This chapter assesses the structures and mechanisms that underpin public sector accountability concerning gender equality policy and outcomes in Jordan. Robust and comprehensive accountability and oversight systems are pivotal in advancing gender equality objectives. They help identify the needs and challenges of attaining specific gender-related goals, thus facilitating implementation, monitoring and progress reporting. They also offer redress and recourse options for victims of gender-based discrimination where needed. Following an examination of institutional responsibilities and existing practices that foster accountability in Jordan, the chapter puts forth a set of action-oriented recommendations in this regard.
OECD Public Governance Reviews: Jordan
Together for an Accountable and Transparent Public Administration
Abstract
As illustrated in previous chapters, following the strong commitment expressed by King Abdullah II, the government of Jordan has over the past two decades undertaken a number of institutional reforms to improve public sector accountability as a key driver of economic prosperity. In line with these efforts, the National Strategy for Women in Jordan 2020-25 (NSW 2020-25), the country’s strategic framework for promoting gender equality, raises the importance of promoting sound accountability mechanisms for gender equality policy. Indeed, building “an institutional framework to enhance accountability in formal institutions, alongside participatory gender-responsive mechanisms” is included as a key output of one of the strategy’s four main goals (JNCW, 2020[1]). Likewise, aiming at fostering the integration of gender equality considerations into policymaking, the Gender Mainstreaming Policy adopted in 2020 underscores accountability as one of its main principles, emphasising the importance of “taking responsibility for actions and acknowledging the consequences of decisions made in the pursuit of gender equality” (JNCW, 2021[2]).
Better policy outcomes for all men and women are more likely to be achieved if robust accountability mechanisms are in place and underpin government action (OECD, 2021[3]). As outlined in the 2015 OECD Recommendation of the Council on Gender Equality in Public Life, countries should seek to strengthen accountability and oversight mechanisms for gender equality and mainstreaming initiatives across and within government bodies (OECD, 2016[4]), as they play a key role in ensuring implementation, monitoring progress and promoting transparency. When paired with transparency mechanisms that enhance access to information and awareness of gender inequalities and diverse societal needs, accountability arrangements can play a key role in supporting the fulfilment of gender equality goals. They facilitate the implementation of gender equality and mainstreaming policies and strategies while promoting monitoring and reporting on progress achieved and remaining gaps.
For the purposes of this chapter, accountability refers to the responsibility and duty of government, public bodies, public officials and decision-makers to provide transparent information and answer for their actions and performance with respect to the advancement of gender equality to the public, stakeholders and other governing bodies. With robust public sector accountability mechanisms in place, citizens and other stakeholders are informed on what public institutions do and how they perform (OECD, 2020[5]). This empowers them with the right and responsibility to scrutinise government action and reward or sanction performance through electoral, institutional, administrative and social channels.
Based on the commitment of the NSW 2020-25 to enhance institutional accountability for gender equality, this chapter assesses the existing frameworks and governance arrangements for public sector accountability and their potential to support gender equality policy and improve gender policy outcomes in Jordan. It explores various dimensions of accountability within government and encompasses senior managerial responsibility in public administration, parliamentary oversight, independent institutions and citizen participation. By proposing a way forward to strengthen accountability mechanisms for gender equality, the chapter aims to contribute to increasing the effectiveness of government action in Jordan in the area of gender equality.
In recent years, the government of Jordan has worked to develop strategic and policy frameworks underpinning the promotion of gender equality and mainstreaming. These serve as guiding documents to set the direction for the country’s gender equality agenda and establish a foundation for accountability in that area. Relevant frameworks are briefly illustrated below.
Three paths of modernisation and reform aim to ensure women’s contributions to the economy, public administration and the political sphere
Developed between 2021 and 2022, the Economic Modernisation Vision (EMV), the Public Sector Modernisation Roadmap and the Political System Modernisation Plan are the main whole-of-government strategic documents that set renewed objectives to boost economic growth and raise citizens’ living standards, modernise the public sector and promote greater participation of society in politics in Jordan. All three documents focus on the empowerment of women in Jordan to ensure they play a key role in the economy, public administration and the political sphere (Government of Jordan, 2022[6]; 2022[7]). Notably, to prepare and implement the executive programme for EMV for 2023-25, 22 sectoral teams have been established in 2022 (MoPIC, n.d.[8]), including one dedicated to women’s empowerment chaired by the Inter-Ministerial Committee for Women’s Empowerment (IMC). The team has been responsible for developing the executive programme, conducting studies for the proposed initiatives within the vision, identifying priority initiatives and aligning them with the timeline of the executive programme itself.
The Women’s Empowerment Strategy within the EMV details objectives and initiatives to foster women’s economic participation in Jordan
Launched in April 2022, the IMC prepared the Women’s Empowerment Strategy within the EMV in partnership with relevant institutions and bodies to reflect Jordan’s commitment to equality, fairness, respect for human rights and eliminating all forms of gender-based discrimination. The strategy aims to enhance women’s participation in the labour market, increase their participation in economic decision-making and mainstream gender equality issues into the work of public and private sectors (The Jordan Times, 2022[9]).
In particular, the strategy sets some main objectives related to women and young women:
Doubling the share of female participation in the labour market from 14% to 28% in 2033, which would help provide more than 280 000 job opportunities for women.
Achieving a qualitative leap in Jordan’s ranking in the World Economic Forum Global Gender Gap Index and the World Bank Women, Business and the Law Index, as well as developing a national index to monitor and track women’s economic participation.
As stated in the strategy, these objectives will be achieved through a series of initiatives, including rapid advancements in legal protection and legislative amendments, particularly focusing on regulations and instructions. In addition, the strategy foresees the adoption of a national composite index of women’s economic participation, taking into account women with disabilities and implementing the seal of gender equality. It also introduces the Women’s Online Store initiative, a plan promoting women-led online entrepreneurial projects. This encompasses obtaining an application, designing a store and integrating online businesses with electronic payment methods and delivery applications. Furthermore, the strategy aims to transition working women from the informal economy to formal sectors through incentives, such as subsidising a portion of Social Security contributions for a specified period.
The strategy sheds light on the existing obstacles that prevent women’s economic participation in Jordan, which include societal expectations regarding women’s roles, employer reluctance to hire women due to stereotypes, gender wage disparities among those with bachelor’s degrees and above, and the lack of affordable kindergartens and safe public transportation. The strategy also identifies the most promising sectors for increasing women’s economic participation, such as leadership and creativity sectors, education, high-value industries like manufacturing and logistics, and future services such as healthcare, social services, trade, as well as financial services, communications, information technology, scientific and technical professional activities.
In doing so, the strategy includes women’s empowerment enablers in the EMV, such as robust legislative frameworks, digital inclusion, financial inclusion, creating a supportive work environment, fostering a culture of positive representation of women in leadership positions and investing in education, training, skills development and knowledge generation.
The National Strategy for Women in Jordan 2020-25 and its Action Plan 2023-25 are the country’s main strategic framework to promote gender equality
Developed by the Jordanian National Commission for Women (JNCW) under the directives of the prime ministry and the supervision of the IMC with a participatory approach, the National Strategy for Women in Jordan 2020-25 (NSW 2020-25) is the country’s standalone strategic framework for the promotion of gender equality and the key reference document for improving the economic, social and political rights of women (JNCW, 2020[1]). Approved in March 2020, the NSW 2020-25 builds around four strategic goals:
Women and girls are able to exercise their economic, political and human rights and freely lead and participate in a society free of gender-based discrimination. This goal encompasses three key outcomes: i) ensuring equal opportunities for women in leadership positions, fostering economic independence and decision-making freedom; ii) guaranteeing women access to infrastructure and essential services tailored to their specific needs, including humanitarian assistance, and enabling their contribution to and enjoyment of security; and iii) facilitating women’s access to justice, promoting equality and equity within society and families, recognising the family as the cornerstone of society.
Women and girls enjoy a life free from all forms of gender-based violence. This goal focuses on implementing mechanisms for preventing, protecting against and responding to gender-based violence across private, public and digital sectors and spaces through a series of targeted interventions and initiatives.
Positive gender norms, attitudes and social roles support gender equality and women’s empowerment. This goal aims to reinforce positive gender norms and roles and mainstream them in formal and informal education, as well as in the media, religious narrative and society.
Institutions are executing and sustaining policies, structures and services that support gender equality and women’s empowerment in alignment with Jordan’s national and international commitments. This strategic goal comprises one key output related to having institutions in place that have the capacity to develop and sustain policies, structures and services that support gender justice, gender equality and women’s empowerment. This output also addresses developing and facilitating access to gender statistics and data to support decision-making processes, advocacy and accountability on gender equality.
In March 2023, to foster the implementation of the strategy, the government adopted the NSW Action Plan 2023-25, aligned with the EMV, which includes a wide number of initiatives and projects and specifies implementing entities and partners, as well as the indicatives resources needed to carry them out (JNCW, 2023[10]).
