This chapter analyses opportunities and barriers for young people to enhance public sector integrity and accountability in Jordan. Against the background of Jordan’s political, public sector and integrity reform, it identifies ways to involve youth stakeholders more systematically in policymaking and hold the government accountable for public service delivery. The chapter also identifies avenues to address barriers related to integrity and accountability that prevent young people from participating in political life – with a focus on their role as voters, candidates and elected officials.
OECD Public Governance Reviews: Jordan
Together for an Accountable and Transparent Public Administration
Abstract
As of 2023, Jordan has an estimated 3.29 million people aged between 15-29 years old, around 29% of its total population (Department of Statistics, 2024[1]). Jordan’s youth1 demographic presents a unique opportunity, heralding the potential for an increased workforce. However, important structural barriers prevent them from transitioning to an autonomous life.
In recent years, young people in Jordan have shown remarkable resilience in the face of several regional and global crises. In 2023, unemployment rose to 22.3%, remaining above its pre-COVID-19 crisis average of 15.1% (2012-19), with young people (46.1%) being the most affected (World Bank, 2023[2]). Young people were pushed further into informal and more precarious jobs, which had negative impacts on their disposable income, financial independence and broader social and well-being outcomes (OECD, 2023[3]). At the same time, young people and youth-led organisations in Jordan were at the forefront of mobilising support in their communities, thus promoting solidarity across all groups and social cohesion.
Beyond the impact of the pandemic, young people in Jordan are growing up in a regional context of political and economic instability with spill-over effects into the country. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) reports that Jordan ranks second globally in hosting refugees per capita, with over 760 000 refugees registered as of 2023 (UNHCR, 2023[4]). Similar to their peers across the world, the implications of global transformations, such as the green and digital transitions, a shifting landscape of work and uncertain economic prospects further impact young people in Jordan. Despite these challenges, this context of transformation also presents opportunities for young people. For example, thanks to the digital transformation, young people in Jordan are increasingly empowered to be engaged citizens, promoting positive change in their communities and the country. With a high Internet penetration rate of 91% (DataReportal, 2024[5]) and a significant social media presence, young people have demonstrated agency to voice their views, participate in public life and ultimately advance on issues that matter most to them.
To build a more prosperous and secure future for young people, enhancing public sector integrity and accountability in partnership with young people is paramount. In line with that objective, the government of Jordan has demonstrated a strong commitment to encourage the participation of young people in public and political life through the political reform agenda and through important initiatives to increase efficiency and integrity across the public administration. However, young people in Jordan remain under-represented in positions of political influence. Moreover, recent studies demonstrate that university students express low satisfaction with the performance of political parties (JCSS, 2022[6]) and a majority believes that none of the existing political parties is representing their interests (NAMA, 2022[7]).
This chapter will assess the commendable efforts undertaken by the government of Jordan, independent institutions and civil society to empower young people and enhance public sector integrity and accountability. Based on a review of relevant legal, institutional and policy arrangements and current practice, as well as good practices from Middle East and North Africa (MENA) and OECD countries, it identifies opportunities to:
Empower young people and youth organisations to hold the government accountable in policymaking and service delivery.
Remove structural barriers, in particular in relation to integrity and accountability, that prevent young people from participating in political life.
Public sector accountability and integrity serve as the bedrock of trust in government and effective and inclusive policy outcomes. They underpin trust and transparency, which are paramount for the successful delivery of government programmes and services for all ages, including the government of Jordan’s ambitious political, public sector and integrity agenda (see Chapter 1).
The OECD Framework of Drivers of Trust in Public Institutions finds that the degree of trust people place in their government is strongly influenced by a number of factors, including government’s competency, which refers to its ability to provide public services effectively, and government’s reliability to adapt to emerging needs, as well as perceptions of integrity, fairness and transparency of government institutions. It highlights that corruption exerts a negative influence on citizens’ trust in public institutions (Brezzi et al., 2021[8]).
Existing evidence suggests that there is scope to reinforce trust in Jordan’s political institutions, notably the parliament and political parties (BTI, 2024[9]; IRI, 2023[10]). For instance, the OECD report Empowering Youth and Building Trust in Jordan (2021[11]) finds that, in line with trends observed across many OECD countries, young people in Jordan express less interest in politics than older age groups and continue to be under-represented in positions of political influence. In turn, young people more frequently participate through non-institutionalised channels, for instance in civil society and volunteering activities. While young people play an important role in holding government to account through civil society engagement, removing barriers to their participation in positions of political influence is equally critical to re-build trust and deliver more responsive and accountable policy outcomes as recognised by the OECD Recommendation on Creating Better Opportunities for Young People (OECD, 2022[12]).
Moreover, fostering a culture of public integrity in society in partnership with the private sector, civil society and individuals (OECD, 2017[13]) is key to investing in better policy outcomes for young people and building society-wide support for Jordan’s ambitious reform agenda. It is important to recognise that, in their role as students, workers, customers and voters, young people can be exposed to corrupt behaviour through various entry points (OECD, 2016[14]).2 Besides the negative impact at an individual level, corruption diverts resources and influence away from their intended use and, thus, the core of society. Funding that could otherwise be allocated to improving education and health services, job opportunities and other public services for young people is siphoned off. For example, inflated public construction costs may result in fewer new schools being built, leaving young populations underserved.
At the same time, young people in Jordan and elsewhere have emerged as vocal advocates to uphold standards of integrity and partners to design, implement, monitor and evaluate government action. With unprecedented access to information and digital tools, young people worldwide are seeking to hold public institutions accountable for decisions taken in the field of climate and environmental protection, civic space and others. For example, in the case of Japan and France, young people have partnered with the government to advocate for transparency, fairness, and the responsible use of public resources (see Box 4.1).
Japan: Special Youth Rapporteurs inform government planning
The Japanese Cabinet Office appoints students as Special Youth Rapporteurs to inform government planning, legislation and regulations related to childhood and young people. The rapporteurs are asked to give their opinion on government thematic priorities, which are selected by the Cabinet Office. Their inputs are then shared across relevant ministries and government agencies and are published online on the website of the Cabinet Office.
France: Youth Policy Orientation Council (Conseil d’orientation des politiques de jeunesse)
Since 2016, the Conseil d’orientation des politiques de jeunesse (CoJ), acts as an advisory body to the prime minister. The CoJ contributes to the co-ordination and evaluation of youth-related policies and is composed of commissions dealing with education and participation in policymaking. Its 79 members, including ministers, youth representatives and youth organisations, can also be consulted on legislative or regulatory drafts on issues relating to young people and may examine any general draft laws relating to youth policies.
Source: OECD (2020[15]), Governance for Youth, Trust and Intergenerational Justice: Fit for All Generations?, https://doi.org/10.1787/c3e5cb8a-en.
Empowering young people has been a longstanding priority on Jordan’s political agenda. The 6th Discussion Paper issued by King Abdullah II in 2016 stressed that “we cannot address the use of the rule of law without recognising that wasta3 and nepotism jeopardise development effort”, acknowledging in this context the need to “empower young people to realise their potential and expand their horizons” (Government of Jordan, 2016[16]). With the adoption of the 2015 Decentralization Law and Municipality Law, Jordan also embarked on an important decentralisation reform with the stated objective of increasing citizen participation locally (OECD, 2020[17]). Moreover, Jordan is among the few economies in the MENA region with a national youth strategy in place (National Youth Strategy 2019-25), featuring commitments to strengthen “youth, engagement and effective leadership“, “youth, rule of law and good governance”, foster citizenship and empower young people in the political, social and economic sphere (Ministry of Youth, 2019[18]).
Acknowledging the need to further enhance integrity, accountability and efficiency in public administration as well as more inclusive decision-making, Jordan has embarked on an important reform process. Central to these efforts is the adoption of the Political Parties Law No. 7 of 2022 (hereafter the Political Parties Law of 2022) and the Election Law of the House of Representatives No. 4 of 2022 and its amendments (hereafter the Law on the Election to the House of Representatives of 2022). The adoption of these laws led to the reduction of the minimum age required to run in national elections from 30 to 25 years, thus bringing Jordan closer to international standards. To register, political parties need a minimum of 1 000 members and 20% of its founding members must be between the ages of 18 and 35. Moreover, political party activity on university campuses was legalised. These changes and their possible implications for young people’s participation in political life are further discussed below.
At the same time, findings from the NAMA Strategic Intelligence Solutions survey (2022[7]) reveal that young people remained sceptical about whether the legal changes were sufficient to make political parties more effective when the new laws were adopted. According to the survey, 66% of university students in Jordan believe that political parties in Jordan are “very” or “somewhat” ineffective and concur they are unable to address the most pressing challenges facing the country, such as addressing crime (72.5%) and unemployment (67%). Similarly, 68% of the university students “totally agreed” or “somewhat agreed” that political parties’ programmes do not address citizens’ needs (NAMA, 2022[7]). As regards the underlying reasons for the negative perception of political parties held among young people, the available evidence points to “limited rotation of party leadership, the overall weakness of political parties in political action, and the simplistic organizational structure of most parties”, alongside the concentration of most parties in Amman (PSI, 2023[19]).
In parallel to the political reform agenda, the government of Jordan has embarked on an ambitious reform trajectory to enhance the efficiency, responsiveness and citizen-centric nature of public policies and services. Key objectives and steps are consolidated in the 2022 Public Sector Modernization Roadmap (hereafter the Roadmap) (Government of Jordan, 2022[20]). Among others, the Roadmap foresees a merger between the Ministry of Culture and the Ministry of Youth (MoY) to integrate programmes and optimise the use of public resources (Government of Jordan, 2022[20]). It also envisions a reform of the civil service by modernising government scholarship policies and updating recruitment systems for specialised programmes abroad, ensuring equal opportunities for women, young people and persons with disabilities (Government of Jordan, 2022[20]).
Lastly, to “uphold integrity, and reject corruption” (2020[21]), the Jordanian Integrity and Anti-Corruption Commission (JIACC) adopted the National Integrity and Anti-Corruption Strategy in 2017, which was updated in 2020. The strategy is described as a national framework where partners from the public and private sectors and civil society are involved in its implementation. It outlines five objectives, including strengthening Jordan’s overall integrity system, adopting a proactive approach to mitigate corrupt practices and fostering collaboration in the fight against corruption. The strategy demonstrates some commitment to engaging young people in anti-corruption efforts, for instance by integrating integrity and anti-corruption concepts in school and university curricula and to incorporating young people into national policies to combat corruption using modern communication methods (JIACC, 2020[21]).
