Tourism plays an important role in shaping the economic prosperity and supporting the well-being of local communities through jobs, income and investment. However, its impacts are not always evenly distributed and, if not well-managed, may place significant pressure on local infrastructure, services and residents. These dynamics are placing greater attention on how tourism’s benefits and costs are shared, and its overall value for host communities. This chapter examines the socio-economic impacts of tourism and highlights policy approaches to maximise local benefits while mitigating adverse impacts. It explores key challenges and trade-offs in managing tourism development and visitor flows, and considers how policies can strengthen local value creation, community engagement and evidence-based decision-making to support more balanced tourism. Key policy considerations are identified to more broadly share the benefits of tourism.
OECD Tourism Trends and Policies 2026
Abstract
Tourism is an important driver of economic growth and prosperity; it is also an important social phenomenon, involving the movement of people across different countries and cultures. Tourism spurs job creation and fosters innovation, as local entrepreneurs and businesses seize new opportunities to meet the needs of tourists, contributing to vibrant local economies and enhancing community services. Tourism also fosters social interactions, cultural exchange, and a sense of interconnectedness among people worldwide (OECD, 2024[1]). This makes tourism well placed to foster economic development that enhances well-being and social cohesion and contributes to making places more vibrant and liveable.
However, while tourism brings benefits, it can also adversely impact the people and places tourists visit when not well managed. In recent years, issues such as overcrowding, infrastructure strain and stress on local communities have become pressing topics across many destinations. Tourism can disrupt community structures and local economies, driving up living costs for residents and fuelling gentrification in certain destinations. This can displace long-term residents, overwhelm local infrastructure, exacerbate environmental degradation, and heighten social tensions, ultimately undermining community cohesion and sustainability. Working conditions and informality in some countries also remain key areas of attention.
The impacts from tourism, positive and negative, are often unbalanced, leading policymakers and local communities to increasingly question the value-added and social licence for tourism. Existing models of tourism development often mean the impacts of tourism are unevenly shared by tourists, businesses, destinations and local communities, with some destinations receiving visitor volumes that can place considerable strain on local communities, while others seek more visitor spending to support their local economy (OECD, 2024[2]). This has led to growing calls for more proactive policies and action to better manage tourism development, across all levels of government, as well as a stronger voice for local communities.
This chapter seeks to improve the understanding of the positive and negative socio-economic impacts of tourism and share policy approaches to better manage the complex interactions involved for more balanced tourism development, drawing on survey responses from OECD and partner countries. It builds on previous work of the OECD Tourism Committee that highlights the need to rebalance the impacts, understand the trade-offs and manage tourism sustainably, so the benefits outweigh the costs in emerging and established destinations (OECD, 2024[2]; OECD, 2021[3]; OECD, 2021[4]; OECD, 2024[1]). It also responds to the evolving socio-economic tensions linked with tourism development, and the need for greater policy focus on the social impacts and implications of tourism for local communities (OECD, 2024[1]).
Consideration of the social impacts of tourism is not new. Studies highlighting how local attitudes towards tourists can deteriorate as negative impacts emerge can be traced back to the 1960s and 1970s (for example Doxey’s Irritation Index Model (1975) and the concept of "the tourist gaze" (Urry, 1992[5])). This coincides with rapid expansion and democratisation of tourism since the 1950s, linked with economic prosperity and increased disposable income and leisure time, and the expansion of commercial aviation and infrastructure facilitating people flows as part of a globalised economy. This growth has continued, interrupted only temporarily by the global financial crisis and, more significantly, the COVID-19 pandemic.
Work by international organisations has focused on this topic since the 1990s. The Manila Declaration on World Tourism underlined a commitment to involve communities in the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation processes of tourism policies (UN Tourism, 1997[6]). Tourism is recognised as a force for socio-economic development and poverty reduction (ILO, 2019[7]), and a healthy social and natural environment is seen as key for a thriving tourism sector (UNESCO, 2002[8]). More recently, OECD work has highlighted the importance of supporting balanced tourism and building the social license to support sustainable tourism development (OECD, 2024[2]; OECD, 2025[9]; OECD, 2021[4])
Balancing the socio-economic impacts of tourism is an increasing area of focus for policymakers at the highest levels. The G20 Rome Guidelines for the Future of Tourism endorsed by G20 Tourism Ministers under Italy’s 2021 G20 Presidency include a policy focus on widening community engagement and benefits from tourism (OECD, 2021[3]), while the 2025 South African G20 Presidency highlighted the importance of community-centred models to help share the benefits of tourism. Optimising the socio-economic impacts of tourism was a key area of focus for Italy’s 2024 G7 Presidency (OECD, 2024[1]). Meanwhile, the 2023 Palma Declaration by EU Tourism Ministers focuses on advancing social sustainability of tourism, including a model that benefits local populations, and promotes balanced tourism and opportunities for all.
Work by the private sector has highlighted the importance of tourism as an accelerator for social progress (WTTC, 2021[10]), noting the importance of maintaining positive relationships with residents to preserve the local character and maintain tourism’s social licence to operate (World Economic Forum, 2025[11]), and calling for more advanced systems to manage and balance tourism impacts (The Travel Foundation, 2019[12]).
Understanding the significant social impacts of tourism is important to foster tourism that brings economic and social prosperity. This includes better understanding how tourism generates value for destinations, and how to manage the trade-offs involved, to take advantage of the potential for the sector to promote economic development and well-being in traditional and emerging destinations, and to create a sector where the benefits (and costs) of tourism are more widely and evenly shared.
Tourism when well managed can bring a wide range of socio-economic benefits
Tourism presents an important opportunity to help revitalise and diversify local economies, in rural, remote and urban areas. Developing tourism as part of a diversified local economy can improve the resilience of destinations and local communities, while at the same time improving the experiences of visitors and the well-being of local residents. Rural areas generally have fewer economic opportunities and less access to basic services, infrastructure and connectivity compared to urban areas. Tourism brings opportunities to provide greater motivation for people to stay in or even migrate to rural areas, as well as improving the local economy, social well-being, and the promotion and conservation of rural heritage (UN Tourism, 2023[13]). In shrinking regions, tourism can be a tool to stimulate economic activity, create new job opportunities, generate income, and diversify revenue streams to support the provision of public services and infrastructure (OECD, 2025[14]).
Tourism can contribute to improving public amenities that benefit both residents and visitors by supporting investment in infrastructure and services, such as public transport, roads and healthcare provision. Such investments can provide people with greater economic opportunities, while at the same time improving security, productivity and quality of services (UN Tourism, 2023[13]). The sector can also act as a catalyst for infrastructure development in rural and remote regions, thereby strengthening local resilience.
Beyond its economic footprint, tourism can contribute to wider societal goals by promoting well-being, building connections and acceptance between people and cultures, supporting economic diplomacy and peace building (OECD, 2024[1]). It can also foster community development and encourage the safeguarding of cultural and natural heritage. These goals are becoming increasingly important in tourism strategies and development plans. In countries like Australia and Canada, Indigenous tourism initiatives offer pathways for cultural revitalisation and supporting vibrant Indigenous opportunities. This includes targeted support for rural and Indigenous communities, strategic planning to manage visitor flows, and policies that ensure tourism revenues are reinvested locally.
Challenges need to be addressed to support balanced tourism
In addition to the wide range of benefits, tourism also brings its own set of socio-economic challenges. Tourism can give rise to tensions if the expectations and needs of tourists and locals come into conflict. Emerging destinations can struggle to attract tourists and the socio-economic benefits they bring. Addressing these socio-economic challenges is important to support tourism development and create destinations that are attractive and liveable for residents and tourists alike.
An important issue is making sure the revenues and value generated by tourism benefit local businesses and communities. The complex nature of tourism, which is composed of many different sub-sectors and value chains, makes this process challenging. While some degree of revenue outflow from the destination where the tourism activity takes place is inevitable, the extent of this leakage can limit the positive impact of tourism for local communities, including its contribution to economic development and investment in infrastructure and services. This may be exacerbated if revenues are concentrated among a small number of large companies. This raises questions about how to encourage local sourcing of goods and services, and how to support the participation of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in local and global tourism value chains. However, detailed analysis on tourism leakage is limited, making the scale of this challenge difficult to quantify. OECD work found that on average 89% of non-resident tourism expenditure results in domestic value-added, while 11% ends as foreign value-added1 (OECD, 2019[15]).
Visitor flows can put significant pressure on natural resources like water and land, and increase waste accumulation, pollution, and soil erosion. UN Environment has highlighted the importance of sustainable tourism development given the sector’s increased consumption of key resources (UN Environment, 2018[16]). For example, estimates from the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre suggest that a tourist in Europe consumes approximately twice as much water per day compared to a European resident (European Commission, 2013[17]). In natural areas, overcrowding can strain local ecosystems and degrade environmental quality, leading to long-term damage to biodiversity and the loss of pristine habitats. High spatial and temporal concentration of tourism activities can exacerbate these impacts, putting fragile cultural and natural sites under stress (OECD, 2025[9]). Ultimately, such degradation can diminish the very assets that attract visitors, undermining the long-term sustainability and competitiveness of destinations.