The Fifth National Action Plan under the Open Government includes initiatives on gender equality and mainstreaming as a means to ensure transparency and accountability
The Open Government Partnership (OGP) is a voluntary multilateral initiative gathering government leaders and civil society organisations (CSOs) with the aim of securing concrete commitments to promoting transparency and access to information, fostering inclusion and citizen participation in policy and decision-making, fighting corruption, strengthening accountability and leveraging new technologies for good governance (OGP, n.d.[11]). In the spirit of multi-stakeholder collaboration, the OGP is overseen by a steering committee that includes government and CSO representatives. Jordan joined the initiative in 2011 and, since then, has adopted five national action plans aiming at increasing transparency, accountability and reinforcing governance. Among its commitments, the Fifth National Action Plan, launched in December 2021 and extending until 2025, encompasses initiatives focused on gender equality and mainstreaming in the public sector. Notably, Commitment no. 3 outlines plans and activities for developing and implementing gender mainstreaming policies across line ministries and governmental directorates (Government of Jordan, 2021[12]). This signals a key step towards improving gender equality and mainstreaming within Jordan’s public sector.
The Gender Mainstreaming Policy promotes the integration of gender equality perspectives into policy and decision-making processes in Jordan
Developed by the JNCW and adopted in 2020, the Gender Mainstreaming Policy affirms Jordan’s commitment to addressing gender inequalities in the political, social and economic spheres by combining targeted policy initiatives with the integration of gender equality considerations into the policy and decision-making process in order to take into account the different responsibilities, circumstances and conditions of women and men (JNCW, 2021[2]). The policy outlines four priority areas:
Enhancing institutional capacities for gender mainstreaming.
Promoting gender-responsive planning and legislation at the national and sectoral levels.
Increasing women’s representation in government decision-making positions.
Expanding the volume of national resources for targeted and gender mainstreaming initiatives.
The Jordanian Second National Plan 2022-25 for activating UNSCR 1325 supports women’s participation in conflict prevention, peace building, stability and security
Developed by the JNCW and approved by the Council of Ministers in July 2023, the Jordanian National Action Plan (2022-25) (JONAP II) for advancing the implementation of United Nations Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) Resolution 1325 aims to integrate a gender-based approach towards women’s participation in prevention and protection processes during conflicts, as well as in peace building and maintaining stability and sustainable security (UN Women Jordan, n.d.[13]). Parallel to these efforts, JONAP II specifically responds to the 2015 United Nations Security Council Resolution 2242, which highlights the importance of co-operation with civil society and the role of women as key partners in preventing and combating violent extremism. It also reiterates the importance of engaging men and boys as partners in promoting women’s participation in the prevention and resolution of armed conflicts (UN Women Jordan, n.d.[13]). The plan follows the adoption of Jordan’s first-ever JONAP in 2018, which covered the 2018-21 period. Compared with the first JONAP, the new action plan also includes initiatives related to the environment and climate change, and actions aimed at enhancing women’s access to decision-making positions in the diplomatic corps and justice sector.
Effective accountability requires a robust institutional framework allocating clear mandates and responsibilities across ministerial portfolios and different levels of government, as well as independent oversight mechanisms (OECD, 2021[3]). Over the last years, Jordan has made efforts to strengthen its institutional architecture to promote the gender equality agenda at the national level. The following subsections briefly outline the roles and responsibilities of relevant institutions, which in turn define the parameters for assessing Jordan’s existing accountability structures in this chapter.
The centre of government provides leadership to the gender equality agenda, contributes to strategic and policy frameworks and fosters gender-responsive budgeting approaches
Achieving gender equality is a multifaceted exercise that spans various dimensions and cuts across different areas, thus requiring the active engagement and support of all government actors. Within OECD countries, the centre of government (CoG) – which serves as the support structure for the highest level of the executive branch, including presidents, prime ministers and their equivalents – holds a unique position, as it has the capacity to secure this broad-based support throughout the government. With its capabilities for bringing together and directing policy priorities, the CoG assumes a crucial role in the governance of gender equality. The composition of the CoG varies from country to country depending, for example, on the constitutional order, the political system, the country’s administrative structure and contextual and historical actors (OECD, 2020[5]). In Jordan, the CoG comprises the Cabinet, the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation (MoPIC), the General Budget Department and the Ministry of Finance.
The Cabinet of Jordan provides leadership to the country’s economic, political and public sector modernisation agenda, including efforts to foster women’s empowerment in those related fields. MoPIC participates in formulating general economic and social policy and supports developing programmes and plans for its implementation. Established in 2005 as the first government-level unit for gender equality and women’s empowerment, the Division on Gender Policies and Women’s Empowerment within MoPIC’s Directorate of National Policy Planning participates in defining development goals, policies and indicators on gender equality in co-operation with the JNCW and gender focal points in relevant ministries. The division, currently comprised of two employees, is also responsible for co-ordinating with other national bodies on gender equality and women’s empowerment and contributing to studies and surveys on women and other gender-related topics.
The General Budget Department is responsible for preparing the annual General Budget Law and proposing allocations aligned with the government’s policy directions and priorities. Aiming to enhance women’s rights and empowerment through gender-responsive government planning, programming and budgeting, the General Budget Department ensures that every ministry includes budget allocations for women and children to cover activities within their policy areas of responsibility. As such, together with the Ministry of Finance, it plays a central role in driving forward gender-responsive budgeting approaches. This aligns with the country’s efforts initiated in 2013 with the issuance of Official Circular no. 16 by the Ministry of Finance, stating “The ministry, department or unit must also take into consideration gender and child issues as identifying its indicators. In addition, number of employees by gender and distribution by programme should be specified, with presenting each programme’s objectives, main services and divisions responsible for implementing those programmes” (General Budget Department, 2013[14]).
The Jordanian National Commission for Women fulfils the role of the main co-ordinating body for the gender equality policy in the country
The JNCW fulfils the role of the main co-ordinating body for gender equality policy in the country, which is responsible for advancing the status of women in Jordan and enhancing their participation in achieving sustainable development. Established by Council of Ministers decision in 1992, the JNCW is a semi-governmental body mandated to mainstream women’s considerations and priorities into national strategies, policies, plans, laws and budgets to ensure gender equality and eliminate gender-based discrimination (JNCW, n.d.[15]). In addition, it monitors instances of discrimination against women and tracks progress in realising equality and equal opportunities. Moreover, it advocates for various women’s issues and raises awareness about women’s pivotal role in society by producing studies and guidelines on particular topics. The JNCW board, chaired by HRH Princess Basma Bint Talal, is made up of 18 members from relevant ministries, national councils and institutions, and civil society (JNCW, n.d.[15]). A secretariat in the capital city Amman hosted by the Jordanian Hashemite Fund for Human Development, the country’s largest non-governmental organisation, supports the commission in its work.
Various institutional mechanisms foster gender policy co-ordination across government, establishing implementation responsibilities and encouraging accountability
In Jordan, line ministries and other public institutions are responsible for contributing to the implementation of the NSW 2020-25 and its Action Plan, as well as the Gender Mainstreaming Policy and other policies and strategies in relevant areas. Gender equality and women’s empowerment units and divisions have been established in some key line ministries to promote the integration of gender equality considerations in their activities and policy areas of responsibility. The units/divisions, which vary in size and positioning across ministries, comprise a network co-ordinated by the JNCW. For example, the Ministry of Youth has incorporated the principle of gender equality and women’s empowerment in the executive plan (2023‑25) for the National Youth Strategy. It has established a women’s empowerment department to promote gender mainstreaming and women’s representation in leadership positions in the institution, as well as their participation in various committees. Likewise, the Ministry of Labour is currently developing a policy for gender equality and women’s empowerment and an executive plan providing a comprehensive institutional framework for various initiatives to promote gender equality and women’s empowerment within the ministry’s scope.
Moreover, since 2015, the IMC has facilitated horizontal co-ordination in government on gender equality and women’s empowerment actions, in accordance with the goals set out in Jordan’s development plans and strategies, such as the EMV (see previous section). Notably, the IMC, which works at the ministerial level, supports initiatives that enhance women’s economic and political participation and ensures the adoption of plans, policies and programmes to promote gender equality and women’s empowerment, thereby encouraging accountability.
The Department of Statistics is Jordan’s main data-collecting and producing body, ensuring the collection and dissemination of gender-disaggregated data and indicators
Established under General Statistics Law No. 24 of 1950 and currently governed by General Statistics Law No. 12 of 2012, the Department of Statistics produces, analyses, and disseminates data, including gender-disaggregated statistics. A specific Gender Division within the department also prepares gender indicators using data collected through surveys, censuses and administrative records.
The Service and Public Administration Commission and the Institute of Public Administration manage and train public sector employees while promoting equal opportunities
The Service and Public Administration Commission (previously named Civil Service Bureau) is a central government body reporting to the prime minister and responsible for managing public sector employees. In doing so, the commission promotes equality and equal opportunities as some of the key principles and values of the Jordanian civil service (Government of Jordan, n.d.[16]). Complementing the role of the commission, the Institute of Public Administration (IPA) is a governmental institution specialising in training, capacity building, studies, research and consultations in various fields of public administration (IPA, n.d.[17]). In co-operation with the JNCW, the IPA is reportedly working to include gender equality considerations in its training offer to ensure the capacity of the Jordanian public administration to integrate gender equality aspects into the planning and policymaking process.
The Parliament of Jordan contributes to advancing the gender equality agenda through its legislative and oversight functions
At the legislative level, the Women and Family Affairs Committee in the House of Representatives and the Woman Committee in the Senate are responsible for reviewing legislation on women, families and children and overseeing policies, plans and programmes for women’s social, cultural, economic and political empowerment.