This section examines efforts by the MoY, the Ministry of Political and Parliamentary Affairs (MoPPA) and the Ministry of Education (MoE) as well as JIACC and the Independent Election Commission (IEC) to involve youth stakeholders in the design, implementation and monitoring and evaluation of the Roadmap, the Political Parties Law of 2022 and the Law on the Election to the House of Representatives of 2022 and Jordan’s National Integrity and Anti-Corruption Strategy 2020-25 to promote public sector integrity and accountability. It will assess the opportunities and barriers for young people to shape the process, as well as the capacity of the lead entities to collect and use age-disaggregated data and raise awareness among young people for the objectives and implications of the reform underway.
It draws on the OECD Recommendation of the Council on Open Government (2017[22]), which underlines that stakeholder participation in the policy cycle increases government’s accountability, as well as the OECD Recommendation of the Council on Creating Better Opportunities for Young People (OECD, 2022[12]), which holds that countries should promote meaningful youth participation in public decision-making to deliver more responsive, inclusive and accountable policy outcomes (OECD, 2020[15]).
It will also discuss opportunities and barriers faced by young people to inform and monitor public service delivery, in line with relevant commitments in Jordan’s National Youth Strategy 2019-25, Open Government Agenda and other cross-cutting policy frameworks.
Shaping Jordan’s reform agenda: Defining a proactive role for young people
Various dimensions underpin effective government accountability. Based on a review of accountability mechanisms in youth policy across OECD countries, Figure 4.1 presents five common dimensions. The figure demonstrates that promoting accountability relies on a multi-dimensional and multi-stakeholder approach with important interventions from various entities across and beyond government, including independent organisations, civil society and the wider public.
Source: Based on OECD (2020[15]), Governance for Youth, Trust and Intergenerational Justice: Fit for All Generations?, https://doi.org/10.1787/c3e5cb8a-en and OECD (2024[23]), Together for Children and Young People in Ireland - Towards a New Governance Framework, https://doi.org/10.1787/12f4dfb2-en.
While discussing each dimension for the three reform areas outlined above is beyond the scope of this chapter, the figure provides a useful framework to unite the whole government behind delivering more responsive and accountable policy outcomes for young people. For the purpose of this chapter, the analysis will focus, in particular, on promoting accountability to young people.
In Jordan, the MoY is in charge of co‑ordinating youth policy across government and is thus central to strengthening accountability in youth policy outcomes across its different facets. Based on an assessment of its capacities and the governance structures set up to support the implementation of Jordan’s National Youth Strategy 2019-25 in the OECD report Empowering Youth and Building Trust in Jordan (2021[11]), Box 4.2 provides an overview of key policy recommendations and recent developments to provide further context to the analysis that follows.
The OECD report Empowering Youth and Building Trust in Jordan (2021[11]) provides a holistic assessment of governance structures in place to support the implementation of Jordan’s National Youth Strategy 2019-25 and the capacities of the MoY to steer its implementation.
Acknowledging that Jordan is one of few MENA economies with an integrated national youth strategy in place, it identifies several action points to support its effective implementation:
Identifying clear mandates across government entities and allocating adequate resources within MoY to co‑ordinate its implementation and avoid fragmented coverage of support and services and address unmet needs.
Setting clear objectives, targets and timeframes for all implementation partners involved.
Systematically collecting and using age-disaggregated evidence underpinning strategic objectives and activities.
Linking strategic objectives to local priorities identified in the implementation plans of youth centres and using standardised terminology across all youth centres.
Establishing a unified database and building technical capacity at the local level to collect and share data and facilitate the monitoring and evaluation.
Regularly publishing information about the progress achieved in implementing the strategy, for instance through annual reports.
According to the OECD interviews conducted in June 2023, the MoY has undertaken important efforts to act upon these recommendations:
Review and update of the National Youth Strategy with a post-Covid 19 action plan.
Development of an Activity Bank to monitor and support activities led and executed by young people in local youth centres. Through this initiative, they can apply for funds to support the implementation of activities. As of February 2024, the Activity Bank included more than 6 500 initiatives. Local youth centres are requested to design plans that respond to local needs and priorities.
In collaboration with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and its Technical Assistance Program, MoY has also worked to set up a monitoring and evaluation unit within the ministry and devised a monitoring and evaluation plan. Efforts to strengthen monitoring and evaluation also include the use of pre- and post-surveys to collect evidence on the impact of activities in the youth centres in line with a commitment in Jordan’s 5th National Action Plan to the Open Government Partnership to conduct annual evaluations of the strategy based on consultations with youth stakeholders, relevant governmental institutions, civil society organisations and the private sector (Commitment 4, Milestone activity 2).
Sources: OECD (2021[11]), Empowering Youth and Building Trust in Jordan, https://doi.org/10.1787/8b14d38f-en; OECD questionnaire and interviews in June 2023; Ministry of Planning and International Co-operation (2021[24]), The Fifth National Action Plan 2021 - 2025 Under the Open Government, https://ogp.gov.jo/EBV4.0/Root_Storage/EN/5_NAP/5th_NAP_-_En_Ready_to_Print_MODIFIED_VERSION_10_April.pdf.
While the MoY is tasked with a key role in delivering policies and programmes that are responsive to young people’s needs, Jordan’s reform agenda does not only cut across various ministerial portfolios. It also foresees an important role for independent institutions such as JIACC and the IEC. In this complex environment, safeguarding civic space is an important precondition for youth stakeholders to share their perspectives and possible criticism of government action in the public domain and for independent institutions to operate without fearing concerns of negative repercussions.
Creating an enabling environment to enhance accountability towards young people
Safeguarding civic space is a foundation for establishing a trustful relationship between young people and public institutions (OECD, 2020[15]). The civic space4 is influenced by various factors, including institutions, laws, regulations and rules that shape the civil and political rights and liberties of young people, including their access to information, freedom of speech and expression, the right of association and assembly, the right to privacy and non-discrimination as well as the freedom of the press, and open Internet and data protection (OECD, 2022[25]). Moreover, rules and regulations in relation to prohibiting hate speech and incitement to violence, and promoting access to justice and other areas shape the civic space, as do the mechanisms established to support their implementation and enforcement (see Chapter 3).
Building blocks to increase government accountability towards young people
In addition to mechanisms safeguarding civic space and upholding political and civil liberties, promoting accountability to young people relies on at least three important foundations: the availability of age-disaggregated evidence, public communication that is responsive to young people’s media preferences and the availability of and access to inclusive and meaningful youth participation (see Figure 4.2).
Source: Author’s elaboration.
Leveraging age-disaggregated evidence
To deliver youth-responsive policies and services, the OECD Recommendation of the Council on Creating Better Opportunities for Young People (2022[12]) highlights the relevance of improving capacities for the “collection, use and sharing of data disaggregated by age, sex and other relevant characteristics”, such as education and income.
Without the systematic collection and use of data disaggregated by age and other identity factors such as gender and socio-economic background policymakers risk underestimating the distinct challenges specific groups in society are facing. Understanding the specific challenges young people are facing can help design more tailored policies and programmes and mobilise the required resources to address them. Utilising granular data is also critical to better track the performance of programmes and initiatives targeting young people, thus ultimately enhancing accountability towards them.
Tailoring public communication to young people’s habits and preferences
The OECD Recommendation of the Council on Creating Better Opportunities for Young People (2022[12]) highlights that young people should be involved in a meaningful way in public decision-making processes, with targeted measures to mobilise disadvantaged and under-represented groups. It further holds that the government should communicate with young people on relevant matters in clear and accessible ways based on active listening and understanding of their concerns and interests. Outreach efforts should be targeted to their needs, media consumption habits and preferences.
Beyond information sharing, public communication5 is a building block for promoting the participation of stakeholders in policymaking and service delivery (OECD, 2017[22]). According to the OECD Recommendation of the Council on Open Government (2017[22]), stakeholders should have “equal and fair opportunities to be informed, consulted and actively engaged”, underlining that specific efforts should be made to reach vulnerable and underrepresented groups. OECD countries have undertaken efforts to adopt new methods to deliver public communication that is responsive to young people.
In a survey run by the OECD in 2020 among centre of government (CoG)6 institutions, 49% confirmed they were seeking to target young people through their public communication efforts, ahead of people with special needs/disabilities (44%), elderly (38%) and women (36%). However, findings from the same survey for Jordan suggest that, at present, limited and uneven capacities exist across ministries to make use of audience insights7 and tailor communication efforts to specific segments of the population, primarily women and young people (OECD, 2021[26]).
Providing spaces for meaningful youth participation
In recent years, young people in Jordan and elsewhere have demonstrated a preference for non‑institutionalised forms of participation (e.g. online activism, civil society engagement, social movements) over traditional channels, such as voting and political party membership (OECD, 2020[15]). While young people have historically mobilised during crises, OECD data suggest a broader trend towards non‑institutionalised forms of participation among young people (OECD, 2020[15]).
Recognising this trend, the OECD Recommendation of the Council on Creating Better Opportunities for Young People (2022[12]) calls on countries to promote meaningful youth involvement in decision-making processes. At its core, it calls for clear communication, diverse representation and the use of innovative engagement methods. The OECD distinguishes between three levels of stakeholder participation (i.e. information, consultation and engagement; see Chapter 3), highlighting the need for interactive relationships and collaboration throughout the policy cycle (OECD, 2016[27])
The next sections will discuss opportunities and barriers to promote government accountability to young people in the context of Jordan’s political, public sector and integrity agenda with a view to assessing the three dimensions introduced above. In line with findings observed across OECD and MENA countries (OECD, 2020[15]), it identifies important gaps in the existing governance structures in Jordan and concludes with a discussion on possible priorities to address them.
Spotlight 1: The political reform agenda
Led by the Royal Committee to Modernize the Political System, Jordan has embarked on an ambitious political reform process with the objective of bringing forth parliaments dominated by strong political parties with policy agendas to form a government in accordance with Article 35 of the constitution (Royal Committee to Modernize the Political System, 2022[28]). As part of these efforts, a National Dialogue for Political Reform (2018-19) was set up and a series of consultations were held across various sectors to inform new legislation in the field of elections, political parties, decentralisation and the role of local administration.
In 2022, the Law on the Election to the House of Representatives of 2022 was adopted. Among others, the 2022 election law lowered the minimum age to run for parliament from 30 to 25 years in line with the 2022 constitutional amendments with the objective of increasing young people’s participation in politics and encouraging their participation in elections. With this change, Jordan moved closer but still significantly exceeds the OECD average of 19.8 years, as well as the minimum age required in Morocco (18 years) and Tunisia (23 years). It is aligned with practices in Egypt, Lebanon and Mauritania in the MENA region (OECD, 2022[12]).