A specific challenge in some destinations relates to same-day visitors. Compared to overnight tourists, same-day visitors typically spend less per trip and tend to concentrate in specific hotspots for short periods, increasing pressures without injecting proportional economic benefits. Similarly, cruise tourism can put high pressures on popular destinations if not effectively managed, discharging many passengers at a single point in time, often with limited time in the destination.
Emerging destinations seeking to realise the benefits of tourism can face challenges to develop adequate infrastructure and skills. Transport links, accommodation, utilities, and other visitor facilities are all important to attract and accommodate visitors. The absence of robust infrastructure can hinder the delivery of quality experiences for visitors, reduce destination competitiveness, and place strain on existing resources that may not be equipped to handle (increased) demand.
In some destinations experiencing tourism pressures, there is growing pushback from local residents. Several European destinations in particular have seen anti-tourism protests in recent years, especially during the summer months. In some cases, residents are taking unconventional measures to regain control over the local environment. For example, in Zandvoort in the Netherlands, residents reportedly falsely marked streets as closed on Google Maps to discourage tourists driving through the local area during busy periods and prompting the navigation app to redirect drivers (IamExpat Media, 2025[18]). In Hallstatt, Austria, residents blocked the main tunnel road leading into the town in 2023 in response to high visitor numbers (NBC News, 2023[19]). In Nice, France, a street artist created a large-scale “tourist trap” installation to highlight the issue of overcrowding (Franceinfo, 2023[20]). While such actions reflect rising tensions, they may also have unintended consequences such as simply shifting the congestion to other areas rather than addressing underlying pressures.
A key flashpoint in some destinations stems from the expansion of short-term tourism accommodation. The rise of online accommodation booking platforms and short-term rentals has, in some destinations, contributed to greater housing demand. This has sometimes led to situations where residents, including those working in the tourism sector and seasonal workers, struggle to secure affordable local housing (OECD, 2024[2]). This comes at a time when real house purchase and rental prices have risen faster than inflation and incomes in recent decades, disproportionately affecting poorer and younger households (OECD, 2022[21]). At the same time, short-term rentals have led to a blurring of the boundaries between the public and tourism sphere and the private residential sphere in destinations, fostering tensions as these domains compete for limited space and resources.
Ireland: A study by the Economic and Social Research Institute in Ireland using data from 2023 provided by InsideAirbnb, combined with 2016 Irish census data, investigated the size of Airbnb markets relative to the private rental sector in local areas across the country. Key findings included:
There is a correlation between current Airbnb listings and previously recorded holiday homes in the 2016 census, while there is no correlation between increases in Airbnb activity and falls in new tenancies in the private rental sector at the local level. It therefore cannot be assumed that, in the absence of Airbnb and other short-term rental platforms, such properties would become available on the private rental market.
The issues faced in urban areas, with large rental markets, are likely to be different to those in coastal towns with more moderate rental sectors.
A simple price comparison highlights the attractiveness of short-term rentals for owners. On average, properties in coastal areas only need to be let for 6-8 days per month to match the revenue from a month on the private rental market. In Dublin City, this number is 8-10 days per month (The Economic and Social Research Institute, 2025[22]).
European Union: Work by the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre uses municipal data to examine the place-based factors correlated with house prices in the EU. Key findings include:
Factors associated with higher house prices include household growth, household income, proximity to coastline, restrictions in supply and a higher share of short-term rentals. The correlation between short-term rentals and house prices is higher in cities than in rural areas.
Short-term rentals make up 1.2% of the EU’s overall housing stock. Coastal and rural tourism destinations and specific neighbourhoods of some EU cities can see substantially higher shares of short-term rentals.
For every entire short-term rental property listing recorded, there were 15 unoccupied dwellings i.e. vacant dwellings and those used occasionally or seasonally. About 0.7% of EU’s population live in municipalities where short-term rentals account for at least 10% of dwellings, whereas nearly 63% of the population live in municipalities where at least 10% of the dwellings are unoccupied.
Household growth outpaced population growth from 2011 to 2021 due to smaller household sizes: the EU’s population grew by 2.5% in cities and fell by 2% in rural areas, while the number of households in these locations increased by 9.5% and 10% respectively (European Commission, 2025[23]; European Commission, 2025[24]).
Available evidence on the impact of short-term tourism rentals on the housing market is mixed, and knowledge gaps remain (Box 3.1). While it is likely that short-term tourism rental activity exacerbates existing pressures, the extent to which it is a main driver of observed housing issues in destinations is not clear. The key uncertainties are:
Establishing causality: It is difficult to establish cause-and-effect on the impact of short-term rentals on housing affordability for residents. Evidence from the European Commission’s Joint Research Centre suggests a positive correlation between the share of short-term rentals and advertised selling price in EU municipalities (European Commission, 2025[23]). However, even when correlation between housing affordability and short-term rentals is found, potential explanations vary. Increased demand by tourists for short-term rentals may push up the prices, or alternatively it could be that more attractive and expensive neighbourhoods attract more tourists.
Interchangeability of housing supply: The extent to which properties are interchangeable between the short-term and long-term private rental sectors is also unclear. Evidence from Ireland shows no correlation between new tenancy commencements and Airbnb activity, finding instead a strong correlation between current Airbnb listings and previously recorded holiday homes in non-urban areas. This suggests that even without platforms such as Airbnb, many short-term rental properties would not be found in the long-term private rental sector (The Economic and Social Research Institute, 2025[22]). As such, restrictions on short-term rentals may not necessarily increase the housing supply for residents.
Managing the trade-offs to optimise the impacts of tourism
While tourism can be a significant economic and social driver, it is important to find the appropriate balance. An over-reliance on tourism as a driver of economic development and job creation can compromise economic resilience and sustainability. This can be a particular challenge in rural, remote and small island destinations with limited alternative economic development opportunities. A diversified local economy can, in contrast, complement tourism revenues during economic fluctuations and can also play a role in mitigating the impacts of seasonality and spatial concentration (OECD, 2025[9]). Similarly, underutilising the full potential of tourism can result in lost revenues and a lower investment in infrastructure and services for local communities.
Realising the potential socio-economic benefits of tourism involves managing the direct and indirect impacts at the host community level and through the tourism value chain. These impacts are linked with the complex and interconnected nature of the sector and make it challenging to deliver better outcomes for destinations, even where local communities recognise the potential contributions the sector can make to economic growth and development. The challenge is how to manage these complex interactions and balance the trade-offs to optimise the socio-economic benefits while minimising the negative and unintended impacts.
Destinations must consider several trade-offs in tourism development, including:
Type of tourism: promoting tourism with a mass appeal which tends towards high visitor volumes versus targeting niche tourism which emphasises higher quality experiences.
Seasonality: promoting year-round tourism, which may relieve pressure during peak periods versus concentrating activity in short, high demand periods followed by low pressure periods.
Distribution: concentrating tourism in popular areas, which can lead to overcrowding, versus distributing tourism across the territory, which spreads the benefits but also pressures.
Supply capacity: expanding tourism infrastructure (for example hotels and short-term rentals) to accommodate growth versus restricting development to stay within sustainable limits.
Pricing strategy: enhancing product quality through investments in sustainability versus maintaining price competitiveness to attract cost-conscious visitors.
Demand management: investing in marketing to attract visitors and foster a welcoming culture versus adopting measures to limit growth and protect local culture and the environment.
Sentiment management: promoting the benefits of tourism to improve public sentiment and image of tourism versus implementing restrictive measures to curb tourism development.
Many of the socio-economic impacts of tourism are highly localised, and context-specific considerations are important to balance these impacts. The same number of visitors can have very different impacts depending on the way they behave, when and where they arrive, as well as the nature of the destination and tourism offer, the availability of supporting local infrastructure, and the destination management capacity, resources and governance structures (OECD, 2024[2]). An influx of visitors can lead to significant pressures on fragile environments and heritage sites if concentrated in limited areas or specific seasons, while the same number dispersed more strategically may foster community resilience, economic vitality and sustainable development.
Urban centres are likely to have better infrastructure and resources to cater to and capture the value from visitors, while remote, rural areas may lack the capacity and resources to provide adequate supporting infrastructure and attract and retain workers. Established destinations are more likely to benefit from existing infrastructure and market recognition but may struggle with overcrowding, gentrification pressures, and social displacement. Emerging destinations have opportunities to learn from the experiences of established destinations but can face challenges in building basic infrastructure and market access while maintaining community control over development processes. Regional EU data on the number of tourist overnights per resident night shows that popular Mediterranean destinations such as Croatia, Greece and Spain see an especially large variation in regional tourism intensity (Figure 3.1).
Average, maximum and minimum regional tourist overnights per resident night in EU countries, 2024 or latest year
Note: Tourism intensity is calculated as the number of tourist overnights per resident night. Average tourism intensity at national level, as well as maximum and minimum tourism intensity level at NUTS 3 regional level in 2024 or latest year. [The EU also tracks tourism intensity through the EU Tourism Dashboard, which provides indicators at NUTS2 level for tourism density, intensity, seasonality.]
Source: OECD calculations based on Eurostat data series tour_occ_nin3 and demo_r_pjangrp3.