The National Center for Human Rights and the Government Coordinator for Human Rights provide oversight and co-ordination on human rights, including women’s
The National Center for Human Rights (NCHR) is the main oversight body in Jordan, protecting and promoting the principles of human rights and public freedoms, including women’s rights. It is a national public benefit institution with financial and administrative independence and legal personality. In particular, the NCHR monitors the status of human rights in the country, provides advice and legal assistance, reviews legislation, prepares reports and takes the necessary administrative and legal measures to address complaints related to violations and abuses. The Government Coordinator for Human Rights (and the Human Rights Unit in the Prime Minister’s Office – is an executive body that, among other functions, co‑ordinates with line ministries, departments and other relevant authorities on human rights issues. It also has a role in implementing and monitoring the Comprehensive National Plan for Human Rights (2016‑25), which aims to promote and protect women’s rights, focusing on the groups most vulnerable to rights violations.
The Ministry of Political and Parliamentary Affairs is mandated with promoting the participation of relevant groups in decision-making, including women
The Ministry of Political and Parliamentary Affairs (MOPPA) is tasked with supporting and promoting the political and parliamentary development in the country through government programmes based on six axes, one of which includes modernising laws related to women and youth (Government of Jordan, n.d.[18]). Through the work of its Women’s Participation Department, MOPPA strives to enhance women’s participation in political life, in line with the recommendations issued by the Royal Committee to Modernise the Political System the Political System in Jordan. The ministry developed a strategic plan to this effect in 2020.
As a key principle of democratic governance, government institutions are responsible for their actions and decisions. They are answerable to the public for the outcomes achieved (OECD, 2020[5]), including with respect to gender equality policy. Holding governments accountable is essential for ensuring they respond to the needs and interests of the groups they serve (OECD, 2020[5]).
Given the cross-cutting and multidimensional nature of gender equality policies, it is important to establish effective mechanisms to make sure the various line ministries and agencies involved in their implementation are held accountable for the work they undertake. In fact, achieving transversal goals requires particular accountability regimes that recognise collaboration, collective responsibility and relative contributions to those goals.
In Jordan, the NSW 2020-25, approved by the government in August 2020, explicitly states that the responsibility of advancing women’s status lies on all government’s ministries and institutions, thus calling them to be accountable for their respective mandates and jurisdiction (JNCW, 2020[1]).
The CoG is assuming a more active role in fostering accountability for gender equality and mainstreaming
By playing a strategic role in identifying implementation gaps, establishing effective performance frameworks and ensuring that a gender equality lens is mainstreamed in all government decision-making processes, the CoG can greatly contribute to strengthening accountability (OECD, 2019[19]). Indeed, accountability systems that involve reporting to the highest levels of government increase the likelihood that gender equality and mainstreaming strategies will be successful and sustainable (OECD, 2021[3]). In Canada, for instance, the prime minister is used to issuing supplementary mandate letters to ministers, delineating the government’s high-level commitments and specific objectives that each minister will strive to achieve. These letters form the foundation for holding ministers accountable for their results and performance and represent good practice, as explained in Box 5.1.
The prime minister of Canada issues mandate letters to delineate the policy priorities ministers are tasked with achieving and the urgent challenges they are expected to tackle in their roles. This practice serves as a mechanism to hold ministers accountable for their actions. In recent years, the government has taken steps towards greater transparency by publicly releasing these ministerial mandate letters, aligning with its commitment to open and accessible governance for the Canadian people.
The mandate letters direct each minister to track and regularly report on progress against their commitments, assess the effectiveness of ongoing work and invest resources to achieve results for Canadians on things that matter. Progress against delivering these commitments is highlighted in an online Mandate Letter Tracker. This platform helps Canadians hold the government accountable for delivering high-level commitments and, in many respects, represents advanced international practice. Notably, in January and December 2021, these letters contained a noteworthy pledge, mandating that all ministers incorporate Gender-based Analysis Plus (GBA Plus), Canada’s tool for gender and intersectional analysis, into their decision-making processes. They were also instructed to apply intersectionality when designing public policies to address deep-rooted systemic inequalities.
Source: Information provided by the government of Canada in 2022.
Over the past years, the CoG in Jordan – comprising the Cabinet, MoPIC, the General Budget Department and the Ministry of Finance – has played an increased role in promoting accountability for gender equality and mainstreaming initiatives. As part of the commitments outlined in the NSW 2020-25, for example, in 2020, the government adopted a Gender Mainstreaming Policy to affirm the country’s commitment to addressing gender inequalities in the political, social and economic spheres (JNCW, 2021[2]). The Gender Mainstreaming Policy was developed by the JNCW and shared with all government institutions by the Cabinet to promote uptake. According to the policy, each public entity should consider women and children’s needs when designing their key performance indicators for related projects, initiatives and services while being requested to identify expenditure for women and children and their distribution per year. Indeed, stakeholders reported that the Cabinet sent circulars to line ministries and other government entities to encourage them to be accountable for gender mainstreaming within their programmes, budgets and internal operations. Although not binding, the official letters set clear expectations and contribute to increasing governmental and ministerial accountability by signalling the importance of gender equality as a national goal and policy practice and facilitating broad buy-in.
Moving forward, following the approach adopted for the Gender Mainstreaming Policy, the Cabinet could consider issuing similar circulars to foster the implementation of the NSW 2020-25, as well as of its successor strategic framework for the promotion of gender equality in the country after 2025. In line with Jordan’s efforts to increase transparency and access to information (see Chapter 2) and similar to what is already done with King Abdullah II’s official letters (Royal Hashemite Court, n.d.[20]), consideration could also be given to proactively disclosing the content of those letters encouraging the implementation of the NSW 2020‑25. This would contribute to building citizens’ trust in public institutions (OECD, 2020[5]).
While playing a key role in promoting gender mainstreaming and fostering accountability, the JNCW could benefit from a stronger legal mandate
The JNCW is the main co-ordinating body for the gender equality policy in Jordan and is responsible for supporting the government’s agenda to advance society-wide gender equality goals. In light of the key role played by the JNCW in mainstreaming gender equality considerations and priorities in national strategies, policies and plans, as well as in following up on their implementation to foster accountability, it would be beneficial to strengthen the legislative framework outlining its mandate and responsibilities. Indeed, as illustrated in the previous section, the JNCW currently operates on the basis of a Cabinet decision. Providing a stronger legal basis to further institutionalise the mandate and role of the JNCW would help safeguard it from political fluctuations and reduce dependency on the willingness of the governing administration to address gender equality issues. In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, a comparable step was recently taken by Egypt when it reinforced the legal standing of the National Council for Women, which was previously regulated by presidential decree, by enacting a law in 2018 to clearly define its mandate and responsibilities (SIS, 2018[21]).
At the same time, in line with the Gender Mainstreaming Policy’s priorities, it would be important for Jordan to continue enhancing institutional capacities for the integration of gender equality perspectives into government action while promoting gender-responsive planning and legislation and ensuring that gender-targeted initiatives receive sufficient resources to effectively achieve their intended outcomes. This would demonstrate the government’s commitment to achieving tangible results in this area, ultimately contributing to enhancing political accountability.
The Inter-Ministerial Committee on Women’s Empowerment contributes to holding ministries accountable but additional reporting requirements could be introduced
As the main body for the horizontal co-ordination of the gender equality policy, the IMC plays an important role in providing leadership and accountability for action across government on achieving gender-related commitments within the country’s economic development plans and other national priorities and planning documents such as the NSW 2020-25. Building on this, there is scope to further strengthen existing arrangements to increase accountability for gender equality policies and outcomes.
Initially established in 2015 in accordance with a prime minister’s letter, the IMC was administratively institutionalised as a permanent committee of the Council of Ministers in 2020. Its membership includes 15 relevant ministers and representatives of 8 governmental bodies, including the JNCW.
The IMC meets at least once every two months at the ministerial level to discuss and report on implementing strategies and plans. A technical team representing the IMC’s members and chaired by the JNCW provides technical and logistical support to the committee in aligning projects and programmes within the executive plan for the NSW and other relevant gender equality and women’s empowerment strategies, as well as in following up on their implementation in relevant governmental bodies (Figure 5.1). As part of its mandate and responsibilities, the IMC also reviews national and international reports on women’s status, submits appropriate recommendations to the government and develops plans for implementing accepted recommendations from United Nations bodies and international or regional convention committees dedicated to women’s issues. Furthermore, it fosters harmonisation of domestic legislation and policies with international commitments, United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and global development priorities while recommending legislative revisions to achieve that alignment.
Under the supervision of the IMC, the JNCW heads the IMC technical team and is mandated to monitor the implementation of the government’s Gender Mainstreaming Policy adopted in 2020 (JNCW, 2021[2]), including through a report on its implementation which is submitted to the chairperson of the IMC itself for approval. Instead, the monitoring and evaluation (M&E) framework for the NSW 2020-25 and its Action Plan 2023-25 is under development, as explained in Box 5.2.
Robust M&E mechanisms can help ensure gender equality strategies achieve their intended impacts. Monitoring assesses progress, improves decision-making, allows programmes to be adjusted for greater impact and strengthens accountability and institutional learning. It also helps policymakers understand where resources are most needed.
After the adoption of the NSW 2020-25, the JNCW, in co-operation with MoPIC, developed an action plan, which the IMC officially approved in March 2023. The action plan includes 50 initiatives and 268 programmes and projects carried out through 76 implementing partners across the government in 6 areas: economic empowerment; political empowerment and participation in decision-making; human rights; combating violence against women and girls; community culture; and gender mainstreaming at the institutional level in the public and private sectors. The plan also includes some indicators (e.g. unemployment rate among women aged 15 years or more) under each strategic goal, specifying baseline values and targets for 2025.