Moreover, the Political Parties Law of 2022 was adopted, stipulating that political parties need a minimum of 1 000 members and that a minimum of 20% of founding members should be between the ages of 18 and 35 (Article 11/A and 10). The law further states that it is prohibited to expose the students of higher education institutions because of their affiliation and party and political activity (Article 4/C), affirming in Article 20 the rights of students who are members of a party to practice party activities within the campus “without any restriction or prejudice to their rights, provided that a special regulation is issued to regulate these activities” (Prime Minister's Office, 2022[29]). Bylaw No. 68 of 2022 to Organise the Student Party Activities in Higher Education Institutions specifies in Article 3/C that students have the right to engage in various activities, such as holding and participating in political seminars and debates, and elections organised by the higher education institutions for student councils, unions, associations, or student clubs (Prime Minister's Office, 2022[30]).
Although young people were involved in shaping the 2022 laws, the process encountered challenges in terms of inclusivity, representation and meaningful engagement. According to MoPPA, the Royal Committee to Modernize the Political System included representatives from various ministries8 (Government of Jordan, 2024[31]), as well as civil society, political parties, women’s organisations and young people. Eleven youth stakeholders were selected based on leadership roles in prominent youth organisations or their active participation in governorate councils and governmental institutions. According to OECD interviews, some proposals developed by the group were not taken forward, such as the idea to reduce the minimum age required to run for a seat in the national parliament to 18 years.
Various institutions, notably MoPPA, the MoY and IEC, have undertaken efforts to raise awareness for the 2022 laws among young people. According to MoPPA, its “Your Voice Your Future” campaign delivered 383 awareness and education activities across all governorates, targeting 50,000 participants including young people, women and local communities. Activities included dialogue meetings and training sessions, which were conducted in partnership with international and local partners. These efforts also benefitted from theatre performances and the dissemination of didactic material, including copies of the Jordanian constitution, the Electoral Law and Political Parties Law and different booklets and leaflets. MoPPA also launched a series of videos on political reform, which were broadcast via its social media platforms, reaching a total of 2 million views according to the ministry. It further created an awareness and education team comprised of 12 staff, who received technical training on the new laws. The team was tasked to raise awareness and co‑ordinate the actions taken forward by different ministries.
The IEC issued brochures, used billboards, organised workshops and set up programmes in universities and schools to target young people. It also used social media to raise awareness, drawing on simplified language, visuals, infographics and videos applying sign language to disseminate information about the new laws, by-law and election process to a large segment of society. A total of 200 000 brochures were distributed as part of the Door-to-Door campaign through volunteers in the context of the USAID-funded Partnership Project. The IEC has rolled out its activities across all governorates, especially in the peripheral areas, and engages young people as volunteers during the electoral process. According to IEC, joint sessions were also organised with MoY to raise awareness and knowledge among young people as regards the role of political parties and opportunities to participate in political life in the context of the Al-Hussein Youth Camps.
Despite these notable initiatives, OECD interviewees pointed to challenges, such as limited or reduced financial resources to engage with young people via social media and roll out programmes across all governorates. They also pointed to a lack of interest among young people to participate in political life (in particular due to a priority of economic considerations among young people), their continued lack of confidence in political parties and work programmes as well as in parliament, and at times fear of engaging in political parties. While young people were consulted at an early stage in the process, OECD interviews suggest that the process was considered lacking inclusiveness and representativeness as only a limited circle of young people were invited, and no specific efforts were undertaken to target young people living in disadvantaged circumstances.
Spotlight 2: The public sector reform agenda
The Roadmap (2022[20]) forms one of the three axes of the current government’s overarching goal of reviving the national economy. The stated goal of the strategy is to “create a comprehensive roadmap to elevate public administration, enhance the institutional approach in responding efficiently to local and global developments, and contribute effectively to attain economic recovery, based on the principles of excellence, transparency and accountability”. This strategy is wide-reaching and based on seven institutional pillars to modernisation, including pillar six, “transparency and accountability”.
According to OECD interviews with the Prime Minister’s Public Sector Modernization Project Management and Implementation Office (PMIO), a specialised unit in charge of managing and implementing the Roadmap, this reform will have significant implications for young people too (see Chapter 1). First, the inventory system at the Civil Service Bureau is envisaged to be eliminated by 2027. The aim is to shift from 12% to 40% of civil servant jobs allocated based on open competition and to accelerate the creation of private sector jobs in line with Jordan’s Economic Modernization Vision. As a result, by November 2023, no new applications were supposed to be accepted and open competition was planned to be the norm. The commitment is driven by the consideration that the current system is unsustainable, with a growing number of applications by young graduates and a limited number of annual hires. By June 2023, 486 000 applications were registered in the inventory, with an additional 37 000 new applications coming in each year for only 8 000 new available civil servant jobs each year. In 2024, the recruitment of public employees came to be governed by the new Human Resources Management Bylaw No. 33 for 2024, which states that competition will take place for vacant positions officially listed in the Formation Table, prepared annually to organise the recruitment process and the efficient distribution of human resources across the public service.
Another action envisaged by the Roadmap, the integration of the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Higher Education and the Vocational Training Institute into the Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development, was approved by the Council of Ministers on 30 April 2024. The merger aims to better link education policies with labour market needs and improve policy coherence in education policies, especially concerning early childhood, primary education (up to 16 years), and vocational education.
To raise awareness of the Roadmap and its objectives, the PMIO has contracted a public relations agency to run a communication campaign, funded by USAID. Core to the campaign is a dedicated website (govreform.jo). According to the PMIO, further efforts will be rolled out gradually, including a social media campaign and other channels. For instance, in June 2023, a forum with Jordan’s prime minister and university students was organised to discuss the public sector reforms and a national dialogue, managed by the Economic and Social Council, was conducted across all governorates, involving ministries and civil society organisations.
While the importance of effectively communicating this sensitive reform package is acknowledged by the PMIO, young people were not engaged in the preparation of the Roadmap. Moreover, by June 2023, limited outreach efforts had been undertaken to raise awareness among youth stakeholders despite the significant impacts of the reform on young people’s educational and professional careers.
Spotlight 3: Reform of Jordan’s public integrity system
Jordan was the first Arab nation to ratify the United Nations Convention Against Corruption in 2005 and the Arab Anti-Corruption Convention (2010). Building on previous and ongoing efforts to further strengthen Jordan’s public integrity system, findings from the OECD Public Sector Integrity Review of Jordan (OECD, forthcoming[32]) suggest that there is further scope to move from a culture of control to a culture of Integrity. The elaboration of JIACC’s next strategy provides a timely opportunity for advancing this agenda and for placing young people at the centre of these efforts (OECD, forthcoming[32]).
According to JIACC, activities to raise awareness of the strategy included official meetings with government departments, private sector representatives and civil society organisations. Information sharing via traditional media channels was accompanied by outreach efforts undertaken via social media. JIACC also conducted a series of awareness-raising campaigns in 2022 and 2023 with relevant ministries, such as the MoY, to raise young people’s awareness of the dangers of wasta and nepotism (see Box 4.3).
The “I am Against Bribery” campaign
The “I am Against Bribery” campaign was organised by JIACC in collaboration with civil society organisation Palladium and various universities in Jordan. For a month, the campaign promoted integrity standards and raised awareness about the dangers of nepotism and bribery. Slogans were designed to target young people specifically via JIACC’s website and social media platforms, accompanied by outreach efforts via government websites. Slogans, posters and other communication material to support the campaign were developed together with 15 students from 12 government and private universities. Examples of the slogans included:
“Wasta is an assault on the rights of others, so let’s work together to combat this scourge”.
”Nepotism and Wasta are two sides of the same crime, so let’s work together to fight this disease”.
”Defend the future of your children and say no to nepotism and Wasta”.
”Nepotism and Wasta violate the values of justice, equality and equal opportunities, so don’t be a part of it”.
Lectures for young anti-corruption champions
In 2022 and 2023, JIACC and the MoY organised awareness-raising workshops and lectures within selected youth centres to discuss the role of young people in combatting corruption and enhancing integrity standards.
Source: Based on OECD interviews and replies to the questionnaire.
According to JIACC, data on the exposure of young people to corruption in Jordan are not collected systematically. It is therefore unclear to what extent and in which circumstances young people may be more vulnerable than other age groups to practices such as wasta and bribery and whether the overall trend is positive or negative. In many cases, being exposed to corrupt and undue behaviour might not even be recognised as such, for instance when personal connections determine grades or the acceptance to higher education. The lack of such data is also a limitation to JIACC’s efforts to communicate the risks of corruption to young people and the need to prioritise interventions and resources in high-risk areas.
While JIACC pointed to a lack of experience and interest among young people, impeding a more systematic engagement on issues around public sector integrity, OECD interviewees from the non-governmental sector referred to a culture of risk-aversion that might discourage young people from engaging in anti-corruption efforts. Moreover, while the MoY was consulted in the elaboration of Jordan’s National Integrity and Anti-Corruption Strategy 2020-25 and has partnered with JIACC in the delivery of lectures, young people themselves were not given a dedicated space to shape its elaboration. The MoY further reports that lack of funding remains a challenge to roll out awareness-raising activities across all governorates; a concern that is shared by JIACC. The memorandum of understanding signed between JIACC and the MoY includes a commitment to raise awareness among young people to uphold principles of integrity. While Jordan’s National Youth Strategy 2019-25 does not explicitly state the objective to engage young people in the fight against corruption (Pillar 5 covers good governance and the rule of law more broadly), joint activities with JIACC to raise awareness among young people to detect and fight corruption are included in the annual activity plan for the youth centres.
According to JIACC, young people shall be involved in the evaluation of its current strategy by the end of 2025 (see Box 4.4). While the process to engage young people in this effort is yet to be established, it provides an important opportunity to associate young people more actively with Jordan’s public sector integrity agenda and explore new approaches to the communication of results, such as via peer-to-peer approaches. Moreover, an online platform (Innovation Incubator) was launched by JIACC in 2024 in attendance of the ministries of youth, digital economy and the King Abdullah II Fund for Development, which provides a space for citizens, and in particular young people, to submit their ideas for promoting integrity and preventing corruption.
JIACC co‑operates with the National Center for Curriculum Development on the reform of the curriculum. A joint committee was formed to include courses on national integrity standards and anti-corruption mechanisms, as well as patriotism, in the curriculum of public and private schools for pupils aged 14 years and older. Reportedly, between 2022 and mid-2023, various lectures were organised in schools across Jordan.
Moreover, a joint committee was established with the Ministry of Higher Education, which introduced mandatory lessons on anti-corruption and national integrity standards for all students in 2010. In 2022, a memorandum of understanding was signed with the University of Jordan to introduce a new master’s programme in governance for law students led by lecturers from JIACC.
Civil society and royal patronage organisations in Jordan are playing an important role in this regard. Since 2013, the Crown Prince Foundation has carried out an initiative targeting school students across governorates in Jordan with a focus on promoting ethical values among young people. From 2020 to 2023, grade 8 students have benefitted from this initiative, reaching a total of 61 035 students.
