banking services already exist, more tailored financial outreach – such as rotating ATMs or scheduled visits from financial advisors – could better serve areas with low digital payment uptake. Maintaining cash access is essential for elderly populations, but the region could also accelerate the shift to cashless payments by expanding digital literacy programmes and encouraging card and mobile payment adoption among local businesses. Targeted subsidies or technical assistance could help small rural retailers adopt digital payment tools.
Expanding mobile grocery and retail services would enhance access to fresh food and essential goods, particularly for residents with limited mobility. These services are especially relevant in villages where permanent stores are no longer viable. Mobile units should accept card and mobile payments to reduce cash reliance, while mobile pharmacies and postal services could further improve access to healthcare and public administration. New technologies such as drone delivery could also help address logistical challenges in remote areas. For instance, the Japanese city of Ina, in Nagano Prefecture, has piloted drone-based grocery delivery, enabling same-day access to essential items (Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, 2021[49]). Castilla y León could explore similar pilots, particularly for delivering medicines and supplies in sparsely populated areas.
To improve efficiency and responsiveness, a digital booking system could be introduced for mobile services, allowing residents to request services in advance. Similar to on-demand transport, this system would help optimise delivery routes based on demand, ensuring more effective and timely service provision in rural areas. Local partnerships – with cooperatives, social enterprises, or municipalities – could support the operation and co-ordination of these services, sharing logistics and infrastructure costs.
5. Expanding broadband access and strengthening digital skills in Castilla y León
Expanding broadband access and digital literacy is crucial to reducing disparities and boosting inclusion in Castilla y León. Many rural areas still face connectivity gaps, limiting access to healthcare, banking, education, and public services. With an ageing population and youth outmigration, targeted digital skills training and improved broadband coverage are key to helping elderly residents benefit from digital tools and enabling young people to pursue remote work and digital entrepreneurship. Strengthening high-speed internet access would also attract businesses, professionals, and remote workers, supporting rural economic revitalisation.
Expanding broadband access in rural areas
Addressing the expansion of broadband in rural areas requires expanding on national investment and competition incentives to also include a mix of targeted incentives, regulatory simplification, and community-based approaches to improve connectivity. While national governments play a central role, regional and local authorities can tailor interventions to rural needs, ensuring infrastructure deployment aligns with local challenges (OECD, 2021[50]) (OECD, 2021[51]) (OECD, 2025 Forthcoming[52]) (OECD, 2021[21]).
Some examples of actions that can be taken at the regional level include:
Supporting community-led models and demand aggregation, including cooperative broadband approaches where municipalities co-invest in shared infrastructure. One example is Nordesnet, a project in Segovia and Soria that has improved Fibre-to-the-Home (FTTH) coverage through community collaboration and local investment (Nordesnet, 2025[53]).
Aligning incentives with rural connectivity goals by using targeted broadband vouchers and developing public-private partnerships (PPPs) to address 'last mile' challenges. Additionally, bundling broadband deployments – through coverage obligations in public procurement auctions – in profitable urban areas, such as Valladolid, with mandatory rural extensions could increase investment in low-density areas like Soria and Zamora. The national government should also integrate rural connectivity obligations into public funding agreements, requiring subsidised urban broadband projects to extend services to nearby rural areas.
Simplifying regulatory and authorisation processes, including permitting and rights-of-way, to reduce costs and delays in rural broadband rollouts. Streamlined approvals for grouped projects and incentives for companies committing to both urban and rural areas would support efficient expansion.
Encouraging infrastructure-sharing, learning from international models. Korea’s Multi-Operator Core Networks (MOCN) model has accelerated 5G deployment in rural areas through shared infrastructure use. Castilla y León could explore similar approaches to strengthen rural broadband while maintaining market competition.
These efforts could be further supported through ERDF Priority 1 (“A more competitive and smarter Europe”), which provides funding for digital connectivity, smart villages, and innovation hubs in rural areas.
Given the high costs and slow rollout of FTTH in sparsely populated areas, alternative technologies and access arrangements could also be promoted to accelerate rural connectivity. However, care should be taken to ensure that the quality of the alternative technologies still provides reliable and fast internet access. For example, the regional government could encourage satellite and fixed wireless access solutions for remote households and businesses. One additional way to promote alternative access could include establishing rural digital hubs with high-speed internet, co-working spaces, and training programmes. This would serve the multiple purpose of also boosting entrepreneurship, supporting flexible remote work arrangements, and enhancing digital inclusion across Castilla y León.
Strengthening digital skills for the ageing population
Ensuring that older residents can fully engage with digital services is essential to reducing digital exclusion and improving access to key services. Castilla y León should expand free or subsidised digital skills training through targeted programmes in community centres, libraries, and municipal offices. These initiatives should focus on equipping seniors with the necessary skills to navigate online healthcare, banking, and communication platforms.
Intergenerational digital mentoring programmes could further support hands-on learning, pairing young digital-savvy volunteers with elderly residents for personalised assistance. This approach would help seniors gain confidence in using smartphones, accessing online services, and improving cybersecurity awareness. A complementary initiative could involve establishing a digital support helpline for seniors, offering step-by-step guidance through a regional telephone-based or chatbot-assisted helpdesk.
This Annex provides the detailed methodology used to estimate regions’ access to services.
Population grids are sourced from the Eurostat Census Grid 2021, which contain population statistics for each 1x1km area across the EU aligned with 2021 census data. Public road networks (including service roads) within each region are sourced from OpenStreetMap, as of late 2024. The locations of service facilities are obtained through national statistics offices, information provided by the region and private sector sources. Annex Box 5.A.1 below contains a full list of data sources used in this region.
The time needed to drive from the grid centroid to the nearest service facility is calculated for each 1x1km census grid. The R5py library is used to obtain fastest driving routes between locations, assuming travel at the legal speed limit on each road segment. Locations not on public roads are snapped to the nearest road within 1.6km (or otherwise considered to be unreachable).
Travel times at the grid level are aggregated to the relevant areas of interest, which include local and regional administrative units and categories such as urban and rural areas. Unless otherwise stated, all aggregate indicators (within an area of interest) are population-weighted averages, as calculated by the formula below:
For example, the average travel time to schools in a municipality is calculated by measuring the travel time between each grid (wholly or partially within the municipality) and the nearest school, weighted by the grid’s population. For grids on the municipality’s boundary that might only partially fall in the municipality, their population is further weighted by how much if it falls within that municipality.
Source: OECD elaboration.
Physical access to services depends on how people, transport infrastructure and service locations are distributed across space. In this report, accessibility is measured based on travel times between people and services along road networks according to a three-step process:
Population grids are used to approximate the distribution of people.
Routing algorithms are used to estimate travel times between each population grid and the nearest service facility (Annex Figure 5.A.1).
For a given geographic unit (such as a municipality or region), accessibility is calculated as the population-weighted average of travel times for all population grids within its boundaries.
Source: OECD elaboration.
For the purposes of this study, average travel time to service refers to the average time it takes for each resident in a specific area to travel to their nearest service, assuming driving at the legal speed limit. Another important concept is the degree of urbanisation (Box 5.1) – a classification of localities into one of three categories (cities, towns and suburbs, or rural areas) – based on local demographic and geographic features (OECD et al., 2021[54]).
The methodology and data used introduce limitations and require additional context for interpreting the results. The table below outlines some key limitations.
Source: OECD elaboration.
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← 1. A centre is an educational institution with a director and management team, which may have a single site/unit or several distributed in different locations.
← 2. Respite care is a service where the person receiving care is attended at home for a few hours by a trained carer, to give the family carer a break and allow them to leave the house.