To monitor the implementation of the plan, the JNCW is reportedly in the process of developing a dedicated M&E system. An Operations Management Team, co-chaired by the JNCW and MoPIC, has been established in MoPIC to foster the alignment of the NSW 2020-25 with the government’s Indicative Executive Programme (2021-24) and the Economic Modernisation Vision. Co-ordination with implementing partners will ensure the regular provision of updated data on the Plan’s progress.. These data will serve to gauge the plan’s implementation, measure progress in executing its interventions, initiatives and projects and assess their contribution to the achievement of NSW 2020‑25 objectives. Subsequently, as explained in the NSW Action Plan 2023-25, with the assistance of a technical team comprising gender and planning focal points from relevant ministries and entities, the JNCW is expected to compile an annual completion report, which will undergo final review by the IMC.
Source: OECD (2020[5]), Policy Framework on Sound Public Governance: Baseline Features of Governments that Work Well, https://doi.org/10.1787/c03e01b3-en; information provided by the government of Jordan in 2023; JNCW (2023[10]), Action Plan of the National Strategy for Women in Jordan 2023-2025, https://women.jo/sites/default/files/2023-06/National%20Strategy%20for%20Women%20Action%20Plan%202023-2025_0.pdf.
Additionally, after introducing an electronic monitoring system to track the government’s performance and achievements in August 2023, the IMC submits monthly qualitative and quantitative indicators on implementing the Women’s Empowerment Strategy within the EMV. This system, overseen by the Prime Minister’s Office and the Royal Hashemite Court, aims to enhance accountability at the highest levels of governance by tracking the progress made by relevant ministries across 27 domains, including women’s empowerment.
As illustrated above, the IMC plays a significant role in inter-governmental liaison at the ministerial level to foster the adoption and execution of policies, plans and programmes. Convening line ministries together to report on their contribution to implementing the gender equality agenda contributes to fostering political accountability for action on gender-related commitments. According to stakeholder interviews, representation in the IMC meetings has remained at high level over time, with most ministries participating in person or nominating their secretary-general to attend discussions at the technical level.
Fact-finding meetings revealed that there is scope to strengthen the IMC technical team’s ability to follow up on its recommendations to line ministries and more generally the government, and monitor their take‑up and implementation. Notably, in the future, the IMC chair could explicitly ask relevant line ministries to provide regular reporting on the implementation of its recommendations, leaving them the responsibility to ensure they are considered in the institutions they lead. Furthermore, to foster the implementation of the government’s Gender Mainstreaming Policy and increase accountability, the IMC could consider holding regular discussions to identify the benefits of integrating gender equality perspectives into policymaking and share good practices. This would contribute to raising awareness within line ministries and promoting buy-in, thus encouraging them to take concrete action to that effect.
Going forward, efforts could also be made to ensure that the parliament has the necessary and timely information to hold public administration accountable in the area of gender equality. While the IMC already addresses inquiries from parliament pertaining to its areas of responsibility, it could consider presenting annual reports on the implementation of the NSW 2020-25 and the Gender Mainstreaming Policy, to be prepared by the JNCW, as well as the Women’s Empowerment Strategy within the EMV to the parliament, to further facilitate oversight and scrutiny by elected representatives (see section on accountability for gender equality through the parliament and other oversight institutions). Such reports should clearly highlight ministries’ contributions to achieving the strategies’ objectives and be disclosed to the public in a timely manner to enhance transparency and access to information and allow citizens to scrutinise the government’s efforts in promoting gender equality.
Providing a critical incentive to change, including objectives and targets for public sector managers related to gender mainstreaming (e.g. the incorporation of gender-sensitive considerations in policies, programmes and budgets in specific areas) can advance the integration of gender equality considerations into policymaking and the achievement of more inclusive outcomes. Likewise, well-defined executive accountability mechanisms for promoting and monitoring gender balance in the public sector can enhance women’s representation in public institutions and close gender gaps (OECD, 2023[22]) by holding managers accountable for their commitment and actions to advance gender equality. The 2015 OECD Recommendation of the Council on Gender Equality in Public Life states that countries should enhance management and executive accountability to ensure gender balance at all levels and occupational groups in the public sector while dealing with gender equality issues in the workplace through performance management frameworks (OECD, 2016[4]).
Indeed, performance management systems are increasingly used in OECD member country civil services to help focus leadership and management efforts and align individual incentives with desired behaviour and organisational outcomes (OECD, 2019[23]). When these systems integrate gender equality and mainstreaming objectives for senior and middle-level managers, they can effectively incentivise these leaders to prioritise gender issues in their daily work. Conversely, without that integration, civil servants may have limited incentives to view these responsibilities as part of their daily duties, with the risk of sidelining the gender equality agenda.
Managerial accountability mechanisms could foster gender mainstreaming in policymaking and promote progress towards gender equality objectives in the public sector
In Jordan, the appointment system for leadership positions in the public service, as outlined in Bylaw No. 34 of 2021 and its subsequent amendments, upholds the principles of meritocracy and equal opportunities. It emphasises transparency and integrity, ensuring that women have equal opportunities to compete with their male counterparts for these positions based on experience and competency in accordance with universally applicable terms, principles and conditions. Justice, equality and equal opportunities also represent one of the public sector National Integrity System (NIS) pillars. Aiming to evaluate public entities’ compliance with the NIS and its pillars, the Jordanian Integrity and Anti-Corruption Commission has recently developed the National Integrity Index (NII),1 which assesses, among other things, evidence of gender equality within public institutions, including representation in managerial and leadership positions. By calculating a score for each public institution, the NII acts as an additional public sector accountability mechanism to promote women’s fair representation at all levels, including leadership.
Furthermore, as set in the Civil Service Bylaw No.34 and Human Resources Management in the Public Sector Bylaw No. 33 of 2024, all Jordanian public sector employees are subject to annual performance evaluations, except those in the highest category. At the beginning of each year, in agreement with their direct managers, public employees set results to be achieved and performance indicators against which their performance is reviewed. While the Jordanian civil service upholds the core principles and values of equal opportunities and accountability, as enshrined in the Civil Service Bylaw, the Code of Conduct and the Gender Mainstreaming Policy, at present, there are no requirements to integrate targets for gender equality and mainstreaming (e.g. hiring, development or promotion targets or others fostering gender-sensitive policy) into the performance agreements of senior and middle managers to promote executive accountability. Some OECD countries, as a way to foster managerial accountability and provide incentives for gender balance and gender mainstreaming, have introduced gender equality or diversity objectives directly into performance assessments of managers and senior leaders, as illustrated in Box 5.3.
Australia
In Australia, the Public Service Gender Equality Strategy 2021-26 strongly emphasises embedding and clearly defining managerial accountability for promoting gender equality in all public organisations. Leadership and managerial accountability for pursuing gender equality in public institutions is one of the strategy’s six priority actions. Under this priority, the strategy recommends considering specific key performance indicators in senior leader performance agreements to show commitment to gender equality through actions and words.
Canada
The Treasury Board of Canada Secretariat, a central agency of the government, uses the Management Accountability Framework (MAF) to monitor the management performance of federal departments and agencies, including with respect to the promotion of gender equality, diversity and mainstreaming. The MAF identifies management expectations, assesses policy compliance and performance, and highlights management strengths and opportunities to improve on a yearly basis.
Regarding people management, the 2022-23 MAF assessment prioritises diversity and inclusion as one of its main priority areas of focus, in line with the Employment Equity Act, which requires organisations to demonstrate that they have set hiring goals in their human resources, employment equity or staffing plans, supporting the reduction and eventual elimination of representation gaps as a minimum in case of under-representation. These efforts primarily focus on four distinct categories: women, Aboriginal individuals, persons with disabilities; and visible minorities.
The 2022-23 MAF also assesses whether organisations are implementing key policy requirements, such as the use of Gender-based Analysis Plus (GBA Plus), the analytical tool used in Canada to support the development of responsive and inclusive policies, programmes and other initiatives, and understand how identity factors (e.g. gender, race, national and ethnic origin, Indigenous origin or identity, age, socio-economic conditions, geography, culture and disability, etc.) impact outcomes and can affect access to and experience of government programmes. In fact, the Canadian Gender Budgeting Act requires the government of Canada to report the impacts of programme expenditures on gender and diversity annually. As such, the MAF requires all programmes to have data collection plans for reporting on impacts on gender and diversity and assesses results against that target.
Source: Australian Government (n.d.[24]), Australian Public Service Gender Equality Strategy 2021-26, https://www.apsc.gov.au/sites/default/files/2021-12/APSC%20-%20Gender%20Equality%20Strategy.pdf; Government of Canada (2023[25]), 2022-23 Management Accountability Framework Government-Wide Report, https://www.canada.ca/en/treasury-board-secretariat/services/management-accountability-framework/2022-23-maf.html#toc-2.
The Service and Public Administration Commission could consider introducing gender mainstreaming targets into the annual performance appraisal of civil servants, especially middle and senior managers. Taking this approach would contribute to implementing the Gender Mainstreaming Policy, which aims to advance gender-responsive planning at both the national and sectoral levels. By doing so, public sector managers would also be motivated to ensure that teams within relevant line ministries duly execute their responsibilities for implementing the NSW 2020-25 and its Action Plan. To this effect, the IPA, with the support of the JNCW, should continue its efforts to build capacities for gender mainstreaming across public administration.