Source: Based on OECD questionnaires, interviews and information submitted by government counterparts.
The Jordan National Integrity Index (NII), an annual report by JIACC, is a prominent initiative in which young people have been involved. The NII has received high-level political support and aspires to be a flagship initiative in the country’s anti-corruption agenda. It aims to measure the perceptions of public employees on integrity and prevention of corruption in ministries and other public bodies by analysing data collected through anonymised questionnaires, which can be disaggregated by age, gender, governorate, marital status and other variables.
Young people played a key role in collecting and monitoring data for the index. As part of a joint initiative with Rasheed for Integrity and Transparency (Transparency International - Jordan) and Al Hayat-Rased, two civil society organisations engaged in promoting more open and transparent governance, approximately 40 individuals between the ages of 22-32 years were mobilised to collect data for the index among 101 public entities. An estimated 3 572 public servants were reached through this exercise. At the time of writing, the results of the Integrity Index are expected to be launched in 2024. To build on this effort and engage young people more systematically in anti-corruption efforts, JIACC might consider establishing a dedicated unit or team to facilitate outreach and engagement. Box 4.5 presents the example of the Youth Working Group, which is associated with the Office of the Minister of State for Administrative Reform in Lebanon and supports the implementation of the country’s national anti-corruption strategy.
Following the adoption of Lebanon’s National Anti-Corruption Strategy in 2020, a working group of young people was established in 2022 to support its implementation.
The working group brings together students from different universities in Lebanon who received training from the United Nations Development Programme, supported jointly by Denmark and the European Union. The working group was placed under the Office of the Minister of State for Administrative Reform, which is in charge of following up on the implementation of the strategy.
The working group is mandated to contribute to national efforts aimed at preventing and combating corruption through:
Communicating with all segments of young people in Lebanon and encouraging them to engage in efforts to follow up on the implementation of the national anti-corruption strategy, preparing and implementing awareness-raising and educational activities for this purpose.
Submitting proposals to the competent authorities in co‑ordination with the Ministry of State for Administrative Reform, the Ministry of Education and Higher Education, and the Ministry of Youth and Sports to integrate the culture of integrity and anti-corruption topics into the programmes of educational institutions of various types.
Preparing and implementing initiatives for communication and co‑operation with all state departments regarding follow-up on strategy implementation.
Supporting the creation and running of student integrity clubs at the Lebanese University and private universities and facilitating networking among them.
Source: Based on Lebanese Republic (2022[33]), “A team of young people to accompany the implementation of the National Anti-Corruption Strategy”, https://omsar.gov.lb/Media/News/%D9%A2%D9%A0%D9%A2%D9%A2.
Key insights from the Spotlights: Strengthening government accountability to young people
The previous sections illustrate a number of common challenges for promoting accountability to young people in the context of Jordan’s political, public sector and integrity agenda related to the availability of data, youth-responsive communication and engagement opportunities. The following section provides a synthesis of the challenges identified and points to good practices across MENA economies and OECD countries in selected areas to inspire further reform initiatives.
Using more strategic and tailored public communication
Existing efforts to strengthen young people’s awareness, such as through discussions at universities and youth centres, have reached a limited number of young people so far. OECD interviews confirmed that further outreach activities are needed to target young people in more remote governorates.
Capacities across public institutions to inform and communicate in ways that are accessible and responsive to young people are uneven. Moreover, language and channels used to reach out to young people are not always targeted, which risks that this demographic might not be aware of important developments for their personal and professional lives (e.g. the elimination of the inventory system at the Civil Service Bureau) and new opportunities to engage in politics (e.g. the reduction of the minimum age required to run for a seat in parliament). There is recognition that the language used in public communication is often too technical and that further efforts to publish information in simple language and through both online and offline channels would be critical to reach a larger audience. So far, collaborating with young people and youth organisations, as well as schools and universities, in communicating with young people remains a largely untapped opportunity. To better tailor its public communication to young people, evidence on young people’s media consumption habits, interests, motivations, values and perceptions could be collected to help prioritise the allocation of scarce resources. Moreover, most outreach efforts remain ad hoc and lack a long-term vision to transform instances of one-way communication into a more systematic and permanent dialogue with youth stakeholders.
The example of Ireland, presented in Box 4.6, illustrates how government departments, agencies and youth organisations can collaborate to gather data on young people’s concerns and together design a youth-focused campaign responding to their priorities.
Ireland’s Government Information Service, in collaboration with the Health Service Executive and the Department of Health, engaged with representatives from a range of youth organisations to better understand young people’s experience of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Outreach to youth organisations aimed to ensure policymakers and communicators develop a better understanding of young people’s concerns and to examine ways to communicate more effectively with them. The group met weekly, shared research findings and was directly involved in informing campaign briefs and giving feedback.
An example was the government’s #AntiViral campaign, a social media campaign using channels such as TikTok, Instagram and Snapchat, with content developed by young people for young people.
Source: OECD (2021[34]), OECD Report on Public Communication: The Global Context and the Way Forward, https://doi.org/10.1787/22f8031c-en.
The use of “plain language” to simplify communication and make use of visual aids is also critical to gain the attention of young people in an increasingly competitive information environment. In the United States, for instance, a centre for plain language (Plain Language.Gov) was established to oversee the implementation of the Plain Writing Act, provide training and share good practices across the public sector to enhance the use of these techniques within their communication to citizens (OECD, 2021[34]).
The OECD guide Engaging Young People in Open Government provides further guidance to promote meaningful communication with young people (see Box 4.7). Moreover, the OECD working paper “Accessible and inclusive public communication: Panorama of practices from OECD countries” presents a range of practices and lessons learned about accessible and inclusive public communication in OECD member and partner countries, including public communication targeting young people (Cazenave and Bellantoni, 2022[35]).
The OECD guide Engaging Young People in Open Government supports governments in communicating effectively with young people to promote their participation in policymaking, drawing on research and case studies from across OECD member and partner countries.
The guide provides concrete steps for public communicators to understand the needs and perspectives of youth stakeholders, reach out to them and promote their participation in the design and delivery of policies and services. It underlines the importance of understanding and treating young people as equals rather than “citizens in training”. To reach young citizens effectively, it emphasises that digital technologies should be used strategically in tandem with traditional forms of engagement, such as youth councils.
Source: (OECD, 2018[36]), Engaging Young People in Open Government: A Communication Guide, https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5c27c93f1aef1d60b29781f9/t/64f3421b5a4db53e4759485c/1693663790536/Young-people-in-OG_compressed.pdf.
In the field of anti-corruption, public communication targeting young people is critical to build a whole-of-society culture of integrity (OECD, 2021[34]). For example, the government of Greece deployed a large-scale campaign to engage young people as champions in the country’s national anti-corruption agenda (see Box 4.8).
To increase awareness of corruption, generate community responsibility and encourage action to prevent corruption, the government of Greece launched a campaign targeting young people. The campaign engaged young people in a two-way dialogue and focused on opportunities for them to champion integrity rather than reiterating the existing discourse, which was primarily concerned with alerting citizens to the dangers of corruption. In this effort, the government partnered with young, popular YouTubers, whose platform was used to start a conversation with their followers on the cost of corruption and reflect on actions to contribute to the greater common good. Entitled “Be the change you want to see”, the storyline was based on the creators’ personal experiences of everyday corruption and bribery, which young people could relate to.
In total, the videos reached more than 888 000 views and 62 000 reactions and 78% of the viewers were between 13 and 34 years old. One of the videos also trended first on YouTube in Greece.
Source: Based on OECD (2019[37]), Engaging Youth in the Fight against Corruption, https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/bc512509-en/index.html?itemId=/content/paper/bc512509-en.
Systematically collect and use age-disaggregated evidence
Despite their significant impact on young people, none of the major reform initiatives underway in Jordan (i.e. political, public sector, integrity) appears to build on the systematic collection and use of age-disaggregated data. For instance, data on young people’s exposure to corruption and trends over time are absent.
At the same time, there is scope to draw lessons and further scale existing initiatives such as the NII. Similarly, to support the political and public sector reform agenda and address the specific challenges faced by young people, investments into a more systematic collection of data disaggregated by age, sex, socio-economic background and other factors would be critical to inform policy priorities and effectively monitor and evaluate implementation progress. So far, perception-based surveys have been primarily conducted by research institutes and international stakeholders and their results do not always feed back into the decision-making process. Efforts to collect and leverage more granular data should be embedded in robust, integrated and consistent information systems to facilitate the integration of data from different datasets based on common standards, guidelines and templates.
Box 4.9 presents recent initiatives in Canada, France and Sweden, which could inspire new initiatives in Jordan to strengthen capabilities for the collection and use of age-disaggregated data as well as the use of survey and administrative data to gauge unmet needs among young people.
Canada: Disaggregated Data Action Plan
Acknowledging the diverse effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on different demographic segments, the Canadian government has committed CAD 172 million over a span of 5 years to Statistics Canada. This financial support is intended to facilitate the execution of a Disaggregated Data Action Plan, aimed at promoting evidence-driven decision-making in key areas such as healthcare, quality of life, environmental issues, justice, business and the economy. This plan emphasises intergenerational equity concerns and the requirements of various population groups.
France: DJEPVA Barometer
To provide policymakers with data disaggregated by age, the Research Centre for the Study and Observation of Living Conditions in France has been conducting surveys at the request of the Directorate of Youth, Popular Education and Community Life (Direction de la jeunesse, de l’éducation populaire et de la vie associative, DJEPVA) that focus on the living conditions and aspirations of people in France. In 2023, it released the most recent edition of the DJEPVA Barometer, a nationwide survey that involved 4 500 young individuals aged 18 to 30 to gauge their life satisfaction, state of mind, confidence about the future and civic engagement. For the first time, the sample was extended to include people aged 31 and over and minors aged 15 to 17 to allow for comparisons across age groups.
Sweden: Age-disaggregated evidence to monitor and evaluate youth policy
The Swedish Agency for Youth and Civil Society is responsible for ensuring that the objectives of the youth policy are achieved. As part of its ongoing effort to monitor and evaluate the youth policy, it continuously compiles and publishes available age-disaggregated data, which is linked to the indicators of the youth policy, on the Ung Idag (Young Today) website. It covers six key sectors of interest for young people: work and housing; economic and social vulnerability; physical and mental health; influence and representation; culture and leisure; and training.
Source: Based on OECD (2020[15]), Governance for Youth, Trust and Intergenerational Justice: Fit for All Generations?, https://doi.org/10.1787/c3e5cb8a-en; OECD (2022[38]), “Delivering for youth: How governments can put young people at the centre of the recovery”, https://doi.org/10.1787/92c9d060-en.