Country-specific evidence on the impacts of tourism on resident sentiment is mixed. Work from Denmark and the United Kingdom suggests that people who live in areas that experience more tourism are more likely to be proud that visitors come to their destination compared to people that live in areas less impacted by tourism (VisitEngland, PublicFirst, 2025[25]), and are also more likely to say that tourism has more positive than negative consequences (VisitDenmark, 2024[26]). In Copenhagen, Denmark, data show that even in the most heavily visited central areas, residents remain supportive of continued tourism marketing of the city. Similarly, in Austria, the three federal states with the highest number of tourist nights are also the regions with the highest positive perception of tourists in the country (Statistics Austria, 2025[27]; Statistics Austria, 2025[28]). Meanwhile, in the EU research suggests that where local areas are perceived to have become more tourist-oriented, this does not appear to have strong implications on the overall sense of belonging to the neighbourhood or the perceived social cohesion (European Commission, 2025[29]). In Spain, however, residents living in destinations with higher tourism intensity are more likely to report personal negative impacts of tourism (Turespaña, 2025[30]). Such correlations are worth further exploring to investigate potential causality.
Building liveable destinations where tourism enhances local well-being requires addressing long-standing asymmetries in how tourism value is distributed across space, time, and social groups, supported by adequate tourism infrastructure and services. The optimal polices will depend on the destination and the specific challenges faced, with strong and co-ordinated tourism governance structures playing an integral role, also to capture the voices of local communities.
Strengthening tourism planning and management structures at all levels
Addressing the issues associated with unbalanced tourism development requires stronger and more co-ordinated tourism governance structures, at all levels. The OECD has long advocated for a whole-of-government approach that links tourism with related policy areas that impact and are impacted by tourism development, at national and sub-national level. This requires better integration of tourism with broader economic and regional development strategies as well as infrastructure, transport, and public service planning, to deliver better outcomes for tourists, host communities and businesses along the tourism value chain. It also involves building a stronger policy framework for tourism at all levels, supported by the capacity and resources to plan and manage destination effectively.
Promoting more balanced tourism development is a core pillar in many national tourism strategies, with a greater emphasis on the social impacts of tourism. This includes a focus on moving tourists beyond well-known destinations and spreading visits throughout the year. For example, Canada’s national tourism strategy, Canada 365: Welcoming the World. Every Day., promotes sustainable and inclusive tourism through investments in rural, remote, and Indigenous tourism development, support for off-season travel, and enhanced co-ordination across federal and regional partners.
The overarching goal of Malta’s National Tourism Strategy 2021–2030 is to build a stronger, more competitive, and sustainable tourism sector by 2030, with a focus on balancing economic growth, environmental preservation, and social cohesion. In the Netherlands, recent developments in its national tourism strategy, Perspective 2030, have placed increasing emphasis on social impacts and specifically the role of residents in shaping tourism policy, with a central policy question of how to enable residents to derive tangible benefits from tourism. One of the main goals of the Spanish Strategy for Tourism is to promote balanced co-existence between residents and visitors in destinations, recognising that tourism is fundamentally a human activity interconnected with local communities.
In Portugal, balanced development is one of the three overarching policy objectives in its new Tourism Strategy 2035, to be launched in 2026. This will be operationalised through initiatives on, among other things, inclusive destination management, participatory governance, and attracting and retaining talent. At the international level, the EU’s Sustainable Tourism Strategy, which will also be launched in 2026, will address social sustainability challenges by promoting better balanced tourism development across territories and seasons.
Countries are increasingly adopting efforts to link tourism to related policy areas to enhance the social impacts of tourism. In Greece, the region of Western Macedonia is taking steps to connect and integrate tourism initiatives with infrastructure improvements, accessibility upgrades, and support for local entrepreneurship, to enhance the visitor experience and well-being of local communities. Recognising the importance of SMEs for domestic tourism businesses and employment, Hungary is making efforts to co-ordinate tourism policy with SME development through financing programmes, investment incentives and reducing administrative burdens. In Latvia, spatial and urban planning considerations are integrated through municipal development strategies, where tourism is tied to cultural heritage preservation, housing policies, and improvements to public spaces.
Tourism can serve as a lever for development when integrated into wider national and regional development agendas, including to combat population decline, particularly of young people in search of better job opportunities (OECD, 2025[9]). This can help support a diversified and integrated tourism economy, which is particularly important in areas where other economic development opportunities are limited. The National Strategy for Sustainable Tourism 2030 in Egypt is tied to regional development and infrastructure plans, with tourism projects embedded in governorate-level2 budgets for roads, waste, water, and urban upgrading to deliver stronger outcomes for communities. The United Kingdom has created a portfolio of nationally supported and strategic Local Visitor Economy Partnerships, which align tourism development with regional growth priorities.
Destinations are also formulating tourism development and management plans that reflect their unique characteristics. Local action, guided by an overarching national vision for the future of tourism can also help drive momentum for change and realise the economic and social benefits tourism can bring. Central government in New Zealand has supported the development of tailored Destination Management Plans (DMPs) across all Regional Tourism Organisations. This support included the release of Destination Management Guidelines, which provide a common framework for locally led planning and implementation across diverse stakeholders. This approach enables regions to engage with their communities and stakeholders and to tailor their strategies to local conditions.
Enhancing cross-government co-ordination structures to align national, regional and local efforts is important to manage the impacts of tourism. Understanding the roles and responsibilities of different actors can help to improve the implementation of national policies and strategies at the regional or local level (OECD, 2025[9]). In Ireland, a collaborative approach is adopted to develop visitor-centric infrastructure. Destination Experience Development Plans are prepared in consultation with industry, local authorities, and communities to foster co-ownership and alignment with local priorities. The Plans are managed by the national tourism development authority, Fáilte Ireland, working with a destination working group for the implementation. In Italy, a Permanent Tourism Co-ordination Committee involving representatives from the state and regions is in place to improve communication and co-ordination, integrating both national and regional perspectives into decision making processes (OECD, 2025[31]). Meanwhile, in New Zealand, a Cross‑Government‑Industry Cruise Forum was established in 2025 to address challenges facing the cruise sector, following a cross‑government roundtable with the cruise industry.
Collectively this is leading to a shift in tourism governance structures and the role of national tourism policymakers. Countries are increasingly relying on Destination Management Organisations (DMOs) and local authorities to support and drive initiatives to enhance the social impacts of tourism for local communities, leaving national governments to set the overall direction and priorities. This highlights the importance of clarifying the roles and responsibilities of stakeholders and strengthening the capacity of local and regional actors. Estonia engages communities primarily through destination management organisations, which in collaboration with other tourism sector stakeholders in the region plan, co-ordinate, and implement destination development and marketing activities. A national Tourism Council, chaired by the Minister responsible for tourism, provides a cross-government forum to escalate local issues from DMOs and adjust policy rapidly when needed.
Participatory approaches are increasingly being adopted to develop and implement tourism strategies and plans. Empowering local populations to have a voice by creating strong dialogue between government, the private sector and civil society bodies on the creation of liveable destinations can support more balanced outcomes, and in turn lead to greater acceptance of tourism (OECD, 2024[2]; OECD, 2024[32]). With the highly place-specific social impacts of tourism, this is generally viewed as the role of local tourism authorities rather than national policymakers (Box 3.2). Local stakeholders typically include residents, businesses, community organisations and local governments.
Costa Rica: The Integrated Management of Tourist Destinations Programme aims to strengthen Tourism Development Centres by fostering co-operation among local stakeholders, including chambers of tourism, development associations, municipalities, and entrepreneurs. Developed with cross-departmental and inter-ministerial collaboration, the programme supports the creation of locally driven visions and strategies for sustainable tourism, identifies key success factors, and facilitates the development of strategic investment projects, with ongoing monitoring by national authorities and implementation led by local counterparts.
Colombia: In some emerging destinations, local governments, the business sector, and community organisations come together to develop mechanisms and pathways tailored to their specific social and environmental contexts. This ongoing sector-specific dialogue enriches the actions aimed at strengthening participatory processes. Effective mechanisms focus on dialogue-based initiatives and sustained support, with oversight and reinforcement from the national government, in co-ordination with international co-operation agencies.
Italy: The Dolomiti Future Lab involved the community in Paganella in a collective and intergenerational discussion that defined the lines of development for the territory, to reduce the risk of the community being distorted by excess tourism.
Ireland: Industry, local authorities and communities are consulted during the development of Destination Experience Development Plans to foster co-ownership and alignment with local priorities. Local authorities also have dedicated tourism officers who support strategic planning, stakeholder engagement, and the implementation of local tourism initiatives.
Switzerland: The direct democratic system allows local communities to propose and vote on specific regulations, both related to tourism and other policy areas. The Swiss electorate are called on approximately four times a year to vote on elections and on specific issues, with an average voter turnout of around 40%. Citizens are also able to propose votes on specific issues themselves (Presence Switzerland, 2023[33]).