Similarly, there is an opportunity for executives to establish objectives aimed at promoting gender-balanced representation within public institutions. This should be complemented by establishing well-defined gender equality metrics, which could be used to evaluate performance. Additionally, implementing coaching initiatives for executives to improve their understanding of gender biases and their impact on managerial practices and organisational culture would be crucial. These measures would not only help make managers more accountable for their positive actions to enhance gender equality but also resonate with the overarching civil service principle of equality.
Independent oversight and accountability mechanisms can play a key role in ensuring that gender equality remains a legislative priority and that related initiatives have their intended impact. To be qualified as independent, oversight institutions should have statutory independence from the executive and be given sufficient authority and resources to monitor, oversee and promote the implementation of policy initiatives throughout government (OECD, 2023[22]). The 2015 OECD Recommendation of the Council on Gender Equality in Public Life highlights that countries should consider establishing or strengthening the capacities of independent institutions to monitor the implementation of gender equality strategies, integrate gender issues in policymaking and facilitate reporting, audits and measurement. To be effective, this oversight should maintain a balanced approach, refraining from overly prescriptive methods and instead encouraging ongoing improvements while enabling the monitoring of progress in gender equality (OECD, 2016[4]).
Across OECD countries, a range of accountability mechanisms is ensured through independent institutions like parliament and other oversight bodies, including independent commissions, equality bodies, ombuds offices and supreme audit institutions (SAIs). These mechanisms can have both a pre‑emptive and a “corrective” or recourse function (OECD, 2023[22]). They have the potential to promote compliance with gender equality policies, identify shortcomings and obstacles in achieving gender equality objectives and offer impartial and objective assessments of government actors’ efforts. Additionally, oversight and accountability bodies can assume a substantial role in informing citizens about gender equality results, gender mainstreaming strategies and issues related to gender equality, such as violence against women and the gender wage gap (OECD, 2023[22]).
In Jordan, parliament promotes accountability for the gender equality policy through its legislative and oversight functions. In addition, the NCHR, the Office of the Government Coordinator for Human Rights (OGCHR) and the Human Rights Unit in the Prime Minister’s Office protect human rights, including women’s, as explained in the subsections below.
In light of its oversight function, there is scope for parliament’s access to key information on gender equality policy and its implementation progress to be enhanced, with the government playing an important facilitating role
Parliament and parliamentary committees can provide effective oversight of the gender equality agenda by acting as a check on various government entities and contributing to the continuity of gender equality reforms, particularly in times of political transition. By examining existing and proposed legislation and scrutinising government action through reviews and inquiries into programmes, policies, expenditures and appointments, parliament can enhance the overall commitment to gender equality and gender mainstreaming (OECD, 2019[19]). Legislative bodies can help ensure that gender-related issues are incorporated into the legislative agenda and that laws and policies designed to advance gender equality are effectively implemented. Gender-sensitive legislative oversight can aid in developing inclusive, needs‑based laws and policies and advance gender equality in the allocation of resources through its budgetary oversight function.
In OECD countries, parliament employs various mechanisms to scrutinise government action with regard to gender equality. The most common approaches include the practice of questioning ministers or Cabinet members, holding public hearings on government initiatives or gender equality issues, and conducting reviews of gender equality reports issued by governmental actors (OECD, 2019[19]). Based on the most recent available evidence, 87% of OECD countries have parliamentary committees dealing with gender equality as their exclusive portfolio or, more commonly, combined with other related matters such as family, human rights, welfare, youth policies, etc. (Figure 5.2).
Source: Official websites of OECD country legislatures; Parline database on national parliaments.
Although the specific duties of these committees vary, they generally oversee gender equality legislation and evaluate selected draft laws from a gender equality standpoint. Box 5.4 illustrates the mandate and functions of Colombia’s Legal Commission for Women’s Equity and the United Kingdom’s Women and Equalities Committee.
Colombia’s Legal Commission for Women’s Equity
Established by Law 1434 of 2011 and made up of members of both the House of Representatives and the Senate, Colombia’s Legal Commission for Women’s Equity (Comisión Legal para la Equidad de la Mujer) encourages and promotes the adoption of national policies to improve the situation of women in Colombian society and eliminate all forms of discrimination. One of the commission’s primary responsibilities is to elaborate legislative proposals that promote the realisation of various rights for Colombian women, encompassing human, civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. This process involves collaboration with women’s associations, groups, think tanks and other human rights organisations. The commission also holds political oversight over government bodies concerning formulating and developing gender equality plans, programmes and policies. Furthermore, it plays a role in disseminating information on existing legislation and enhancing women’s rights through various fora, such as public hearings, meetings, symposia, working groups and seminars.
United Kingdom’s Women and Equalities Committee
First appointed by the House of Commons in 2015, the Women and Equalities Committee examines the policy, administration and expenditure of the Government Equalities Office, the United Kingdom’s central gender equality institution, while looking at the wider work of the Cabinet Office in reducing disparities, particularly the Race Disparity Unit and the Disability Unit. The committee holds the government, including the Minister for Women and Equalities, to account for cross-departmental work in relation to equality policy and law, as well as on its performance on equality (e.g. gender, age, religion or belief, pregnancy and maternity, etc.) issues. To carry out its functions, the committee listens to and engages with those with protected characteristics about the inequalities they face and provides analysis of equalities by using the information it gathers, facilitating discussion, advancing effective recommendations and increasing the availability and accessibility of useful information on equalities in the public domain.
Source: OECD (2023[26]), OECD Review of Gender Equality in Colombia, https://doi.org/10.1787/a559fc5e-en; UK Parliament (n.d.[27]), Women and Equalities Committee - Role and Strategy, https://committees.parliament.uk/committee/328/women-and-equalities-committee/role/.
Various MENA economies have also established parliamentary committees to deal with issues related to gender equality. However, given the differing roles of parliaments across the region, their prominence in promoting the gender equality agenda is also not uniform (OECD/CAWTAR, 2014[28]). For instance, Egypt has a parliamentary Social Solidarity Committee and Tunisia a Parliamentary Committee on Social Affairs and Public Health. Morocco has a Thematic Group of Parliamentarians for Parity and Equality, which does not yet have the status of a committee but, in practice, performs similar tasks (OECD/ILO/CAWTAR, 2020[29]).
While having gender equality parliamentary committees provides a dedicated space for the discussion of those matters, legislature can still address them in other relevant committees, in light of the cross-cutting nature of gender equality goals. For example, the Swedish parliament (Riksdag) introduced gender mainstreaming in 1994, mandating that its committees incorporate considerations of gender equality into all scrutiny of the executive branch. This entails conducting analyses of the potential impact on both men and women for all new legislation. Consequently, parliamentary committees, during their examination of legislation, are able to assess its effects on men and women and make more informed decisions during voting. Moreover, gender mainstreaming extends to budget scrutiny, with the Committee on Finance routinely evaluating the annual budget for gender equality aspects (OECD, 2023[22]).
The Parliament of Jordan introduced the Women and Family Affairs Committee in the House of Representatives (in accordance with the Bylaw of the House of Representatives of 2013) and the Woman Committee in the Senate (in accordance with the Bylaw of the Jordanian Senate of 2014) with the mandate to “study laws and matters related to women, family and children and follow up the policies, plans and programmes necessary for social, cultural, economic, and political empowerment of women” (OECD/ILO/CAWTAR, 2020[29]). Although these entities contribute to increasing the visibility of gender equality-related discussions, there remains scope to further strengthen the parliament’s oversight role, as acknowledged in the NSW 2020-25 itself (JNCW, 2020[1]). In fact, while the committees actively debate gender-related matters (House of Representatives, 2023[30]; Jordan News, 2021[31]) and engage with peers from other countries (Jordan News Agency, 2022[32]), there is an opportunity to enhance their involvement in following up the implementation of policies, plans and programmes. Similarly, no compelling evidence indicates a systematic integration of evidence-based assessments of gender impacts and considerations into the policy cycle by those committees (OECD, 2018[33]).
Against this backdrop, as explained in the section above, the government of Jordan could strengthen its consideration of parliament’s oversight role, particularly through the Women and Family Affairs Committee. This could be achieved by ensuring parliament’s prompt access to key information on the implementation of the NSW 2020-25 and its Action Plan, the Gender Mainstreaming Policy and the Women’s Empowerment Strategy within the EMV submitted by the IMC. In that respect, public administration would play an important role in ensuring reports are presented in a readily understandable format, thereby supporting parliament in assessing how government action progresses gender equality goals.
Apart from formal structures, other informal groups within parliaments, such as women’s caucuses, can also play an important role in holding governments accountable (OECD/CAWTAR, 2014[28]). They are particularly useful for strengthening the voice of an under-heard constituency and advocating for gender equality. Furthermore, they can serve as influential agents for integrating gender-related considerations into the policymaking process, fostering solidarity among female parliamentarians and ensuring that gender equality remains a prominent item on the legislative agenda (OECD/CAWTAR, 2014[28]; OECD, 2019[19]), by putting pressure on other lawmakers and the government to take related policies seriously. Box 5.5 describes the role and impact of Costa Rica’s Parliamentary Group of Women Deputies in fostering the advancement of the country’s gender equality agenda.