Addressing structural challenges to systematically involve young people in policymaking
Available evidence suggests that there is widespread support for increased youth inclusion in the political process but the preceding assessment demonstrates that young people had limited opportunities to shape the political reform agenda. Notably, 73.2% of university students surveyed by NAMA indicated that they would vote for a political party that advocates for more youth inclusion in the political process (NAMA, 2022[7]). However, only a small circle of young people was consulted in the context of the adoption of the Law on the Election to the House of Representatives of 2022 and the Political Parties Law of 2022. No specific mechanism was set up to involve youth stakeholders in developing the Public Sector Roadmap and the National Integrity and Anti-Corruption Strategy.
Core to the challenges of involving young people more systematically in law- and policymaking in Jordan is the absence of structured opportunities. For instance, across 78% of OECD countries, independent national youth councils play an important advocacy role in amplifying young people’s perspectives in public discourse and public consultation exercises (OECD, 2020[15]). Youth organisations across many OECD countries also benefit from financial contributions and technical support provided by the government. For example, in Costa Rica, each of the 82 cantons (similar to the concept of a governorate) has a youth committee that receives yearly funding from the National Young Person Council (Consejo de la Persona Jóven). The funding is used to develop and implement activities and projects each committee formulates based on the priorities determined by its young members (OECD, 2020[15]).
Institutional structures such as (independent) national youth councils and youth advisory councils affiliated with specific ministries or public agencies can play a pivotal role in amplifying young people’s voices in decision-making. As dedicated platforms to involve young people, they can mobilise resources, including human, financial and technical support, to cover associated costs like meeting venues and digital platform licenses.
Box 4.10 illustrates the examples of the Parliament for Youth in Luxembourg and youth councils in the Netherlands, Estonia and elsewhere, presenting different models established across OECD countries to establish a more structured dialogue with young people.
The Parliament for Youth in Luxembourg
In Luxembourg, the Parliament for Youth is an assembly composed of young people and working for them. Every person aged 14-24 living in Luxembourg can be a member. A parliamentary session lasts from October to the following October. The Parliament for Youth is composed of commissions and an executive board. Since its creation, it has published resolutions on a variety of policy areas including waste management, European affairs and the quality of life. It also holds regular meetings with government officials. The youth parliament’s main partners are the National Youth Council of Luxembourg (CGJL – de Jugendrot), the Ministry of Education, Children and Youth as well as the Chamber of Deputies.
National and local youth councils across OECD countries
As of 2019, 78% of OECD countries surveyed by the OECD report (2020[15]) have a national youth council and 88% indicate that local youth councils exist. A closer look at the youth councils reveals that considerable differences exist with regard to their institutional architecture and involvement in policymaking. For instance, in the Netherlands, the government recognises the Dutch National Youth Council as the main national partner in youth affairs in the country and involves it through thematic working groups. The Estonian National Youth Council participated in the elaboration of the country’s long-term development strategy Estonia 2035. In some OECD countries, such as Finland, Luxembourg and Slovenia, the status and functions of national youth council are clarified in youth laws, including membership conditions and responsibilities, among others.
Source: OECD (2020[15]), Governance for Youth, Trust and Intergenerational Justice: Fit for All Generations?, https://doi.org/10.1787/c3e5cb8a-en.
There is no equivalent to (an) independent national or local youth council(s) in Jordan. In the absence of clear guidelines and incentives, the extent to which young people are consulted or involved in decisions that affect their lives and future trajectories is at the discretion of each government entity.
The MoY has undertaken various efforts to make youth centres more attractive to young people; however, significant challenges remain in relation to resourcing, regaining young people’s interest and transforming these centres into spaces to listen to the ideas, perspectives and (local) priorities from young people, which could, in turn, inform law- and policymaking. Besides creating or supporting institutional structures to involve young people, such as youth parliaments and youth councils, OECD countries have engaged youth organisations and young individuals in new and innovative formats, including through deliberative processes. Box 4.11 presents these examples, some of which could be piloted and, based on the learnings, adjusted to the local context in Jordan.
Participation of youth organisations in planning COVID-19 recovery measures
In Australia, Austria, Estonia, Lithuania and the Slovak Republic, youth organisations were prominently involved in public consultations to determine COVID-19 recovery measures. In Austria, each measure proposed by civil society organisations, including youth organisations, was displayed in a table that included a pillar on young people and future generations. In Australia, a list of youth organisations that provided feedback on the 2021-22 budget priorities is publicly available, and non-confidential submissions were accessible online. The government of Estonia consulted its National Youth Council to inform the country’s COVID-19 response and recovery plan.
Deliberative processes targeting young people
The Barcelona Youth Forum was a representative, deliberative process that brought together 99 randomly selected people living in Barcelona aged 16-29. The forum deliberated about the needs of young people in the city and what the city council could do to address them. Following a 5-month period of deliberations, the forum issued 22 recommendations in December 2021. In February 2022, representatives from the Barcelona Youth Forum and city officials, including the mayor, met in the town hall to discuss ways to implement their proposals. From the 22 submitted recommendations, the city hall accepted 18 and published a response to confirm that 2 were already in progress and explain why 2 others had to be rejected. Additionally, a commission with representatives from the forum was established to follow up and monitor the implementation of the recommendations.
Sources: OECD (2022[12]), OECD Recommendation on Creating Better Opportunities for Young People, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0474 and OECD (2022[38]), “Delivering for youth: How governments can put young people at the centre of the recovery”, https://doi.org/10.1787/92c9d060-en.
Beyond the challenges outlined above, OECD interviews also suggest that the government entities and independent institutions involved in Jordan’s reform agenda do not always co‑operate and co‑ordinate their interventions. As many of the awareness-raising and engagement initiatives (targeting young people) are dependent on the availability of international donor funding, reportedly, institutions often compete rather than seek synergies and economies of scale. As a result, existing programmes and initiatives tend to remain fragmented and ad hoc, leaving too many young people underserved.
Young people as agents to enhance accountability in public service delivery
Access to quality education, employment, health, transportation and other public services is critical for young people to find a job, live a healthy life and their overall well-being. This section will provide an overview of the opportunities and challenges that young people in Jordan face when reporting access barriers or poor quality of public services due to wasta, bribery and similar challenges.
(Young people’s) satisfaction with public service delivery
The delivery of policies and services plays a vital role in shaping the interface between the state and its citizens. Poor standards of delivery can heighten inequalities and fuel public discontent in government institutions and public decision-making processes.
Since 2017, the role of citizens in defining priorities for local public service delivery underwent a profound transformation with the rollout of the decentralisation reform and the creation of the needs assessment process led by local and governorate councils. Nevertheless, findings from the OECD (2020[17]) reveal that access to public services across the governorates remains fragmented, with uneven levels of access and quality, in particular in governorates with a higher share of lower-income households and for communities of migrants and refugees (World Bank, n.d.[39]).
According to Arab Barometer data from 2021, 50.9% of young people (up to 29 years) are “satisfied” or “completely satisfied” with the governments’ performance overall, compared to 47.7% among 30‑49 year‑olds and 48.8% among the age group of 50 and over. In comparison to satisfaction levels among young people in 7 MENA countries, Jordan ranks 4th behind Morocco (65.5%), Libya (59%) and Algeria (51.6%). However, when it comes to young people’s satisfaction with the education system, satisfaction levels among young people drop to 26.5% in Jordan, again ranking 4th behind Morocco (42%), Algeria (37.2%) and Libya (32.8%) (see Figure 4.3). Satisfaction with the healthcare system is higher across all age groups in Jordan, including youth (56.6%), ranking 2nd in regional comparison behind Morocco (57.8%) (Arab Barometer, 2021[40]).
Note: “Young people” applies to survey respondents of up to 29 years of age.
Source: Arab Barometer (2021[40]), Data Analysis Tool - Arab Barometer Wave VI, https://www.arabbarometer.org/survey-data/data-analysis-tool/.
Pathways through which young people encounter corruption
Young people can be affected by corruption through different pathways. One way is through petty corruption, defined as an abuse of entrusted power by public officials in their interactions with ordinary citizens, for instance when the latter try to access basic goods or services. The practice of wasta is widespread in many economies in the MENA region. According to the Global Corruption Barometer (2019[41]), about one-third of the region’s population in the MENA region has used personal connections to access basic services. When wasta is involved, individuals leverage family or social ties to expedite access to education, healthcare, employment and administrative procedures, such as the renewal of an identity card. As a result, the quality and speed of services being delivered are subject to the social standing of the connection rather than to objective criteria and regulations. In Jordan, wasta is an obstacle to fair public service delivery to young people and citizens at large (TIMEP, 2022[42]). Data from the Global Corruption Barometer (2019[41]) suggest that 25% of survey respondents in Jordan have used personal connections to access basic public services, such as education and healthcare, compared to 54% in Lebanon and 39% in the Palestinian Authority. Courts and public utilities, such as electricity and water services, were the sectors most concerned (Transparency International, 2019[41]).
In general terms, young people can also encounter nepotism, a form of favouritism, which is characterised by the exploitation of power by someone in an official position to provide a favour to a family member or friend engage with public institutions and public officials to access certain public services (Transparency International, 2024[43]). Indirectly, young people can also suffer from political corruption or the manipulation of policies, institutions and rules of procedures in the allocation of resources and financing by political decision-makers (Transparency International, 2024[43]). Political corruption diverts public resources away from the centre of society and their intended use, such as improving education, employment, healthcare and social welfare outcomes (OECD, 2022[12]).
Indeed, when resources are siphoned off, the intended beneficiaries may face more expensive or unmet needs. Embezzlement of educational funds, bribery in admissions processes, and nepotism can also hinder equal opportunities, preventing deserving students from accessing educational resources and scholarships. Similarly, if employment opportunities are unfairly distributed based on personal connections rather than merit, it can limit professional growth and risk the career prospects of the younger population (OECD, 2020[15]).
Oversight and redress mechanisms
Independent oversight and complaint redress mechanisms play a fundamental role in protecting and promoting the principles of accountability and integrity in public service delivery. For instance, JIACC has established several channels through which citizens can issue complaints, including a hotline service, website and social media, in addition to the possibility of submitting complaints in person. Despite important progress in establishing mechanisms for reporting instances of corruption, the OECD interviews revealed that existing complaint mechanisms to report abuse (overseen by JIACC), low quality (overseen by service providers) or lack of access to public services (overseen by line-ministries and service providers) exhibit shortcomings.
Currently, young people in Jordan are not always aware of and make use of the existing complaint mechanisms. Building on the existing feedback mechanisms (see Chapter 3), including the Bekhidmatikum (“At your service”) platform handling complaints, inquiries and suggestions in regards to public procedures and services, further efforts could focus on expanding their availability and promoting uptake among young people (OECD, 2021[26]). For example, OECD interviewees underlined that the Ministry of Health developed a complaint mechanism, but those questions remained as to how it was used to inform public service reengineering or quality enhancement. MoPPA seeks feedback from young people via meetings with youth groups at universities, clubs, and centres, and engagement through the ministry’s website and its social media accounts. While these initiatives are welcome, OECD interviews suggest that further efforts are needed to increase awareness among young people and to build capacities and incentives among public officials to effectively follow up.