Challenges remain to give local communities a voice. Involving local stakeholders and communities in decision making requires sufficient resourcing and efforts to maintain engagement over time. Some important policy decisions and initiatives may be unpopular among residents, especially if they involve sacrificing short-term economic efficiency for long-term social sustainability. At the same time, residents can lack the time or willingness to participate. For example, in a recent survey in Denmark, only 19% of respondents indicated that they would like to be more involved in decisions regarding tourism in their local area. The respondents who were most interested in being more involved were to a larger extent those who think tourism causes issues throughout or during parts of the year (VisitDenmark, 2024[26]). Continued support for capacity-building and participatory governance structures is needed to help community voices be part of tourism planning.
The focus on balancing tourism flows has brought a renewed emphasis on the concept of carrying capacity, particularly in destinations experiencing tourism pressures. While there is no universally agreed approach or methodology for determining the carrying capacity of tourism destinations, efforts to do so can help better understand and anticipate destination capacities, determine critical thresholds, and balance trade-offs to achieve more sustainable outcomes. Importantly, carrying capacity is not a single number, but a framework to support balanced tourism development. As such, the carrying capacity of a destination extends beyond its physical structures to encompass transportation networks, public services, and environmental assets that collectively define the quality of life in a destination. Croatia’s Tourism Act mandates that all tourist boards determine the carrying capacity for their destination and develop tailored Destination Management Plans. The aim is to help local authorities balance the economic benefits of tourism with environmental protection and community well-being. In Finland, Helsinki assessed the social and environmental carrying capacity of the city and found they were not under pressure from tourism (City of Helsinki, 2024[34]).
Managing visitor flows to balance the impacts of tourism
Better managing tourism flows is a key pillar of many national tourism strategies and destination management plans. Targeted measures aim to make use of the benefits of tourism, relieve tourism pressures in specific hotspots and improve the well-being of local residents, while also improving the visitor experience. This includes efforts to manage demand and visitor flows within destinations, diversify the tourism economy, encourage appropriate tourism development in new and emerging destinations, and use regulatory tools to limit tourism activities.
Countries and destinations are increasingly looking to diversify the tourism economy. Offering tailored experiences based on a destination’s unique assets and identity can help destinations stand out from competitors and cater to changing traveller demand and behaviour (OECD, 2025[9]). Many destinations have strong tourism potential linked to heritage, gastronomy, landscapes, and outdoor recreation as tourists increasingly seek meaningful interactions, slower travel, and lower-impact choices. Countries are looking into various tourism niches including cultural, educational, health, wellness, slow and agritourism, as well as meetings, incentives, conferences, and exhibitions (MICE), and sports and cultural events.
At the national level, many countries are taking steps to spread tourists spatially and temporally. This includes efforts to encourage tourists to visit during off-peak periods and to new and emerging destinations. For example, Destination Canada’s Tourism Corridor Strategy Program supports travel to lesser-known regions by developing interconnected tourism routes that highlight local attractions, cultural experiences, and natural assets, supporting also infrastructure development for access to remote or less developed areas (Box 3.3).
In Greece, the “Tourism for All” programme provides financial subsidies in the form of digital vouchers to eligible Greek residents to subsidise the cost of accommodation. The aim is to stimulate off-season domestic travel, promote lesser-known destinations, and strengthen local economies, while contributing to social inclusion and supporting accessible and affordable domestic travel. Through the programme Travel Better, Switzerland promotes off-peak travel, visits to lesser-known destinations and longer stays to alleviate pressures and spread the benefits of tourism. Campaigns highlight regional specialties, cultural events, and outdoor activities like hiking and biking in less crowded areas. Meanwhile, Egypt has redesigned its promotion plans and incentive schemes to support year-round tourism and re-distribute tourism flows to less-visited rural destinations.
To manage tourism demand and alleviate pressure on high-traffic destinations, Destination Canada has introduced the Tourism Corridor Strategy Program. It is designed to encourage travel to lesser-known regions by developing interconnected tourism routes that highlight local attractions, cultural experiences, and natural assets. By promoting regional collaboration among municipalities, Indigenous communities, and tourism operators, the strategy helps build cohesive destination networks that can accommodate visitors more sustainably.
These corridor strategies also support infrastructure development, such as transportation links, signage, and visitor amenities, which are essential for enabling access to remote or less developed areas. Importantly, they aim to diversify tourism flows, reducing the environmental and social strain on popular destinations like Banff, Niagara Falls, and Vancouver, while stimulating economic activity in lesser-visited regions. This approach not only spreads the benefits of tourism more evenly but also fosters community resilience and cultural preservation. By integrating corridor planning into broader tourism and regional development strategies, Canada is working to ensure that tourism growth aligns with sustainability, equity, and long-term economic goals.
Destination Canada provides strategic planning, data analysis, and investment attraction support, such that corridor development aligns with community priorities and national tourism objectives. This model fosters integrated planning across transport, infrastructure, and land use, helping communities manage visitor flows and build capacity for long-term growth. The Tourism Corridor Strategy Program also provides opportunities for businesses to collaborate with governments and local communities.
At destination level where the impacts of tourism are most felt, similar efforts are also underway. In Dubrovnik, Croatia, for example, a maximum limit of two cruise ships at any one time helps manage tourism flows as part of the “Respect the City” initiative (Box 3.4). To spread guests away from popular places, the Faroe Islands, Denmark, have introduced Self-Navigating Car rentals, offering mystery routes around the islands. By removing the choice of where to go, the initiative encourages visitors to discover new sights beyond the handful of well-known waterfalls and trails (BBC, 2025[35]). In Berlin, Germany, tourism marketing involves all the city’s twelve districts, covering issues from strategic exchange to inclusion in marketing, thereby utilising the potential of the districts and their specific attractions. Several local governments in Poland have adopted local parking policies in areas experiencing high tourist pressure, particularly tourist and spa towns such as Wrocław and Toruń. Additionally, as part of transport strategies, parking zones with preference for local residents, Park & Ride car parks and short-term parking spaces for coaches are designated in areas with the greatest tourist attractions to alleviate tourism pressures.
Measures to spatially spread tourists must be carefully managed to ensure that less-visited areas are adequately prepared, with the capacity and infrastructure to accommodate and manage the rise in visitor numbers. Without adequate preparation, dispersing visitor flows risks spreading or displacing the challenges associated with unbalanced tourism to other areas, and potentially locking these areas into low-value, high-volume activity. This includes building the necessary hard infrastructure such as transport links and municipal services, as well as the capacity and skills to develop and deliver quality tourism services and experiences (OECD, 2025[9]). In certain emerging destinations in Colombia, local governments, businesses, and community organisations are working together to develop mechanisms and pathways tailored to their specific social and environmental contexts, with a focus on dialogue-based initiatives and sustained support. The national government provides oversight and support, in co-ordination with international co-operation agencies.
Through the "Respect the City" initiative, Dubrovnik is implementing measures such as temporary limitations on the number of tourists at key sites, as part of broader efforts to manage visitor flows and preserve the quality of life for residents. These measures are also reflected in Dubrovnik’s Smart City Strategy, highlighting a holistic approach to sustainable urban and tourism management.
In 2017, Dubrovnik faced significant challenges due to uncontrolled tourism development. The historic city centre attracted millions of tourists annually, including many cruise ship visitors, which lead to overcrowding and negative impacts on both the local community and the visitor experience. In response, the city launched the “Respect the City” initiative to promote sustainable tourism and improve the quality of life for residents and visitors. The main solutions implemented include:
Cruise ship management: the city has partnered with the Cruise Lines International Association to reorganise cruise schedules and stagger departures and arrival times, setting a maximum limit of two cruise ships at any one time, to reduce the impact on local residents and improve tourism flows.
Infrastructure adjustments: measures included reducing the number of souvenir stands by 80% and cutting the number of restaurant tables and chairs by 30%. The first Croatian Special Traffic Zone around the UNESCO World Heritage Site core area, together with the Pobrežje Park & Ride System, help relieve traffic congestion and promote sustainable mobility.
Smart City tools: this includes the Dubrovnik Pass, visitor counting, crowd prediction and a bus planning tool (Bus Webshop) to protect heritage, fund cultural institutions, and disperse and manage visitor flows.
Demand management measures are increasingly focusing on identifying critical thresholds and limits to manage visitor flows. Targeted, data-driven restrictions, combined with transparent communication of alternative mobility and itineraries, have the potential to protect resident quality of life without undermining the visitor experiences. The most common measures are pre-booking systems to access individual attractions, such as those operating in the Calanques in France, Mount Fuji in Japan, Gaudi’s Park Güell in Barcelona, Spain, and Glacier National Park in Montana, United States. Some destinations are also expanding the opening hours of museums, heritage sites and parks to spread visitor flows. For example, Türkiye has introduced a night-time museum initiative to reduce spatial concentration at specific sites and increase access to cultural experiences.