Costa Rica is one of the OECD member countries with the highest share of women in parliament, representing 47.4% (27 out of 57) of seats in the country’s unicameral legislative assembly. Since 2015, the Parliamentary Group of Women Deputies (Grupo Parlamentario de Mujeres Diputadas, GPMD) elaborates and promotes a legislative agenda without distinction of political party, oriented toward strengthening initiatives for the defence of women’s rights, gender equality and the oversight of public policies promulgated with these objectives. Currently counting on all women members of the parliament – representing six political parties – the GPMD seeks to promote the incorporation of a gender equality perspective in parliamentary oversight and the inclusion of women’s rights in all bills developed and approved in committees and the plenary. It also fosters the exchange of good practices for advancing gender equality across political parties. In the framework of the 2019 International Women’s Day, the GPMD signed a sisterhood pact to promote the pending gender equality agenda in the legislative assembly. As a result, between 2018 and 2021, Costa Rica’s legislative assembly approved 50 new laws promoting gender equality, including 12 as initiatives of women deputies.
Sources: Grupo Parlamentario de Mujeres Diputadas (2021[34]), Informe general de leyes aprobadas que promueven la igualdad de género y derechos de las mujeres (periodo mayo 2018-marzo 2021), http://www.asamblea.go.cr/ci/ciev/Documentacin%20adicional/Informe%20Institucionalidad%20de%20Genero%202018-marzo-2021GPMD.pdf; Grupo Parlamentario de Mujeres Diputadas (2022[35]), Informe de Labores (Período Junio 2022 – Junio 2023), http://www.asamblea.go.cr/ci/ciev/Documentacin%20adicional/Grupo_Parlamentario_Mujeres_Diputadas.pdf.
Since 2013, the Women’s Parliamentary Caucus (or Forum) in the Jordanian House of Representatives has provided a cross-party platform for female members of parliament MPs) to unite on policies to promote gender equality and women’s greater inclusion in decision-making roles. So far, issues dealt with by the Jordanian caucus have included violence against women, rights of citizenship and nationality of Jordanian women and their children, empowering women politically and economically, defending human rights and individual and collective freedoms, and improving women’s image in the media (IPU Parline, n.d.[36]). For example, in 2021, during deliberations on the outcomes of the Royal Committee to Modernise the Political System, the Women’s Parliamentary Caucus put forward a series of recommendations on women’s empowerment.
However, holding only a handful of seats in parliament (17 out of 130 in the House of Representatives and 10 out of 65 in the Senate, as illustrated in Box 5.6), Jordanian female MPs are still far from reaching a “critical mass” (i.e. 30% representation) to directly impact debate and votes, thus making the support of male peers pivotal for advancing gender equality objectives. Engaging all MPs, both women and men, including those showing resistance to change, would be key to sustainable progress.
Jordanian women gained the right to run for office in 1974 but their participation in parliamentary elections did not commence until 1989. During this initial participation, women made up only 2% of the candidates, lacked political party support and saw no success in winning seats. The turning point came in 1993 when Toujan Faisal became the first woman elected to Jordan’s House of Representatives. However, it was not until 2003, with the introduction of the first quota (consisting of six reserved seats), that women’s representation started to improve. Since then, the presence of women in the lower house has steadily increased.
According to available data, Jordan ranks 11th among 19 MENA economies in terms of women’s representation in lower or single houses of parliament, with women holding 17 out of 130 seats (13.1%). In the Senate, where members are not elected directly but chosen among “present or former Prime Ministers, ambassadors, speakers of the House of Representatives, Presidents of the Court of Cassation and of civil and Sharia Courts, retired military officers, representatives who have been elected at least twice and other personalities who enjoy the confidence of the people” (art. 36 of the Jordanian Constitution), women currently hold 10 out 65 seats, 15.4% of the total.
Source: OECD (2018[33]), Women's Political Participation in Jordan, OECD, Paris; IPU Parline (n.d.[37]), Jordan - Election Results, https://data.ipu.org/node/86/elections?chamber_id=13434.
As an indirect driver of accountability, promoting women’s representation in parliament would help establish stronger caucuses to support gender equality as a key priority in the legislative agenda. Research also shows that improving gender representation in decision-making institutions and processes can improve policy outcomes for those groups (Kahn, 2012[38]). Going forward, with the aim to sustain government institutions’ move toward embracing a new set of standards grounded in transparency, accountability and equality, the government of Jordan should continue efforts to facilitate the engagement of women and men in the political sphere at various levels and strengthening equal access to public office. Indeed, the NSW 2020-25 includes increasing women’s opportunities to “reach leadership positions in political life without discrimination” as one of its main interventions to ensure that “women and girls are able to exercise their human, economic and political rights to participate and lead in a society free from gender-based discrimination” (JNCW, 2020[1]). To this effect, its related Action Plan 2023-25 outlines a series of initiatives and projects to increase the share of women in legislature to 25% by 2025 (JNCW, 2023[10]). Likewise, the recommendations issued by the Royal Committee to Modernise the Political System place a significant emphasis on enhancing women’s participation in Jordan’s political life. Indeed, the committee’s report includes a dedicated subsection on women within its six chapters, with one entirely devoted to them.
Jordan’s gradual shift towards a parliamentary style of government and decentralised governance (OECD, 2020[39]) presents a window of opportunity for women to amplify their political influence and assert an equitable presence in historically male-dominated spheres of decision-making. For instance, the newly adopted Election and Political Parties Law No. 7 of 2022, Election Law of the House of Representatives No. 4 of 2022, and Electoral Districts Law No. 52 of 2023 offer the occasion to strengthen the political party landscape in Jordan and advance increased representation of women. Since the 2024 parliamentary elections, the country has been divided into 18 electoral districts, encompassing 97 out of 138 seats. Candidates participate in an open-list proportional representation system. Within these 97 seats, 18 are earmarked for female candidates. The remaining 41 seats are assigned as part of a national district and political parties will participate in a closed-list proportional representation system, which reserves 30% of the seats in parliament. To achieve official party status, political parties must claim a membership of a minimum of 1 000 individuals from at least 6 governorates, with the added requirement that at least 20% of this membership must consist of women. Additionally, when forming party lists, it is mandated that at least one of the first three positions, and another one in the subsequent three, must be occupied by a woman (Royal Committee to Modernise the Political System, n.d.[40]; TIMEP, 2022[41]) . MOPPA is reportedly working to raise awareness among women of the new Election Law and the mechanisms for their active participation in future elections. Recently, it also adopted a Media Plan from a Gender Perspective in order to support efforts to reach out to women and engage them in politics.
Striving for gender-balanced representation in parliament would help create a more inclusive and accountable political landscape that addresses women’s specific needs and concerns. As such, it could facilitate the development of more inclusive laws and policies while having the potential to influence resource allocation and policy decisions to advance gender equality. Ultimately, this could accelerate the country’s desired modernisation path, increasing public trust and reinforcing accountability.
The NCHR, the Government Coordinator for Human Rights and the Human Rights Unit shed light on the status of human rights, including women’s
Ombuds offices, independent commissioners and equality bodies are critical actors in upholding gender equality principles, investigating discrimination cases and overseeing and reporting compliance with equal treatment and anti-discrimination laws (OECD, 2019[19]). These independent oversight bodies require an adequate level of authority over national government institutions to ensure their genuine independence and impartiality (OECD, 2023[22]). Across the OECD, there may be a special mandate on equality, which could be combined with human rights commissioner functions and/or an ombuds mandate (OECD, 2019[19]). Box 5.7 provides some examples.
Spain’s Defensor del Pueblo
Spain’s ombudsperson (Defensor del Pueblo) serves as the parliamentary high commissioner with the crucial responsibility of safeguarding citizens’ fundamental rights and civil liberties. This is accomplished through the oversight of administrative activities and public authorities. The Defensor del Pueblo operates as an autonomous institution, conducting its functions with complete independence and impartiality. It operates without external influence or directives and exercises its duties with discretion. The Defensor del Pueblo is accountable to parliament and is included in the general state budget, which falls under the purview of the parliamentary budget.
Citizens have the right to seek the ombudsperson’s assistance at no cost to investigate cases involving irregular actions. Moreover, the ombudsperson can proactively intervene in cases that come to their attention, even without a formal complaint. In the sphere of equal treatment, the office aims to combat discrimination in various forms (e.g. gender, ethnic origin, religious affiliation, disability or any other personal or social condition or circumstance, etc.). In its 2021 annual report, the ombudsperson strongly emphasised the failures and deficiencies in addressing the issue of violence against women.
Sweden’s Equality Ombudsman
In Sweden, the Equality Ombudsman is an independent government agency tasked with protecting equal rights and opportunities for all and supervises compliance with the Discrimination Act. It also works to combat a wide range of discriminations, including on grounds of gender, ethnic origin, religion or other beliefs, disability, age and others. The Equality Ombudsman examines complaints concerning discrimination and harassment, and assesses how employers, higher education institutions and schools work to prevent discrimination. The Ombudsman may, inter alia, receive and consider complaints from individuals asserting that they have been the victims of discrimination. Following such an investigation, the Equality Ombudsman has the power to bring legal action for damages on behalf of the individual concerned.
Source: (Defensor del Pueblo (n.d.[42]), Qué es el Defensor, https://www.defensordelpueblo.es/el-defensor/que-es-el-defensor/; OECD (2023[22]), Toolkit for Mainstreaming and Implementing Gender Equality 2023, https://doi.org/10.1787/3ddef555-en.
In Jordan, similar functions are exercised by the NCHR, the OGCHR and the Human Rights Unit in the Prime Minister’s Office (see section on institutional frameworks).