At the governorate level, different grassroots initiatives led by young people have emerged to report instances of corruption in service delivery. For instance, in the framework of the local policy development project (USAID/Al Hayat, 2023[44]), selected initiatives focused on monitoring public services and the work of local administrations (Al Hayat, 2023[45]). For example, with the objective of enhancing healthcare services in Madaba, young people used questionnaires to monitor service delivery and published a report with recommendations highlighting instances of corruption and wasta in the distribution of medicine. Initiatives implemented in Ajloun, Karak, Salt and Zarka mobilised young people to monitor education services, environmental impact and municipal work more broadly. Moreover, through the Nazaha project, JIACC and Rasheed for Integrity and Transparency are providing financial support to civil society organisations to use social media and digital tools to reinforce accountability at the community level in Al‑Karak, Ein Al-Basha, Irbid, Ma’an, Madaba, Ramtha, Rseifeh, Sahaab, Salt and Zarqa. However, it appears that none of these initiatives has been translated into a formal programme with sustainable funding or embedded in the work of national or local authorities.
The digitalisation of public services
To improve access, transparency and efficiency, the government of Jordan has undertaken efforts to gradually digitalise public services and expand communication with the public through online platforms. More than 40 e-services were adopted in ministries such as the those of Justice, of Industry and Trade, and of Social Development (BTI, 2022[46]) with the intention to streamline bureaucratic processes and improve oversight and recordkeeping, and minimise entry points for corruption. Moreover, to promote political accountability, plenary sessions of the parliament are now being livestreamed on YouTube and Facebook (BTI, 2022[46]).
While digitalising public services was widely seen by OECD interviewees as an effective way to curb entry points for corruption, not all households in Jordan have access to the Internet. The digital divide disproportionally affects households with less financial means. According to the Jordan Department of Statistics, 8.6% of households without Internet access refer to the cost of service and 6.2% point to the cost of equipment as the main reason (Department of Statistics, 2021[47]). The 2022 Inclusive Internet Index places Jordan 60th globally and 9th among MENA economies, underscoring that further efforts are needed to address the gap in access to digital technologies and digital literacy (see Figure 4.4).
As long as a digital divide persists, public services should be made available both online and offline and due consideration should be given to integrating relevant services in one place to reduce the complexity of access for young people. With this objective in mind, Portugal elaborated guidelines, an online platform and dedicated one-stop shops to facilitate young people’s access to important services that support their transition to an autonomous life (see Box 4.12).
The government of Portugal developed the ON@218 guidelines to advise young people (17-23) on ways to access and benefit from public services. The guidelines have been accompanied by an online platform featuring “youth-friendly” language and relevant public services organised by “life events” to ease their uptake.
Co‑ordinated by the Administrative Modernisation Agency (AMA), citizen shops, citizen spots and business spots have also been established offline to support the uptake of public services by (young) citizens and businesses. These one-stop shops gather in a single space the interfaces of relevant service suppliers as well as other public and private actors to share resources and minimise costs. They target especially groups that might find it more difficult to interact with the state for different reasons, including young people, the elderly, migrants and Roma communities.
Citizen shops are physical spaces where public and private entities provide face-to-face support to citizens in the delivery of key services. There are currently 59 citizen shops concentrated in and around the Lisbon Metropolitan Area.
Citizen spots are helpdesks delivering over 200 public services mediated by local public servants through a hybrid model that facilitates access to both onsite and digital services. At present, there are 710 citizen spots located in town halls and post offices.
Business spots, similar to citizen spots, provide onsite support targeted to private sector actors. Large and small businesses can seek guidance across 31 available locations on matters related to legalising their activity, regularising their fiscal activity and to comply with other obligations with the state.
In addition, AMA has gradually introduced the use of mobile units to provide on-the-go support for harder-to-reach locations.
Source: OECD (2023[48]), Civic Space Review of Portugal: Towards People-Centred, Rights-Based Public Services, https://doi.org/10.1787/8241c5e3-en.
Note: The graph depicts the positioning in the ranking based on the index score
Source: Based on EIU (2022[49]), Inclusive Internet Index 2022, https://impact.economist.com/projects/inclusive-internet-index/2022/country/Jordan.
Following the issuance of the Law on the Election to the House of Representatives of 2022 and the Political Parties Law of 2022, this section will explore the opportunities for young people in Jordan to participate in political life, as well as barriers to encourage their participation in elections, run as candidates and perform successfully in elected positions, in particular as they pertain to the integrity and accountability of the process.
Historical context of political party activity
The political reform in Jordan has been announced as an important process to foster young people’s participation in public life and bring forth parliaments that are dominated by strong parties with policy agendas, which would ultimately form a government (TIMEP, 2022[50]).
However, political parties in Jordan are traditionally viewed as lacking broad support (Yom and Al-Khatib, 2022[51]). This is in large part due to the decades-long ban, which has had lingering effects on Jordan’s present political participation. As part of a series of political reforms in the 1990s, political parties were legalised again in 1992.
Since 2001, various initiatives and committees have been implemented, reflecting ambitions at the highest political level to improve political party life. To this end, the Royal Committee to Modernize the Political System was formed by King Abdullah II in 2021. The committee was divided into six subcommittees focusing on elections, parties, constitutional amendments, local administration, youth and women. It was tasked to recommend legislation which would create a political and legislative environment “conducive to the active engagement of youth and women in public life” (King Abdullah II, 2021[52]). Following several months of deliberation, the committee proposed a ten-year roadmap of gradual democratisation (Petra News, 2021[53]). From over two dozen proposals, the Law on the Election to the House of Representatives and the Political Parties Law were approved in 2022. Moreover, the Cabinet approved in March 2023 Bylaw No. 15 on the financial contribution system for supporting the political parties, which entitles licensed political parties to secure financial contributions, the amount of which is determined by the share of votes the party secures in electoral districts, the number of seats won, and the share of elected women, young people (25-35 years) and candidates with a disability (Article 4/A). The 2024 general elections in September were the first since the new laws and by-laws were adopted.
Already in 2015, responsibility for licensing and registering political parties was transferred from the Ministry of Interior to MoPPA, which is also mandated to empower young people and women in political life. In 2022, with the issuance of the new law, the mandate for licensing and registering political parties was transferred to the IEC. However, MoPPA continues to lead government efforts to raise awareness for political reform and its implications and to encourage the participation of all groups in society in political life.
OECD interviewees broadly welcomed the political reform but also cautioned that a gradual development was needed to “get used to political parties” and that large-scale awareness-raising programmes were needed to inform citizens, including young people, about the new conditions to engage in political life.
Key changes introduced by the 2022 Law on the Election to the House of Representatives and Political Parties Law
The OECD Recommendation of the Council on Creating Better Opportunities for Young People (OECD, 2022[12]) stipulates that youth participation in civic and democratic processes should be promoted at all levels and that young people should be aware of and empowered to exercise their democratic rights (OECD, 2022[15]). In line with that ambition and driven by the objective to bring about “a qualitative leap in political and parliamentary life” (King Abdullah II, 2021[52]), the political reform in Jordan envisages to increase the political participation of young people and women through different mechanisms.
Key to the new laws is the objective to gradually increase over the next election cycles the allocation of seats to national party lists and reduce the number of independent members of parliament who, at present, hold a dominant position in the lower house (Yom and Al-Khatib, 2022[51]). According to Article 8/C of the Law on the Election to the House of Representatives of 2022, in the general electoral list 41 seats are allocated based on the closed list proportional system (...) to be formed by party lists in the 2024 elections. Article 71 stipulates that the proportion of seats allocated to parties and party alliances is no less than 50% of all seats when electing the twenty-first Parliament and no less than 65% of all seats when electing the twenty-second Parliament.9
To establish a political party, a minimum of 1 000 founding members is required, who must be residents of at least six governorates, provided that their number is not less than 30 people from each governorate. The percentage of young people between 18 and 35 years of age shall not be less than 20% of the number of founders. Moreover, the percentage of women should not be less than 20% of the number of founders according to Article 11.
Article 8/C in the 2022 Law on the Election of the House of Representatives stipulates that a young man or woman under the age of 35 years shall be among the first five candidates in the party list and that at least one woman shall be among the first three candidates as well as among the next three candidates. As of 24 September 2024, 38 political parties are registered with 36 878 out of 96 016 political party members (38%) aged below 35 years according to the IEC.
Moreover, on 18 June 2022, a bylaw regulating political party activities within universities came into effect to facilitate students’ involvement in Jordan’s “political and partisan future” (Jordan News, 2022[54]). The bylaw forbids the discrimination of students in higher education institutions based on their political views or engagement in political party-related activities on campus.
Roles and responsibilities in the implementation of the political reform agenda
As the government entity in charge of following up on the implementation of the political reform agenda, MoPPA prepared an action plan to define the roles and responsibilities across relevant ministries, including the ministries in charge of education, higher education, culture, youth and labour. The action plan was approved by the Cabinet and disseminated by the Prime Minister and an inter-ministerial committee was formed to facilitate co‑ordination. According to MoPPA, it has also engaged with civil society organisations to gather public opinion and raise awareness. In January 2024, MoPPA developed a monitoring report to take stock of the implementation of recommendations issued by the Royal Committee (Government of Jordan, 2024[31]). MoPPA has further led programmes to raise awareness among young people for the 2022 laws through the Participation for All campaign, which kicked off in August 2023 (see Box 4.13).
MoPPA initiated the “Your Voice Your Future” initiative, an awareness and educational campaign to enhance political inclusivity and encourage participation in the elections, focusing on increased engagement among young people, women and local communities. According to MoPPA, 50,000 participants were reached through theatre performances and 383 awareness and education activities across all governorates by October 2024. In collaboration with international and local partners, the ministry worked with the MoY to organise awareness sessions in youth centres and lectures in schools and universities. Additionally, awareness raising and educational videos were uploaded on its social media platforms, accumulating nearly two million views according to the ministry.
MoPPA has also distributed thousands of copies of the constitution, the 2022 Law on the Election to the House of Representatives and Political Parties Law as well as brochures on democracy and civic education. Future plans include a new programme to strengthen political parties’ capacities.
Source: Based on replies to the OECD questionnaire and interviews.