There is no one-size fits all solution, and in some places there may be a strong argument to concentrate tourism in specific locations, where adequate tourism infrastructure can be provided, and to limit the spillover of negative impacts on local communities. Such an approach has been adopted by the city of Bruges in Belgium, which since the 1980s has concentrated tourism in a small area of 4.4 km2 in the city (European Commission, 2024[36]). Mexico, meanwhile, has a long-standing model of integrated tourism planning and development, with planned tourism destinations like Cancún serving as the backbone of the tourism economy. In more recent years Mexico has looked to leverage this expertise through new community-based models of tourism development. The city of Benidorm in Spain was designed and purpose-built to handle large numbers of visitors. Benidorm’s infrastructure accommodates tourists without displacing residents, something which is recognised in the destination receiving the 2025 EU Green Pioneer of Smart Tourism award. However, this approach may also limit the spillover of the positive impacts and limit the ability of host communities to capture the economic value generated by tourism.
Measures to manage visitor flows and balance the impacts of tourists must be carefully considered to avoid unintended consequences. In some destinations that rely on tourism, there can be an acceptance of tourism during the peak season in the knowledge that locals can earn enough to live and reclaim their community during off peak periods. However, this approach may heighten negative effects during the peak season, such as congestion, rising prices, and diminished well-being for residents, if not properly managed. Conversely, spreading travel throughout the year has the potential to support services, stabilise jobs, and reduce the risk of overcrowding during peak seasons, but also with the risk of spreading environmental and social pressures to previously unaffected periods. Similarly, while limiting visitor flows can relieve pressures on infrastructure it can also have economic consequences such as fewer job opportunities. Finally, digital nomadism and remote work are creating new semi-permanent visitor profiles that require a rethinking of housing, digital infrastructure, and community integration strategies.
Digital tools, including artificial intelligence (AI), have the potential to play an important role in managing tourism flows. Mobile applications providing real-time information on crowd levels and queue times can facilitate the redirection of visitors to less congested sites, while targeted incentives can encourage guests to explore a broad variety of locations, including those that are underfunded or less well-known. By efficiently managing tourist flows through predictive analytics and personalised recommendations, AI can contribute to reducing overcrowding at popular sites, also reducing environmental strain. However, AI recommendation systems, if not properly managed, have the potential to exacerbate issues associated with overcrowding at popular destinations (OECD, 2024[37]). Concrete examples of AI tools used to proactively manage tourism flows are still lacking or under development.
Building supportive infrastructure and services for tourism flows
Tourism depends on and is shaped by the infrastructure and services available in destinations. The provision of tourism-specific infrastructure and services providing accommodation, dining, entertainment and attractions is largely the responsibility of the private sector, operating according to local rules and regulations. The sector also relies heavily on public infrastructure and services. This includes network infrastructure, such as transport and basic water, waste, energy, communications, public order and health services, as well as the infrastructure that makes natural and cultural resources and other public goods accessible to visitors (for example bike trails, visitor centres). Quality tourism services also depend on supporting and facilitating infrastructure, such as digital communication networks and information technology systems.
Given this, the development and associated impacts of tourism are closely linked with public infrastructure, resources and services, and the wider policy and regulatory environment within which tourism businesses operate. Effective collaboration between public authorities and the private sector is therefore essential to ensure that both tourism-specific and general infrastructure can accommodate visitor flows while meeting the needs of local residents. Tourism in turn can generate revenue for local and national governments through taxes, fees and other levies, which can support maintenance and upgrades of infrastructure and services to the benefit of all.
Tourism development decisions need to consider the implications for, and be better integrated into, public infrastructure and service planning and delivery to relieve infrastructure strain in destinations experiencing pressures and develop the necessary infrastructure in new and emerging destinations. Destinations can see a trade-off between expanding infrastructure and restricting development. Expanding tourism infrastructure can stimulate local economies and create jobs, while at the same time supporting a greater influx of tourists, providing immediate economic benefits and fostering growth in sectors like hospitality and retail. However, unchecked expansion risks placing excessive pressure on local resources, public utilities, and the environment, potentially leading to congestion, rising living costs, and diminished quality of life for residents. At the same time, oversupply risks creating under-used capacity. Restricting development can help safeguard community well-being and preserve environmental and cultural assets but may instead add strain to existing infrastructure, limit economic opportunities and reduce competitiveness if demand outpaces capacity.
Chile’s Infrastructure and Tourism Use Plan in Protected Areas 2024–2028 contains short and medium-term planning for public investment in infrastructure projects for 18 protected areas in nine regions, as well as the implementation of sustainable sanitary services in 52 protected areas nationwide. The aim is that the infrastructure can promote economic development of local communities while at the same time preserving the territories’ natural and cultural heritage. To reduce regional disparities, Slovakia is supporting tourism development in under-visited and rural areas through targeted grant schemes and infrastructure investments. Funding is focused on developing cultural, nature-based, and wellness tourism products that attract visitors beyond traditional destinations and peak seasons.
In Latvia, co-operation between the Ministry of Economics which is responsible for tourism and the Ministry of Transport has led to improvements in regional accessibility through investments in rail and cycling routes, such as the Green Railways initiative, which simultaneously supports tourism, sustainable mobility, and regional development. Ahead of the 2026 World Cup, the United States prioritised transport and infrastructure to support seamless travel to and around the country. In response to the unique needs of people with a disability, including tourists, the Accessible Australia Program funds the building of accessible toilet facilities, portable equipment for inclusive beaches, portable amenities for inclusive national parks and fixed inclusive play spaces that improve community spaces for both residents and visitors. Countries are also noting the need for data on, for example, tourism water consumption and waste production to better understand tourism impacts on infrastructure, to support its management.
Information sharing and better understanding of visitor flows, needs and behaviours can help support the provision of well managed infrastructure and services that cater to both residents and tourists. High seasonality presents specific challenges for infrastructure planning, as facilities and services need to be capable of accommodating peak periods without resulting in underutilisation during off-peak times. Strategic investments in adaptable and scalable infrastructure, such as transport systems and public amenities, can help alleviate pressures throughout the year.
The financing of adequate infrastructure and services is a challenge, particularly in the context of fiscal constraints and in rural and remote locations. The Ministry of Regional Development in Czechia has introduced the national subsidy programme Tourism Revitalization Through Support for Tourism Infrastructure to fund local infrastructure, including trails, rest areas, signage and small visitor facilities, aimed at improving access to peripheral or rural destinations and extending the tourism season. Israel has launched the Accessibility Budgeting Procedures for Tourist Sites 2024-2025 initiative, which allocates ILS 20 million to upgrade accessible paths, signage and facilities to improve access for a wider group of travellers. The Rural Tourism Infrastructure Fund in Scotland, United Kingdom provides funding to support local infrastructure improvements and mitigate negative community impacts in rural areas experiencing increased visitor pressure. The funding is focused on developing infrastructure to improve visitor management, such as low-carbon transport, multiuse paths, toilets and motorhome facilities, and visitor information signage (Visit Scotland, 2025[38]).
How tourists and the tourism sector contribute to financing the infrastructure and services used by tourists is receiving increased attention. In many countries, so-called ‘tourism taxes’ have been implemented or are being considered, sometimes at the national level but more often at the destination level. The aim is to supplement existing tax revenues from tourism, for example from VAT, and help counter the so-called ‘hidden’ costs of tourism on communities and the environment, similar to the polluter pays principle (OECD, 2008[39]). In New Zealand, international visitors contribute directly through the International Visitor Conservation and Tourism Levy, which funds projects such as conservation activities, visitor infrastructure and other tourism initiatives. In Norway, a national law allows municipalities with high tourism pressure to introduce a local tourist tax of up to 3% on commercial accommodation, including hotels and cabins, with the potential to expand to cruise tourists. It is worth noting that tourism taxes are not a one-size fits all solution. In Denmark, a proposed tax on overnight stays failed to get parliamentary support, with the high administrative costs associated with managing the tax collection and allocating the revenue highlighted as a key argument against its introduction.
In most cases, the taxes aim to generate revenues to provide the supporting infrastructure and services for tourism. The earmarking of revenues raised through tourism-related taxes to provide infrastructure and other facilities to address the sector’s unique challenges may help secure buy-in and acceptance by visitors, tourism businesses and local communities. Similarly, clear communication regarding how funds are being used for tangible improvements, such as infrastructure upgrades, environmental conservation, and cultural preservation can reinforce the legitimacy and acceptance of such tourism taxes. However, this needs to be weighed against the potential drawbacks, particularly the constraints that earmarking can place on fiscal flexibility (OECD, 2019[40]).
In some cases, the taxes also seek to modify tourist behaviours. For example, Hungary has quadrupled the accommodation tax on short-term rentals in Budapest with the aim of addressing housing issues, while it remains unchanged in the rest of the country. This is in addition to introducing a two-year moratorium on new short-term rental licences between January 2025 and December 2026. Meanwhile, investment in new hotels continues, supported by development programmes, with several large-capacity hotels opening in Budapest in 2025. However, more evidence is needed on the effectiveness of tourism taxes in changing behaviours and limiting visitor numbers. There is some evidence to suggest that the impacts of tourism taxes on demand tend to be marginal, and that it is difficult to isolate the impact of taxes from other factors impacting tourism demand (Group NAO, 2020[41]). Similarly, evidence from the introduction of a tourist tax in Manchester, United Kingdom indicates that the tax had no significant effect on hotel performance (Anguera-Torrell, Aznar-Alarcón and Boto-García, 2025[42]).