As Jordan’s main human rights institution, the NCHR focuses on a wide range of matters and has a specific unit working on women’s issues under a department entitled Managing the Most Vulnerable Groups (NCHR, n.d.[43]). Upon receiving a complaint for human rights violations, the NCHR conducts a thorough review to verify the accuracy of the complaint. Subsequently, it issues a letter to the public institution where the violation occurred, requesting remedial action. Although the centre has no authority to enforce any actions, stakeholder discussions suggested that institutions normally respond to their recommendations. Furthermore, every year, the NCHR submit annual reports assessing compliance with human rights to King Abdullah II, the speaker of the House of Representatives, the president of the Senate, as well as the prime minister and the Cabinet. Similarly, the OGCHR and the Human Rights Unit in the Prime Minister’s Office also receive complaints. Following an investigation of the OGCHR, a formal letter from the prime minister forwards the complaint to the relevant public department for internal analysis. If the violation is substantiated, appropriate actions are taken against the responsible parties.
The NCHR, the OGCHR and the Human Rights Unit in the Prime Minister’s Office also work together to co-ordinate the implementation of the country’s National Plan for Human Rights, conduct joint events and respond to international reports on human rights issues.
OECD analysis suggests that there is scope to further promote a co-ordinated and collaborative approach between public bodies, including the NCHR, OGCHR and Human Rights Unit, to advance the human rights agenda. Chapter 3 discusses their roles and proposed recommendations more in depth.
The Audit Bureau of Jordan could help accelerate the implementation of the gender equality policy through formal oversight
Historically, supreme audit institutions (SAIs) were not traditionally seen as central players in the promotion of gender equality but this perception is changing rapidly (OECD, 2019[19]). In fact, SAIs can help governments identify needs, gaps and challenges in fulfilling their gender equality goals while evaluating the impact of their efforts and fostering accountability. Available evidence shows that they can provide important support in advancing government objectives by offering independent assessments of government initiatives and making recommendations. In OECD member countries, SAIs are taking on a more prominent role in overseeing the achievement of gender equality goals. Between 2017 and 2022, institutions in at least ten OECD countries have undertaken audits of gender-related initiatives, a substantial increase from the three audits conducted in 2017 (OECD, 2022[44]). In Sweden, for instance, an audit by the country’s SAI brought to light existing obstacles to gender mainstreaming and played a crucial role in their removal. This effort led to a significant restructuring of the country’s institutional arrangements for gender mainstreaming. As another example, the Austrian Court of Audit has completed multiple audits with a gender perspective on various topics. Box 5.8 provides more details, presenting a compelling argument to enhance the integration of a gender perspective into the operations of SAIs.
Austria’s Court of Audit
The Austrian Court of Audit is the highest authority overseeing Austria’s financial and performance audits. Its internal guidelines specify that each performance audit must encompass gender equality considerations, considering questions like:
Is the gender-related objective relevant?
Are there sufficient gender-specific data?
To what extent is the level of ambition regarding measures and indicators appropriate?
What is the impact on society?
Are women and men appropriately represented in the governing bodies?
As an illustration, an audit investigating “agricultural investment subsidies and its outcomes” under Austria’s rural development programme shed light on a lack of systematic coverage of gender equality in the programme. This was further compounded by a monitoring committee where only 30% of its members were women, despite rules of procedure aimed at gender-balanced representation. Additionally, gender-specific investment needs were overlooked, even though women tend to operate smaller farms than men. Lastly, the programme’s data were not consistently reported or analysed from a gender equality perspective.
Sweden’s National Audit Office
The Swedish National Audit Office (NAO) is an independent entity accountable to the Swedish parliament (Riksdag) and is responsible for conducting comprehensive and impartial audits of the state’s financial management. These audits encompass the entire spectrum of executive authority, including performance and financial evaluations.
In 2014-15, following an increase in resources dedicated to gender policy measures, the NAO conducted an audit of the government’s gender equality initiatives. The primary objectives were to assess the conditions necessary to sustain the outcomes of gender policy measures, ensuring permanent improvements. Additionally, the audit aimed to assess the effectiveness of the government’s initiative design and management and the presence of an institutional framework to sustain results over time. The 2015 NAO report highlighted the need for a more robust institutional structure to bolster gender equality efforts, reinforce gender mainstreaming within administrations and create a conducive environment for transitioning temporary initiatives into enduring outcomes. Subsequently, in response to the audit’s findings, the Swedish government expressed its intent to establish a Gender Equality Agency. This agency, which has been operational since January 2018, is dedicated to enhancing the efficient implementation of Swedish gender equality policies.
Source: OECD (2019[19]), Fast Forward to Gender Equality: Mainstreaming, Implementation and Leadership, https://doi.org/10.1787/g2g9faa5-en.
The Audit Bureau of Jordan, as the country’s supreme audit institution, is responsible for elaborating annual reports to audit the revenues and expenditures of the state and ways of expenditure. As such, it mainly exercises compliance- and finance-oriented control, although in the last few years, it has also carried out some performance audits (EC, n.d.[45]). Every year, the president of the bureau presents a report to the House of Representatives and the Senate, highlighting its audit findings, including any irregularities, deficiencies or weaknesses in the performance of the audited entities, together with recommendations for addressing them (Audit Bureau of Jordan, n.d.[46]). At present, the bureau does not apply a specific gender lens to its work. However, its Strategy 2024-26, launched in April 2024 (Audit Bureau of Jordan, 2024[47]) aims to reinforce the bureau’s role in overseeing and monitoring the achievement of SDGs (The Jordan Times, 2023[48]).
In the medium to long term, the Audit Bureau of Jordan could potentially assume a more significant oversight role with respect to gender equality and mainstreaming. Although its mandate mainly relates to auditing the financial management and not the implementation of government policies and how they progress on strategic priorities, such a role could be envisaged in the future. For instance, the bureau could help hold ministries accountable for the gender equality goals that they set by incorporating a gender dimension into their performance audits. As part of the regular performance audit process, the bureau would identify whether policies and programmes delivered against stated gender targets contribute to improving accountability concerning gender equality. To this effect, it would be key to ensure that the Audit Bureau of Jordan has adequate capacities in terms of resources, staff and gender expertise to undertake this expanded mandate.
As discussed in Chapter 3, the involvement of non-governmental stakeholders in the decision-making process is essential for more inclusive policies and services (OECD, 2019[19]). This ensures that civil society and the wider public can actively contribute to help advance policy change and hold governments and policymakers accountable for their decisions. The OECD 2017 Recommendation of the Council on Open Government highlights that stakeholder participation increases government inclusiveness and accountability while calling on governments to “grant all stakeholders equal and fair opportunities to be informed and consulted and actively engage them in all phases of the policy cycle and service design and delivery” (OECD, 2017[49]). In this regard, the perspectives of a diverse range of groups have the potential to enrich the quality and responsiveness of gender-sensitive inclusive policymaking. CSOs and gender equality advocacy groups, in particular, often have valuable insights into the multifaceted challenges regarding the achievement of gender equality and the empowerment of women and are thus crucial actors in the legal reform processes for women’s economic empowerment and the implementation of related reforms.
There is scope to ensure structured and systematic inclusive consultations with civil society, including various women’s groups, to promote gender-sensitive policymaking
CSOs play an important role in promoting accountability for gender equality reforms. Stakeholder discussions revealed that in Jordan, there is some level of awareness of the importance of promoting active citizenship to advance the gender equality agenda and foster accountability. Significant opportunities exist to enhance the engagement with CSOs and other women’s groups in policy and decision-making, bolstering their position as overseers of these processes.
Fact-finding meetings highlighted that organisations such as women’s clubs and associations can be active at different stages of policymaking and in various forms in Jordan. CSOs engage in advocacy campaigns designed to enhance awareness of critical issues. They undertake targeted awareness-raising efforts aimed at relevant public bodies and parliamentarians by presenting policy papers that shed light on the challenges confronting women in the country. These groups have proven historically successful in strengthening women’s political participation (OECD, 2018[33]), changing labour law reforms in support of women’s economic empowerment (OECD/ILO/CAWTAR, 2020[29]) and amending legislation on gender-based violence, among others.
Still, as assessed in Chapter 3, there is scope to strengthen mechanisms for citizen and stakeholder participation in public decision-making. Indeed, as revealed by fact-finding meetings, public consultations with CSOs by government institutions appear to be fragmented and mainly organised on an ad hoc basis.
The IMC and JNCW particularly strive to bring together diverse voices and experiences by co-ordinating with CSOs to build a community-based culture supporting gender equality. For example, the IMC held five focus group sessions with various stakeholders and CSOs before launching the Women’s Empowerment Strategy within the EMV. Likewise, the JNCW reportedly developed the NSW 2020-25 through a participatory process to initiate a “dialogue on women’s issues” in the country (JNCW, 2020[1]). Consultations were conducted in all governorates, following a bottom-up approach, beginning with grassroots organisations and culminating in interactions with top-level management. The consultation sessions occurred between October and November 2019, involving mainly women but also men of all ages from local communities, local CSOs, members of municipal and provincial councils and religious leaders. Four provincial executive councils represented the northern, central and southern regions, with 850 participants. Focus groups with 35 women from refugee camps and a national-level session with government officials, academics, national institutions and CSOs were conducted, involving around 190 participants (JNCW, 2020[1]). Similarly, consultations with CSOs were reportedly organised to develop the NSW Action Plan 2023-25 to build a national consensus vision (JNCW, 2023[10]). The efforts undertaken by the IMC and JNCW to ensure a gender-sensitive and inclusive policymaking process could serve as an example for other government institutions wishing to ensure a wide representation of diverse women’s groups in public consultations since the early stages of policy and decision-making.