Besides MoPPA, the MoE and the Ministry of Higher Education have played an important role in the political reform (see Box 4.14). The MoE was responsible for introducing changes in the curriculum to cover topics related to citizenship, democracy and integrity in grades nine, ten and eleven. It also oversees parliamentary student councils in schools, which provide an important space for developing young people’s practical skills to participate in public life. According to the Ministry of Higher Education, changes to the curriculum also include new courses on political parties and elections, which are compulsory for all majors in public and private universities. Reportedly, the ministry also plans on introducing a bachelor’s degree focused on young people’s participation in political life and parties and establishing a platform for distinguished students to present positive role models, including in the political sphere. While further activities to raise awareness among university students for the changes in the bylaws are planned, the lack of dedicated funding was seen as a barrier to rolling out more activities. The IEC participated in both committees led by the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Higher Education respectively.
School parliamentarian councils and student unions
School parliamentarian councils exist for 5th graders and older since the 2010/11 academic year. These councils are elected every year by pupils to participate in the preparation and review of school development plans and facilitate communication between pupils and the school administration, as regulated by the instructions of the parliamentary councils in public and private schools (No. 8 for 2010). The councils can also conduct research and studies on issues of concern to the school and local community and propose solutions in co‑operation with educational counsellors and civil society organisations, and they are involved in preparing initiatives to improve the educational process, school environment and the relationship with the local community. According to the MoE, through these councils, the ministry aims to prepare a generation of leaders who can assume responsibility, communicate effectively, address various situations, promote the spirit of belonging to their country, develop democratic practices and foster constructive dialogue and the values of tolerance and coexistence. According to JIACC, several awareness-raising lectures on national integrity standards and the importance of combatting corruption have been organised together with members from these councils.
The National Programme Imprint
Since 2017, the National Programme Imprint has been organised by the MoE in co-operation with IEC to promote active citizenship by promoting values of belonging to the country and loyalty to the Hashemite leadership as well as ethical principles and values. Through activities such as scouting, volunteering and participation in cultural, artistic and sports initiatives and community service, this programme supports students in showcasing their talents, developing new skills and engaging in dialogue, thus fostering a culture of tolerance. The initiative targets 9th and 10th grade students in public schools and has reached a total of 79 575 beneficiaries as of 2023 and another 8 800 students in primary education since.
Programmes to improve classroom environments and problem-solving
The MoE co‑operated with the organisation Children Without Borders and the Japan International Co‑operation Agency (JICA) to implement a project to “Enhance the model of supportive educational activities in government schools”. This programme was implemented in 27 schools distributed across 3 education directorates in the field. Events, activities and competitions were held in government schools under the supervision of the activities management, such as creative competitions (short stories, articles, public speaking), school debates, etc.
Educational counsellors in schools
As part of efforts to support young people in their transition to adult life, counsellors have been assigned to schools in Jordan. The role of an educational counsellor is to assist students in developing their personalities in all psychological, social, behavioural, professional and cognitive aspects to become active citizens contributing to their community. The number of counsellors amounts to approximately 2 600 across schools in Jordan.
Source: MoE (2011[55]), “Student parliamentary council elections in all schools in the Kingdom”, https://www.moe.gov.jo/node/454; replies to the OECD questionnaire and OECD interviews.
The IEC is implementing several initiatives for young people to acquire skills and experience for participating in the political discourse, including through the Ana Usharek programme (see Box 4.15). The IEC also runs the Electoral Justice Project and worked with the Judicial Council in 2020-22, training judges, lawyers and students at law schools on the Law on the Election to the House of Representatives and Political Parties Law of 2022. It foresees extending training to deputy governors, the police, intelligence and media to promote compliance and create an environment in which young people feel empowered to talk about politics.
Meaning “I participate” in Arabic, Ana Usharek is a comprehensive civic engagement programme aimed at fostering young people’s active participation in democratic processes, covering issues such as national identity, citizenship, political participation and parties, electoral process, legislation, rule of law and democracy. It also features sessions on the 2022 Law on the Election to the House of Representatives and Political Parties Law of 2022 and the by-law regulating party activities in higher education institutions, hate speech, leadership, and climate change, among others.
Launched in 2011, and financially supported by USAID, this initiative targets university students and community members and focuses on equipping them with knowledge and skills to engage in civic life. It includes three stages: (i) “I participate” (covering: national identity and citizenship, political participation and democracy, electoral process, political parties, legislation and the rule of law, regulation of student party activities in higher education institutions, hate speech, leadership, climate change); (ii) “I participate +” (covering: community dialogue, research and needs identification skills, electoral systems, electoral law, parties law, parliament, local administration, fake news, leadership and climate change); and (iii) “I participate Fellowship” (covering: facilitation skills, advanced political parties research/solution papers, climate change, convince me competition for fellowship students). Programme participants go through each stage, with the final stage providing most opportunities to gain practical experience.
The programme is active across all governorates, covering all higher education facilities with offices on the ground in 40 locations. Between 2022-24, according to information provided by IEC in September 2024, more than 27 000 sessions were organised with the participation of more than 240 000 young people. Moreover, 440 sessions were organized at universities, such as dialogue sessions, practical exercises of the electoral process and sessions with the deanship of student affairs, the judiciary, mock trials, and awareness campaigns.
Following a five-year period (2018-23) in which the programme was co-led by the National Democratic Institute and the Crown Prince Foundation, it is since implemented by the IEC.
Source: Based on OECD questionnaire and interviews.
Given the cross-cutting nature of the political reform agenda, effective co‑ordination and collaboration across government entities and with the IEC is crucial. OECD interviews suggest that there is significant scope to strengthen cross-sectoral co‑ordination to promote coherence and coverage, especially in terms of conducting outreach and awareness-raising events. OECD interviewees also raised the need to identify more sophisticated performance indicators to effectively track the implementation of the MoPPA-led action plan, which, at present, lacks indicators and targets to measure outcomes.
Changing Jordan’s political culture and perception of (young) citizens
Civil society organised interviewed by the OECD broadly welcomed the political reform and its objective of increasing the participation of women and young people in political life. Survey findings from 2023 show that a majority of 65% of respondents across all age groups are willing to vote for a political party advocating for enhanced inclusion of young people (IRI, 2023[10]). However, despite these encouraging developments, more needs to be done to change Jordan’s political culture and the perception of (young) citizens in the country.
OECD interviews pointed to persistent challenges, notably gaps in awareness and compliance in relation to the 2022 laws. They also underscored that structural issues must be considered, such as the cost of participating in political life, the dominance of a tribal-based political culture and the lack of trust among young people in political institutions, notably political parties and the parliament. Concerns about the lack of awareness among young people are confirmed by a survey conducted in September and October 2022, which revealed that 79% of university students in Jordan had not been aware of the recommendations put forth by the Royal Committee to Modernize the Political System (NAMA, 2022[7]). In addition, findings from another study suggest that 74% of Jordanians were unaware of the Royal Committee for Political System Reform, formed in 2021, and only 44% were optimistic about the committee’s potential when the survey was conducted in mid-July 2021 (JCSS, 2021[56]).
Interviewees raised concerns about whether young people joining political parties for the first time were genuinely involved in decision-making and positions of influence or rather mobilised for the sake of fulfilling the new legal requirements. Opportunity and financial costs were regarded as significant barriers as political involvement remains a costly endeavour, especially for young people who are at a higher risk of being employed in informal work or seeking jobs. OECD interviewees also pointed to a lack of space for young people to practice democratic decision-making and acquire the skills and competencies needed to successfully perform their duties as elected officials.
Underlying many of the concerns raised by OECD interviewees is the persistent distrust among (young) citizens in political parties and the performance of the parliament. A (2022[59]) study conducted by the Center for Strategic Studies on political participation among university students found that more than three-quarters (78%) viewed the performance of political parties in Jordan as unsuccessful so far. Reasons for non-affiliation mentioned by respondents include disinterest in political parties (32%), lack of confidence in parties (25%), as well as wider concerns about possible repercussions. These findings are consistent with other survey findings from 2022, indicating that an important majority of the population in Jordan remained sceptical that further developing political parties could improve political reforms (IRI, 2023[57]).
To address high levels of distrust in political parties and parliament and strengthen young people’s skills and competencies to engage in political life, various initiatives have been developed, led by government and non-governmental stakeholders (see Box 4.16).
The MoY Political Institute for Youth Leadership Development
The Political Institute for Youth Leadership Development is implemented by the MoY to promote young people’s participation in public life and decision-making. The youth parliament and youth government projects aim to promote active citizenship, belonging and loyalty among young people, develop skills and competencies and raise awareness of their constitutional and legal rights and duties:
The Youth Parliament Project consists of 40 young members, who gather in eight committees focused on legislation, laws and regulations. They regularly meet with relevant ministries to discuss relevant policy developments.
The Youth Government Project consists of 50 young members, tasked to prepare proposals and solutions across 10 themes in the public sector and to explore ways of implementing them in partnership with relevant ministries and stakeholders from civil society, international institutions and the private sector.
Young people are selected based on a call for expression of interest, which is issued by the MoY, and a review of their curriculum vitae, a research paper and interviews. The programme spans one year and is currently being implemented for the third time. According to the MoY, it envisions expanding this initiative to the city level.
The Partisan Dialogue Platform
Rasheed for Integrity and Transparency (Transparency International - Jordan) together with the IEC, launched the Partisan Dialogue Platform in August 2024. The platform provides a tool allowing young people to compare their political orientations to political party programmes, provides a space for dialogue between young people and political party representatives, and allows civil society to present issues of concern to the attention of political party representatives.
The King Abdullah II Fund for Development’s Parliamentary Fellowship Project
Based on an open call for applications, around 150 young people aged 20 to 30 are selected based on a 2-stage process (application, personal interviews) to assist members of the House of Representatives in their day-to-day work. Selected young people receive a salary of around JOD 250 (around EUR 315).
Support provided by the selected young people to members of parliament (MPs) includes research assistance, providing information on draft laws and other issues discussed by the parliament and its committees. The project seeks to build a generation of young people who are aware of the role of the parliament and its legislative and oversight role, create young leaders capable of bringing positive change, encourage youth participation in political life, and provide practical training to refine the skills set of young people, as well as to strengthen the performance of parliament in the present and future. All participants undergo theoretical training, followed by a 6-month practical experience. The trainings cover basic skills, such as giving presentations and strengthening communication skills, as well as knowledge about political life in Jordan, the concepts of democracy and research skills. According to the project website, the project has so far trained around 300 young men and women.
School of Politics implemented by the Netherlands Institute for Multiparty Democracy (NIMD)
The NIMD School of Politics Initiative targets politically active individuals aged 19-33, irrespective of their party affiliation. The competitive programme annually selects a limited number of young people, offering a comprehensive curriculum on constitutional aspects, political theory, public speaking and more. Alumni have participated in discussions on the Royal Committee for Political Reform Agenda. The NIMD also envisages future work on a voter compass.
Source: Based on replies to the OECD questionnaire and OECD interviews; KAFD (n.d.[58]), Projects, https://www.kafd.jo/Projectst.aspx.