Promoting business models and practices that capture the value of tourism locally
The private sector has an important role to play in optimising the socio-economic benefits of tourism and aligning business practices with wider sustainability goals. Existing models of tourism development often result in the impacts of tourism not being evenly shared by tourists, businesses, destinations and local communities and, as a result, countries are increasingly looking to strengthen locally owned tourism businesses and tourism value chains. The private sector also has an important role in providing quality working conditions and upskilling opportunities within the tourism sector.
SMEs have a particularly important role to play as the predominant form of business and employment within tourism and represent an opportunity for local communities to access the economic impacts of tourism. At the same time, SMEs face unique challenges, such as less diversified economic activities and weaker financial structures compared to larger businesses (OECD, 2022[43]), with tourism SMEs facing more particular challenges, including more stringent credit conditions (OECD, 2017[44]). While digital tools can help SMEs to streamline operations and improve customer engagement and experiences, they also require new skills to undertake new tasks, including the management of data and effective digital communications, which are often out of reach (OECD, 2025[45]).
Policies that support capacity-building, access to finance, and digitalisation can strengthen the role of SMEs in tourism ecosystems and enhance sector competitiveness. Instruments such as small grants and support to access finance, adopt digital tools, innovate and access markets are being used to help local entrepreneurs to operate guesthouses, tour guiding services, crafts, and food businesses competitively, while building local capacity and helping community members benefit economically from tourism. In Canada, federal policy supports the adoption of digital tools and technologies by tourism businesses. Programmes are delivered through regional development agencies and the federal government and aim to build digital capacity, particularly among SMEs and rural operators. Meanwhile, Peru’s Turismo Emprende programme seeks to diversify and strengthen the country’s tourism offer by providing co-financing for improvement and innovation projects to micro and small businesses operating in travel, hospitality and catering services. In Portugal, business capacity-building and incubation programmes aim to help SMEs professionalise and scale operations. These programmes provide technical training, strategic tools, and encourage microenterprise aggregation into collaborative networks and clusters, particularly in low-density regions. Recent OECD work highlights the important role that incubators and accelerators can play in improving the effectiveness of entrepreneurship support (OECD, 2026, forthcoming[46]).
Co-creating products that reflect local values and identities can bring benefits to businesses and support local communities. Public-private partnerships can be used to develop infrastructure, manage visitor flows, and promote local economic benefits, allowing local areas to leverage private capital while helping to ensure that tourism investments reflect community values and sustainability principles. In Estonia, municipalities and businesses co-design year-round products and marketing through partnership-based destination management organisations, with increasing local co-financing for strengthened accountability. Supported by Visit Estonia programmes, the private sector’s role is to co-create offers, share data, adopt sustainability standards, and invest in skills and digital tools. In Greece, the 2021 Law on Destination Management and Marketing Organisations and Model Tourism Destinations of Integrated Management aims to support destination management by creating a stable co-operation framework between the public and private sectors, acknowledging that unique destination characteristics may necessitate tailored planning and monitoring support (OECD, 2024[2]).
Partnerships between large operators and local businesses can help the value of tourism reach local communities, enhancing local economic resilience and building local capacity. This can both support local entrepreneurship and encourage the development of distinctive products and services that reflect the region’s identity, further enriching the visitor experience. This is the aim of the Airbnb Community Fund, for example, which supports a range of organisations from national nonprofits to local community organisations to strengthen local communities (Airbnb, 2025[47]). Similarly, the TUI Futureshapers Global project provides flexible capital and mentoring to entrepreneurs and SMEs that aims to maximise tourism’s positive impact on communities, employees, and the environment (TUI Care Foundation, 2025[48]).
Regional clusters can also help connect tourism services with local farmers, craftsmen, and cultural initiatives to strengthen local value chains. Formalising value chains in crafts, food and guides can support the development of local economies with tourism income being retained locally. The Gauja National Park tourism cluster in Latvia operates as a public–private partnership, where municipalities, private businesses and NGOs work together on marketing, infrastructure, and sustainability, ensuring that local voices are heard as part of the decision making process.
Locally owned tourism businesses and initiatives can be leveraged to strengthen community acceptance of tourism and highlight local cultural heritage and natural assets. This can strengthen community pride, while at the same time reducing the divide between tourists and residents by promoting shared value and mutual respect. The “Local Host” label in Croatia highlights authentic family accommodations that promote responsible tourism and help ease community pressures. To be certified, hosts need to meet quality, hospitality, and sustainability standards, offering guests a genuine local experience while supporting the preservation of local traditions and the environment. These hosts connect visitors with authentic local experiences, traditions, and businesses, helping to retain tourism income in the community and deepen visitor engagement. The Buurthotel initiative in the Netherlands is a network of hotels that create and provide services to add value to resident and neighbourhood-focused initiatives, such as free space for training, free classes and expositions.
Supporting accessible tourism businesses is an increasingly common policy priority for destinations. Implementing measures to support accessible tourism businesses, when combined with the relevant infrastructure for the needs of the target market, can help to ensure that the benefits of tourism reach local residents and improve access to a wider group of travellers, including people with disabilities, older travellers and people with reduced mobility. The WELCOME Framework in Australia provides easy-to-follow guidance for tourism businesses to make their products and services more accessible to all users. It guides tourism businesses in understanding the needs of, and promoting their business to, the accessible tourism community. Meanwhile, Greece has introduced "Accessible Tourism Destination" and "Accessible Tourism Enterprise" quality labels that introduce accessibility standards in tourism installations and destinations.
In response to the evolving needs of the tourism sector, the Ministry of Tourism in Greece implemented an online training programme aimed at upskilling and reskilling both employees and unemployed individuals across the country. This programme shows how targeted education policy can contribute to the development of rural and less-visited destinations. What makes this initiative particularly effective is its online delivery model. By removing the constraints of time and place, the programme has ensured access to quality training even in remote islands, mountainous villages, and lesser-developed regions.
The curriculum included core specialties, such as reception services and culinary/pastry arts, but also focused on the development of horizontal skills, such as digital competencies, health and safety at work and English terminology, providing participants with the tools they need to work in a competitive and increasingly demanding tourism economy.
More than 40 000 applications were submitted within the first few days of its launch, exceeding initial projections. This response highlights the pressing need for accessible, flexible, and targeted upskilling and reskilling opportunities within the tourism sector, particularly among seasonal workers, unemployed individuals, and employees in remote and peripheral areas. The scale of participation reflected that continuous professional development is critical not only for individual career advancement but also for the long-term competitiveness and sustainability of tourism in Greece.
Training represents an opportunity to support sustainable and competitive growth in the tourism sector, and ensure that qualified personnel can deliver high-quality services, enhance the visitor experience, and valorise the cultural and natural heritage of destinations. The aim of the UN Tourism Best Tourism Villages initiative is to use tourism to support rural prosperity and well-being. In Egypt, this initiative has been used as an entry point for technical assistance, community enterprise support and marketing that prioritises local SMEs, women and youth. This included training for local guides, handicraft value-chain support and small grants. In Greece, a training programme focused on the development of transversal skills in the tourism sector highlighted the importance of continuous professional development (Box 3.5). Tourist guides in Italy can enhance their skills at predetermined intervals to improve the quality of the service and visitor experience, including to: specialise in certain areas such as sustainable tourism, events, territorial marketing and digital guides; learn about specific markets such as luxury, youth, religious and experiential tourism; and develop intercultural and personalised communication skills for different types of tourists. Israel is strengthening tourism education at the high school level though internships and hands-on projects with local businesses to cultivate early interest in the sector, aiming at the same time to address labour shortages.
Managing short-term rentals and other tourism activities
Tourism businesses operate within locally determined frameworks, including business licensing, consumer protection, health and safety protocols, employment standards and land-use planning. Visitors are also expected to follow local laws governing conduct, public order, and the use of infrastructure and services. Approaches to managing tourism therefore need to align with existing laws and regulations, and involve related authorities when relevant, while taking into account the wider impacts of tourism on the local economy.
In certain instances, authorities that are not directly responsible for tourism can make decisions that impact tourism. This can lead to issues for tourists and residents if such decisions are not co-ordinated or do not take account of the potential wider impacts. For example, decisions to expand harbour capacity and increase the frequency of cruise ship dockings may inadvertently exacerbate challenges, particularly in destinations experiencing tourism pressures. This concern is now widely acknowledged, and many destinations are implementing restrictions on the number and scheduling of cruise ships.
The rapid emergence and growth of short-term rentals is leading many destinations experiencing tourism pressures to look towards regulatory solutions. Such measures commonly aim to balance the economic benefits of tourism against the pressure that it can place on local communities, particularly in areas experiencing shortages in housing and tourism accommodation. Common management tools include: mandatory registration; taxes on stays; moratoriums or caps on new registrations; permits or business licenses; host residency or primary-home rules that require the host to live on the property for a minimum period; geographic zoning or exclusion of short-term rentals from saturated historic cores or sensitive ecological areas; restricted safe-key installations; and caps on the number of nights short-term rentals can be rented out.