Moving forward, it would be important to expand opportunities for comprehensive stakeholder participation to ensure that women, as crucial components, are not only heard but also integrated into the policymaking process, resulting in more inclusive and gender-sensitive policy outcomes. This should be applied to all policies, including those unrelated to women’s issues. In doing so, particular consideration should be given to guaranteeing equitable representation from all governorates, including hard-to-reach ones. To be effective, consultations should begin at the early stages of the policymaking process when stakeholders still have an opportunity to influence policy design (OECD, 2019[19]). Furthermore, it would be key to establish robust communication channels and strengthen existing feedback mechanisms to improve dialogue between government institutions and other stakeholders involved in the process. Such mechanisms would not only enhance the understanding of the value of the process but also secure their buy-in with the outcomes (OECD, 2019[19]). Moreover, this approach would increase transparency, build trust in government and empower civil society actors to continue to hold public institutions accountable for their actions and decisions as a pivotal step towards fostering effective, inclusive and gender-sensitive policies and strengthening democratic governance more broadly.
Over the past years, following the strong commitment expressed by King Abdullah II, the government of Jordan has undertaken some institutional reforms and developed strategic documents to improve public sector accountability, including with respect to the gender equality policy, as a key driver of economic prosperity. In 2015, establishing the IMC as the main body for co-ordinating gender equality policy greatly contributed to providing political leadership and accountability for action across government on achieving gender-related commitments. Recently, the Cabinet has also been active in promoting the engagement of ministries in implementing Jordan’s gender mainstreaming strategy by setting clear expectations to foster government and inter-ministerial accountability. To help ensure that the NSW 2020-25 and its Action Plan achieve their intended impacts, the ongoing efforts of the JNCW to establish an M&E framework represent an improvement. With respect to the accountability role played by the parliament, the existence of relevant committees both in the Senate and in the House of Representatives, as well as of a Women’s Forum, has the potential to increase the visibility of gender equality-related discussions. Moreover, a certain level of awareness of the importance of involving women in policymaking creates the conditions to strengthen public consultations and make them a systematic practice in the future.
Nevertheless, there is room for further improvement. While the IMC acts as a body fostering political will for the promotion of gender equality, its ability to exert a substantial influence on the policymaking process and to follow up on its recommendations to the government could be strengthened. Within the public sector, introducing mechanisms for holding senior and middle managers accountable for advancing gender mainstreaming and gender equality at the organisational level would foster gender-sensitive policymaking and contribute to achieving a balanced representation of women and men in public institutions. Similarly, there is scope for the government to further consider parliament’s role in overseeing the gender equality policy. Moreover, fostering women’s representation in legislature could offer opportunities for supporting the enactment of inclusive laws and policies that respond to the needs of diverse societal groups. Although a supreme audit institution exists, its contribution to advancing gender equality and mainstreaming could also be increased. Lastly, public consultations with CSOs and women’s groups, which currently appear fragmented and organised ad hoc, could be expanded and systematised, thus enhancing accountability across the public administration.
Reinforce government accountability for gender equality policies and outcomes
To enhance accountability mechanisms for both the government as a whole and individual line ministries in advancing gender equality in Jordan, consideration could be given to:
Issuing official circulars from the Cabinet to foster the implementation of the NSW 2020-2025 and its Action Plan, as well as of its successor strategic framework for the promotion of gender equality in the country, in line with the approach adopted for the Gender Mainstreaming Policy. Aligning with Jordan’s commitment to increasing transparency and access to information and similar to the current practice with the king’s official correspondence, the option of proactively disclosing the content of those circulars could be explored. This would build citizens’ trust in public institutions while offering opportunities to strengthen their ability to hold the government accountable for its actions.
Strengthening the legal framework by outlining the mandate and responsibility of the JNCW in light of its key contributions to mainstreaming gender equality considerations and priorities into national strategies, policies and plans, and following up on their implementation to foster accountability. Reinforcing the JNCW’s legal basis would help ensure the continuity of the gender equality agenda as a cross-cutting public policy priority.
Continuing efforts to advance the priorities set out in the Gender Mainstreaming Policy, such as enhancing institutional capacities for the integration of gender equality perspectives into government action, promoting gender-responsive planning and legislation, and ensuring adequate resources for gender-targeted initiatives, to demonstrate government’s commitment to achieving tangible results in this area and ultimately contributing to strengthening accountability.
Maintaining the active and regular participation of ministries in the IMC, with a continued emphasis on the involvement of their secretaries-general at the technical level, to drive progress in gender equality outcomes.
Continuing to discuss the benefits of gender mainstreaming, including showcasing best practices within the IMC on a regular basis, raising awareness among line ministries and persuading them to take action in that respect. This would help increase buy-in, foster the implementation of the Gender Mainstreaming Policy and promote accountability.
Establishing arrangements, including the allocation of adequate human and financial resources, to ensure the IMC’s ability to follow up on its recommendations to line ministries and more generally the government, as well as to monitor their take-up and implementation. For example, the IMC could request relevant line ministries to provide consistent updates on implementing its recommendations. This approach would delegate responsibility to ministers to ensure the effective incorporation of these recommendations within the institutions under their leadership.
Submitting the IMC’s annual reports on the implementation of the NSW 2020-25, the Gender Mainstreaming Policy and the Women’s Empowerment Strategy within the EMV to parliament in order to provide elected representatives with timely and necessary information to scrutinise gender equality progress. The reports should clearly highlight each line ministry’s contribution to achieving strategy and policy goals. To enhance transparency and access to information, such reports should also continue to be disclosed to the public in a timely manner, thus allowing citizens to scrutinise the government’s efforts in promoting gender equality.
Take steps to promote managerial accountability for gender mainstreaming in policymaking and gender equality in the public sector
In the short term, the Service and Public Administration Commission could consider:
Introducing managerial accountability mechanisms for gender equality and mainstreaming through the incorporation of gender-related objectives within the yearly performance assessments of civil servants, particularly those in middle and senior management roles. Targets should be introduced both for the integration of gender considerations into the policymaking process (e.g. share of initiatives that rely on gender-disaggregated data and allow the assessment of their impact on women and men) and for the promotion of gender equality within the civil service (e.g. share of women hired and/or promoted in a given year). Targets could also be established to make senior managers responsible for their respective line ministries’ contributions to implementing the NSW 2020-25 and its Action Plan. To be effective, this should be coupled with:
Continued efforts by the IPA, with the support of the JNCW, to build capacities for gender mainstreaming across the public administration.
The establishment of clearly defined gender equality metrics to evaluate performance.
The introduction of coaching programmes aimed at enhancing executives’ awareness of gender biases and their influence on managerial behaviours and organisational culture.
These steps would not only promote greater accountability among managers in their efforts to advance gender equality and mainstreaming. Still, they would also harmonise with the overarching civil service principle of equality. In addition, they would contribute to the implementation of the government’s Gender Mainstreaming Policy and of the NSW 2020-25 and its related Action Plan.
Strengthen the government’s ability to ensure parliament’s prompt access to key gender equality information in view of its oversight role
In order to further strengthen the government’s consideration of the oversight role of parliament with respect to the promotion of the gender equality agenda, the following actions could be considered in the short term:
Following the submission of annual reports on the implementation of the NSW 2020-25 and its Action Plan, as well as of the Gender Mainstreaming Policy adopted in 2020 and of the Women’s Empowerment Strategy within the EMV (see related recommendation above) to parliament, providing the Women and Family Affairs Committee in the House of Representatives and the Woman Committee in the Senate with the opportunity to receive, consult and discuss them.
With the aim to ensure a diverse range of perspectives in parliament addressing the varied needs and interests of both women and men in Jordan, the government should consider:
Continuing efforts to facilitate the engagement of women and men in the political sphere at various levels and enhancing equitable access to public office, thereby fostering gender-balanced representation in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. This would include addressing structural and emerging barriers to women’s participation and representation in public life, such as stereotypes and violence, both on line and off line.
Increase the role of independent oversight institutions in the promotion of gender equality
In the medium to long term, to play a more significant oversight role with respect to gender equality and mainstreaming, the Audit Bureau of Jordan could consider:
Incorporating a gender dimension into performance audits as appropriate by identifying whether policies and programmes implemented by the government delivered against stated gender equality targets and goals. To this end, it would be important to bolster capacities in terms of resources, personnel and gender expertise to enable the Audit Bureau of Jordan to undertake this expanded mandate effectively.
Reinforce channels to promote citizen participation with the aim of fostering responsiveness and accountability for better gender equality outcomes
In order to strengthen responsiveness and accountability across the public administration, the government of Jordan could consider:
Expanding opportunities for comprehensive and systematic stakeholder participation to ensure women’s voices are considered and integrated into the policymaking process, resulting in more inclusive and gender-sensitive policy outcomes. This approach should encompass all policy areas, even those not related to issues specific to women. In doing so, special attention should be paid to ensuring equitable representation from all governorates, including the most remote ones. To be effective, consultations should begin at the initial stages of policy development, where stakeholders can have a meaningful impact on policy design.
Establishing effective feedback mechanisms linking government institutions with non-governmental stakeholders throughout the process to enable civil society actors to hold public institutions accountable for their actions and decisions.
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← 1. For more information on the NIS and NII, please refer to the OECD Integrity Review of Jordan.