For example, British Columbia in Canada has introduced legislation to standardise short-term rental rules across communities. In Berlin, Germany a ban on the misuse of property and compulsory registration have halved the number of Airbnb apartments. The region of South Tyrol in Italy has capped the number of overnight stays available to tourists in tourist accommodation, including hotels and short-term rentals. Municipalities have a fixed quota of overnight places, and any new accommodation needs to be approved by local councils that can only grant permission if they have more places available, for example due to a tourist accommodation closing (Forbes, 2023[49]). Meanwhile in major cities like Rome and Milan, community-based housing initiatives are on the rise, to retain affordability for locals. In Japan, in order to prevent the deterioration of the living environment in surrounding communities, short-term rental operators are required to inform guests about matters related to noise prevention and waste disposal, as well as to respond appropriately and promptly to complaints and inquiries from residents living in the vicinity.
Tourism policymakers can play an important role in managing the impacts of short-term rentals, in co-ordination with other relevant authorities. Such measures need to be carefully designed to avoid unintended consequences. Evidence from Ireland suggests that the issues faced in urban areas with large rental markets are likely to be different to those in coastal towns with more moderate rental sectors (The Economic and Social Research Institute, 2025[22]). Evidence also suggests that professional operators dominate central areas and are more adept at circumventing rules, and that multi-listings, that is multiple properties managed by one host, tend to be least affected by regulatory interventions (Bei, 2025[50]). Furthermore, limiting accommodation or short-term rentals in destinations under pressure may not necessarily address overcrowding issues, if alternative accommodation can be easily found nearby, and these displaced overnight visitors may still travel to the originally intended destination but as additional same-day visitors instead.
Establishing a detailed and comprehensive register covering short-term rental activity can help policymakers obtain the necessary evidence to balance the need for tourist accommodation with the need for housing for locals. At international level, EU Regulation 2024/1028 (European Union, 2024[51]) on how data related to short-term rentals should be collected and shared aims to improve the evidence-base on the impact of short-term rentals in the EU. Furthermore, as part of an Affordable Housing Act, the Commission will propose a new legislative initiative on short-term rentals, with the aim of enabling local authorities to address housing stress and support sustainable tourism (European Commission, 2025[52]). At national level, Italy has launched a National Accommodation Database requiring all hospitality providers and short-term rental hosts to register and obtain a National Identification Code to include in all listings and public communications, ensuring transparency and traceability of short-term rentals. Türkiye has introduced legislation that makes short-term rental activities subject to a mandatory permit license issued by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. In several regions of Switzerland, landlords renting out short-term rentals are obliged to register as hospitality service providers.
Supporting tourism acceptance by local communities
Host community support and acceptance is important for tourism, but it is not a given (OECD, 2025[9]). If economic benefits from tourism growth are not captured locally and the impacts on the community and environment are not carefully managed, the risk of declining acceptance and support for tourism increases, which in turn can erode the social licence for tourism. A negative perception of tourism, by residents and travellers, can also potentially undermine destination appeal. At the same time, host community and place is often a key part of why tourists choose to visit a specific destination. It is therefore in the interests of the tourism sector to prioritise balanced tourism development, such that the benefits reach local businesses and communities, and tourism activity contributes to enhanced living standards and resident well-being.
Communicating the full range of tourism’s impacts can play a role in improving resident sentiments towards tourism. In destinations under pressure, negative impacts such as overcrowding, rising costs, or gentrification can be more visible and tangible to residents than the positive contributions, such as improved infrastructure, cultural exchange, or enhanced economic opportunities, which are often less apparent or harder to quantify. Media coverage of anti-tourism protests together with the virality and amplifying effect of social media can further reinforce the perceptions of tourism as an issue that needs to be solved, also in emerging destinations. Actively communicating the positive impacts of tourism for local communities may foster a more balanced view of the impacts of tourism. For example, evidence from a study carried out in Saudi Arabia suggests that social media marketing can enhance residents’ perceptions of their city, which in turn is more likely to generate a positive attitude towards the impacts of tourism (Alzaydi and Elsharnouby, 2023[53]). Poland’s Strategy for Integrated Marketing Communication Management in Tourism until 2030 includes a focus on Appreciating Tourism, which aims to raise awareness of the importance of tourism within society.
An important question remains how destinations and countries can preserve authentic local culture while benefiting economically from tourism. The risk of gentrification of specific areas within cities is seen as an increasing issue in certain destinations experiencing tourism pressures. At the same time, emerging destinations wishing to attract visitors can see the need to pre-emptively address the risk of gentrification. Initiatives to support affordable housing, community engagement, and dispersing visitor flows are all relevant tools to help preserve authentic local culture.
Training programmes for tourism operators, guides and local entrepreneurs can also help support a balance between tourism development and the protection of local culture. Such programmes can raise awareness of the importance of valuing and safeguarding authentic cultural heritage, helping preserve the identity and distinctive character of host communities. At the same time, this can serve as a tool to promote the development of sustainable skills, providing the knowledge needed to design tourism experiences that respect the cultural and environmental specificities of the local area. Through visitor engagement programmes in Hawaii, United States, visitors learn Hawaiian history and culture, experience firsthand traditional cultural practices, and undertake related activities that convey respect and reaffirm the principle of reciprocation to the place, resources, and traditional knowledge holders (OECD, 2022[54]). Meanwhile, Egypt supports handicraft initiatives to help local communities benefit from tourism, while at the same time contributing to cultural heritage preservation and strengthening social cohesion.
The behaviour of tourists plays an important role in shaping host community experiences. Misconduct and antisocial behaviour which impact residents and tourists alike is increasingly highlighted as an issue in the media, particularly in destinations under pressure. Challenges range from loud and rowdy tourists, vandalism, irresponsible cycling, and visitors disrespecting local customs and cultures, to increases in crime and security challenges, including irregular migration and trafficking in flora, fauna, and cultural heritage.
Disrespectful behaviour by tourists is not necessarily intentional, and misunderstandings can arise from cultural differences, unfamiliar norms, or lack of awareness. Marketing campaigns are increasingly being used to encourage respectful visitor behaviour, providing targeted information to help guide and encourage desirable behaviour and educate tourists on cultural differences. In Czechia, the “Enjoy Respect Prague” campaign educates visitors about responsible behaviour, local rules and respect for residents. The CopenPay initiative in Copenhagen, Denmark, incentivises tourists and residents to adopt greener behaviours, such as colleting waste in the canals, by offering small rewards (for example a free coffee), thereby encouraging more responsible visitor conduct while also demonstrating to local communities the positive contributions that tourists can make. In Indonesia, Bali introduced a set of guidelines for visitors focused on respecting locals, temples and culture, and appropriate dress. Similarly, the “How to Amsterdam” campaign in the Netherlands highlights ten ground rules for tourists to bear in mind when visiting, based on respecting the city and its residents. In New Zealand, visitors are asked to care for land, sea and nature, travel safely and respect culture, as part of the Tiaki promise, a concept developed locally to help visitors travel safely and conscientiously.
Some destinations experiencing pressures are also looking to harder measures including bans and fines to encourage more respectful behaviour by tourists and locals. Barcelona in Spain has implemented a city-wide ban on organised alcohol-focused tours in response to concerns over public disorder, neighbourhood disruption, and health risks. The regulation forms part of a broader strategy to safeguard public spaces, support community well-being, and uphold responsible tourism standards across the city. In several Mediterranean countries, wearing swimwear away from the beach, drinking alcohol in public, taking a shell from the beach, or reserving a sunbed without using it now incurs fines.
The effectiveness of fines in managing the tourist behaviour depends how they are framed and administered, as well as the size of the fine. Available evidence suggests that fines administered publicly are more successful in changing behaviour than those imposed privately (Kurz, Thomas and Fonseca, 2014[55]), while higher fines impact behaviour more than the probability of being detected (Laske, Saccardo and Gneezy, 2018[56]). This suggests that visible enforcement and meaningful penalties are more likely to deter undesirable behaviour than relying solely on the threat of occasional monitoring.
Measuring social impacts of tourism for informed decision making
Measuring and monitoring the socio-economic impacts of tourism is important to help develop evidence-based policies as well as evaluate the effectiveness of policies in the tourism sector. Traditional tourism statistics have typically focused on volume metrics and the economic impacts of tourism. Attention is increasingly shifting to consider value metrics and the wider impacts of tourism. However, measuring the social impacts of tourism remains a challenge and requires careful consideration of several factors. These can vary significantly between destinations, for example, the type and characteristics of the tourism offering, the seasonal and spatial distribution of tourism, the strain on local infrastructure and services, financial resources for shared infrastructure and public spaces, local residents’ tourism acceptance, and the overall attractiveness and spatial planning of destinations.
Work at international level is helping to expand the knowledge and evidence base on the social impacts of tourism and support standardisation. The Statistical Framework for Measuring the Sustainability of Tourism (SF-MST) includes a pillar on the social dimension of tourism, from the perspective of visitors, hosts, tourism suppliers and governance (UN Tourism, 2024[57]). The UN has also developed a new indicator to more effectively monitor tourism employment, and work is underway by UN Tourism to develop an ESG framework for tourism businesses. At European level, Eurostat is developing a set of indicators measuring the sustainability of tourism based on existing data sources which includes a social pillar, while the EU Tourism Dashboard includes tourism intensity and employment data. Meanwhile, the Visitor Management Assessment and Strategy Tool (VMAST), developed by UNESCO, helps site and destination management authorities manage visitation and tourism for protection of heritage values while enhancing community sustainability and resilience.
The OECD Tourism Committee and its Working Party on Tourism Statistics is also active on this issue, with OECD and partner countries developing a proposed core set of indicators and associated metrics to measure the sustainability of tourism which including a pillar on the social impacts. This work builds on extensive consultations and inputs from OECD and partner countries, and draws on country-specific work undertaken with the support of the European Union via its Technical Support Instrument (TSI) to strengthen the evidence base for a sustainable tourism future in Greece, Malta, Portugal, Slovenia, and Spain (OECD, 2025[58]; OECD, 2025[59]; OECD, 2025[60]; OECD, 2025[61]; OECD, 2024[62]). The work is supporting the concrete implementation of the SF-MST by advancing the process of aligning indicator selection and implementation in a way that responds to country policy priorities.
Australia’s Longitudinal Indicators for Visitor Economy includes a set of 20 key indicators to measure the health and performance of the visitor economy across the economic, social, environmental and institutional dimensions.
Canada’s Wealth and Wellbeing Index aims to assess the full range of benefits that tourism brings to Canadians, highlighting the sector’s role in empowering communities, preserving culture, protecting natural assets and driving economic growth. The Index is comprised of six interconnected components, namely economy, employment, enablement, environment, engagement and experience (Destination Canada, 2025[63]).
Costa Rica’s Social Progress Index has since 2017 tracked the relative performance of indicators on basic knowledge access, information and communications access, health and wellbeing, ecosystem sustainability, personal rights, personal freedom and choice, tolerance and inclusion, and access to advanced education, across the country’s 33 tourism development centres.
Croatia has introduced sustainability indicators, carrying capacity assessments, and data-sharing mechanisms to strengthen co-ordination and support evidence-based decision making across ministries and levels of government. The Tourism Sustainable Satellite Account (TSSA), under development, will further enhance integration by providing data on tourism’s economic, social, and environmental impacts. The aim of these tools is to align tourism with wider national goals for tourism to contribute to local development and well-being.
Finland measures and monitors the socio-economic impacts of tourism as part of Visit Finland´s Sustainable Travel Programme, which includes data on tourism intensity and density, inclusiveness of tourism companies, cultural sites, and Finland’s ranking in relevant international indexes.
Portugal is modernising its tourism data systems to better measure and respond to the socio-economic impacts of tourism, particularly at the sub-national level. Central to this is the establishment of a nationwide network of Regional Sustainable Tourism Observatories, supported by Turismo de Portugal and aligned with UN Tourism’s INSTO framework. This network, known as Destination Watch, brings together regional destination management organisations, universities and public agencies to co-produce data, improve territorial co-ordination, and inform more balanced, evidence-based policies.
The measurement of the social impact of tourism is also on the agenda of the private sector. The World Travel and Tourism Council has expanded its economic impact reporting to include the environmental and social footprint of tourism (WTTC, 2024[64]), while the World Economic Forum’s Tourism Development Index includes indicators on the socio-economic impacts. Meanwhile, a report exploring the root causes of so-called ‘overtourism’ highlights the need for improved destination management and development of effective and data-driven responses to address the ‘invisible burden’ of tourism (The Travel Foundation, 2019[12]).
Policymakers can support the design and dissemination of tailored social impact measurement tools to reduce hurdles and facilitate their uptake (OECD, 2023[65]). Countries apply a wide range of methods and data sources to measure and monitor the socio-economic impacts of tourism, often tracing data across multiple different indicators and topics to capture the full range of socio-economic impacts that tourism has. These initiatives are generally aimed to provide evidence that goes beyond the economic numbers more readily available (Box 3.6).
Measuring the sentiment of residents and visitors can provide valuable insights on the social impacts of tourism. Resident sentiment can be a valuable proxy for community well-being and is becoming increasingly important in OECD countries as a way to assess public attitudes, perceptions of crowding, and quality of life impacts. Regular monitoring can help policymakers to identify emerging concerns and areas where tourism may be contributing to, or detracting from, quality of life. Visitor sentiment can help gain insights on the visitor experience and accessibility to enhance service quality and product development and can provide valuable information on visitor perceptions of crowding, safety, hospitality, and cultural authenticity in destinations, which can facilitate strategic planning.
Innovative methods that integrate traditional statistical sources with new data, indicators, and analytical tools present opportunities to improve the measurement of the socio-economic impacts of tourism, as well as to more accurately monitor progress and evaluate the effectiveness of public policies. Integrating official statistical sources, administrative data, and innovative sources, such as data from mobile phones and credit card transactions, can improve the timeliness and granularity of tourism data, thereby enhancing the ability to capture real-time tourism dynamics, visitor flows and mobility, and economic impacts, including at sub-national level (OECD, 2025[66]). Such data also present opportunities to develop tools for forecasting tourism demand, which can inform resource allocation and support sustainable destination management.
Further work is needed to strengthen the measurement of the social impacts of tourism on local communities. Quantifying the pressure that tourists place on healthcare, transport, sanitation, and public space remains an area for further development. Potentially relevant areas of research include: cost of public services per tourist night, especially in municipalities with high day-visitor volumes; public transport and road congestion linked to seasonal tourism; waste and water use at municipal level attributable to tourism, including cruise traffic; and visitor carrying capacities of heritage sites and natural parks. Although the economic impacts are generally well understood, there is limited knowledge on the extent to which the value remains in local economies, particularly in low-density or emerging destinations. Indicators on leakage have the potential to improve this understanding, for example though the share of locally produced goods and services in tourism consumption, SME participation rates in the tourism value chain, and tourism value-added per region and per type of destination. The impact of tourism, and in particular short-term rentals, on the housing market requires further investigation.
Addressing unbalanced tourism development requires a better understanding and consideration of the complex and cross-cutting nature of the sector. It is also important to adopt an integrated approach, taking into consideration the views of tourism operators and local communities, mainstream sustainable policies and practices, develop more sustainable tourism business models, and improve tourism measurement to determine the desired type and scale of tourism appropriate for individual destinations (OECD, 2024[1]; OECD, 2021[4]). Strong governance structures, at all levels, and reliable evidence are required to better manage tourism, especially as the sector navigates large-scale social, economic, political, environmental, and technical trends.
As demand for tourism continues to grow, a paradigm shift in the perception of tourism ‘success’ is required, moving beyond traditional economic and visitor metrics, together with a greater focus on the environmental and social pillars of sustainability (OECD, 2024[1]), while at the same time recognising that transforming the sector will take time. Solutions need to be crafted to avoid unintended consequences, with policies informed by robust evidence of their effectiveness, taking into account both the resident population as well as the tourists.
Based on the analysis discussed in this chapter, key policy considerations to enhance the social benefits of tourism for destinations and local communities include:
Place-based and people-centric policies are needed to meet the needs of local communities and mobilise local assets. Recognising the unique characteristics of destinations supports the development of tailored strategies and investments to strengthen competitiveness, sustainability and economic resilience in the face of transitions and shocks. As consumer preferences and societal dynamics evolve, destinations must continually adapt tourism models and policies to align with the local identity and tourism goals. Additional work is needed to explore how governments can support such policies, and how tourism impacts and policy needs differ by type of destination.
Strong co-ordination between policymakers at the national and destination level is central to maximising the social benefits of tourism. Clear communication helps to align priorities and avoid duplication. Governance frameworks that empower local actors to implement context-sensitive solutions should also remain consistent with broader policy objectives. While some issues such as infrastructure planning and community engagement are often best addressed locally, other issues such as regulatory standards and funding mechanisms may require national oversight.
Adopt integrated, participatory approaches that embed tourism within broader economic development strategies. This includes efforts to spread the benefits of tourism both spatially and temporally, coupled with targeted efforts to prepare less-visited areas for potential tourism flows to avoid simply shifting pressures from one location to another. While tourism remains a key economic driver, it should form part of a diversified regional development strategy.
Invest in public assets that benefit both residents and visitors. Strategic investments in transport, healthcare, utilities, and environmental management can support fluctuating tourism demand while enhancing year-round community well-being. Tourism-related taxes are one available tool to help finance these investments. Transparent communication on how such revenues are used can strengthen stakeholder trust and legitimacy for such measures. Any regulation of short-term rentals should be designed to balance the economic benefits of tourism against the pressure that it can place on local communities, particularly in relation to housing availability.
Encourage business models and practices that ensure a more even distribution of tourism benefits. Supporting locally owned tourism enterprises and fostering public-private partnerships can help retain income within destinations, strengthen community pride, and preserve cultural identity. Targeted skills and training programmes can expand employment opportunities for local residents and promote sustainable, competitive sector growth.
A deeper understanding of the potential social impacts of tourism is needed to better manage trade-offs, enhance economic development and support well-being in both established and emerging destinations. This includes improving insights into how tourism generates value for destinations and the different types of potential trade-offs that destinations need to consider, to better share the benefits (and costs) more widely and evenly shared across communities.
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