Despite these notable initiatives to build young people’s awareness, skills and competencies, OECD interviewees from the government institutions in charge of implementing the political reform expect that a couple of election cycles might be needed for citizens to understand and embrace the legal changes.
Interviewees further highlighted the need to better clarify the distribution of roles and responsibilities among key institutions, notably MoPPA and the IEC. According to interviews with civil society representatives, their presence across governorates was considered weak, suggesting that more efforts were needed to reach young people across the territory, including in more remote regions.
Corruption as a barrier to young people’s political participation
Beyond the challenges discussed above, broader challenges impede young people from participating in political life in Jordan, some of which relate to the transparency, integrity and accountability of the political process. In the Transparency International 2023 Corruption Perceptions Index,10 Jordan scores 47, a drop of 2 points from 2021, decreasing in 4 out of 8 categories that measure the government’s ability to reduce corruption in various institutions, including bribery, nepotism, favouritism and the abuse of public funds and position by officials (Transparency International, 2022[59]).
According to OECD interviewees, these multifaceted challenges also impact young people’s participation across various stages of the political process. The use of personal connections and influence in government and other appointments (e.g. candidacy) poses a challenge to fair and equal treatment, which may deter young people who typically have built less social capital than older people. The next sections will discuss how exposure to corruptive practices, such as wasta, nepotism, bribery and vote buying, create an uneven level playing field for young people in their role as voters, candidates running in elections and elected officials.
Young people as voters
In Jordan, overall turnout in the last parliamentary elections in 2024 remained low, with only 32% of eligible voters casting their ballots according to IEC, compared to 30% in 2020 and 36% in 2016 (Ma’ayeh and Sweis, 2021[60]). According to information provided by IEC, out of a total of 2 295 706 eligible voters below the age of 35 years, 715 811 (31.18%) casted their ballot, slightly below overall turnout.
Various factors impact young people’s participation in elections, with interest in politics playing a crucial role. Notably, 52% of young people (18-29), compared to 46% among those aged 50 or more, reported being “very uninterested” in politics in 2018 in Jordan, only surpassed by Egypt in the MENA region (77% among young people) (Arab Barometer, 2018[61]). In comparison, an average of 24% of young people across OECD countries express no interest in politics (OECD, 2021[11]). Participation in elections may also be hampered by a lack of confidence in the ability of voting to influence political priorities and direction. A study conducted before the 2020 elections in Jordan found that almost 40% of surveyed young people reported that their tribal affiliation influences their voting behaviour (Ma’ayeh and Sweis, 2021[60]).
The study aligns with broader observations on the impact of tribalism on past electoral dynamics in Jordan. For example, the European Union Election Observation Mission in 2016 highlighted the influence of tribal alliances in shaping candidate lists (EU, 2016[62]).
While neither the IEC nor JIACC collect quantitative data on the exposure of young people to corruptive practices when voting, OECD interviews suggest that, when it occurs, it poses significant impediments to their participation in political life. Young people may be discouraged from participating in elections due to concerns about the fairness of the process. Moreover, corruption, whether perceived or experienced, not only erodes trust in political institutions but also reinforces negative perceptions of political participation as a fraught and compromised endeavour.
Young people exposed to corruption during the elections are encouraged to report such instances to the IEC. Complaints on violations to the integrity of elections can be made via a call centre, which transfers relevant cases to a specialised committee for investigation, as well as via social media. The committee conducts investigations directly or may transfer the case to competent entities for further action. While the 2024 report is yet to be finalised, according to the 2020 report, there were 757 cases of election propaganda violations, 163 reported cases of vote buying (some of which were transferred to public security/prosecutor) and 40 reported violations of the instructions of the electoral headquarters (with headquarters being closed and transferred to the public prosecutor and the administrative governor as a result) (IEC, 2020[63]). The IEC also provides training to young people to promote awareness and compliance with the regulations, including through simulations.
JIACC is not involved in examining reports of corruption and undue influence during elections. However, it holds the power to investigate such cases in parliament and government with the possibility of lifting immunity and transferring cases to the responsible court. JIACC has also supported awareness-raising activities among young people in co‑operation with the MoE and MoY, including through lectures at the MoY‑hosted summer camps. JIACC indicated it plans to reach more young people outside Amman in co‑operation with the MoY and youth centres. It has also partnered with the National Centre for Curriculum Development in the reform of the curriculum and setting up initiatives to raise awareness for integrity with specific programmes for pupils aged 14 and older and students aged 17-22. The Curriculum Administration within the MoE, in turn, plays a role in reviewing and editing educational material (i.e. textbooks, manuals, activities) produced. Reportedly, plans are underway to create integrity clubs for university students. JIACC also seeks to qualify teachers11 through a dedicated platform and training material, which has reached 42 750 teachers as of late 2023.
Despite these notable efforts, feedback from the interviews with stakeholders from the subnational level suggests that the IEC and JIACC lack visibility and their impact across governorates is perceived as limited. At the same time, their role was seen as critical in raising awareness and building skills and competencies in the field of ethics and integrity among young people and fostering understanding and exercise of their civic rights.
Young people as candidates in elections
The Political Parties Law of 2022 (Article 11/3) and the Law on the Election to the House of Representatives of 2022 (Article 8) define young people as individuals aged 18-35.12 According to IEC data from 24 September 2024, there are currently 38 registered political parties. Earlier data submitted suggests that most political parties have between 1 000 and 2 000 members and that only a few parties significantly exceeded the minimum requirement of 1 000 members as set by the Political Parties Law of 2022. For instance, as of June 2023, only 2 registered political parties had more than 5 000 members, whereas 24 parties had less than 2 000 members. As of 24 September 2024, a total of 36 878 political party members (or 38% of all party members) were below 35 years according to IEC, highlighting that data on political party membership and composition is updated on a daily basis and therefore subject to significant changes.
In the 2024 parliamentary elections, 220 candidates were aged below 35 years (78 female, 142 male) according to IEC, compared to 221 candidates (13.2% of total candidates) aged between 30 and 40 in the 2020 parliamentary elections and 725 candidates aged 25-40 years in the last subnational elections (IEC, 2023[64]).As discussed above, the still recent endorsement of the 2022 laws and the formation of new political parties raises questions about the maturity of political party programmes.
In a 2022 survey, 87% of university students in Jordan stated that they are “somewhat uninterested” or “very uninterested” in joining a political party and taking part in political life (NAMA, 2022[7]). Moreover, financial constraints pose significant challenges for young candidates aspiring to run for elected office. The registration fee of JOD 500 (around EUR 630) and refundable collateral of JOD 2 000 (around EUR 2 500) for each party list exclude an important share of young people running for office who cannot afford to register. Unlike politicians with business backgrounds, young people, especially women, lack the financial means to engage effectively in political campaigns.
While not unique to Jordan, ageism and other social norms persist because young candidates lack the experience and social networks to run successful campaigns (OECD, 2021[11]). According to OECD interviews, senior tribal leaders are often perceived as more promising due to their extensive network of social connections and influence to attract public services and resources to their community. In turn, opportunities for skills development and for attaining decision-making positions are frequently obstructed for young politicians due to societies’ preference for more experienced individuals in elected leadership roles. To set certain preconditions against the risk that new political parties form alongside tribal affiliations, the Political Parties Law of 2022 introduced a requirement that, to register, political parties would need to mobilise members from across at least six governorates.
While the Law on the Election to the House of Representatives of 2022 was welcomed as a step in the right direction by OECD interviewees, they also expressed concerns about the possibility that women and young people within political parties might be instrumentalised to fulfil legal requirements (e.g. nomination in internal committees).
Young people as elected officials
In the 2024 parliamentary elections, a total of 17 candidates aged 40 years and below (12%) successfully competed for one of the 138 seats in the House of Representatives according to the IEC (see Table 4.1). According to MoPPA, the ministry regularly monitors the performance of young MPs, for instance by recording the number of times elected officials ask questions in parliamentary sessions.
The political reform agenda foresees that, supported by the 2022 laws, stronger political blocs and programmes will form and gradually decrease decision-making based on personal relationships and tit-for-tat arrangements. However, OECD interviews also suggest that societies’ perception of the (future) role of the parliament is yet to change as part of a broader change in Jordan’s political culture to align with this ambition.
Importantly, young MPs can act as role models for other young people aspiring for a political career and promote accountability by bridging the trust gap between young people, political parties and the parliament. For instance, the young MPs interviewed by the OECD frequently meet other young people to inform them about their political work. Some also report hosting in educational institutions, including public and private schools, to discuss issues around political participation and parliamentary decision-making.
Exposure to corruption presents a significant barrier for young elected officials, impacting their effectiveness in various ways. Insights from OECD focus group discussions organised with young MPs and elected officials at the subnational level in November 2023 reveal that the lack of trust in the election process stands out as a major challenge. This lack of confidence not only diminishes the participation of young people in political life but also hampers public engagement in the political process. Although the role of the IEC in addressing this challenge was acknowledged, more efforts were considered important, especially at the governorate level, to sensitive young people for detecting and countering corruptive practices.
Furthermore, the issue of corruption, particularly associated with “black money”, was cited as a concern in OECD interviews and continuous work to promote ethical standards and provide guidance was needed. As elected officials, (young) MPs receive a code of conduct and a commission exists within the parliament that is in charge of the guidelines to promote ethical behaviour and integrity. Moreover, JIACC has investigated cases in parliament and government and can lift MPs’ immunity to transfer the case to the relevant court. However, young MPs had diverging views on whether these measures were sufficient and effective. While some expressed a clear understanding of the objectives and content of the code of conduct, others suggested that more training was needed to disseminate and practice ethical guidelines.
Against the background of Jordan’s ambitious reform agenda, this chapter has identified opportunities and barriers for young people to actively shape it, thus reinforcing public sector integrity and accountability. Despite the significant impact of the reform package on young people’s lives, it finds that young people continue to face several structural barriers to making their perspectives heard in policymaking. Likewise, while notable initiatives exist to mobilise young people to monitor public service delivery, they tend to suffer from the lack of sustainable funding. Challenges also persist as regards the participation of young people in political life, some of which concern the integrity and accountability of the process.
To address these challenges, the box below lists a number of priorities for different Jordanian stakeholders in line with the OECD Recommendation of the Council on Creating Better Opportunities for Young People (2022[12]).
Consult and engage young people systematically on decisions affecting their lives across all relevant areas of policymaking and public service delivery
Ministries, subnational authorities and independent institutions (e.g. JIACC) should gradually remove barriers to the participation of young people and youth stakeholders in the design, implementation and monitoring and evaluation of policies, strategies and programmes, including in the context of the political and public sector reform agenda and in support of initiatives aimed to reinforce public sector integrity.
Create an enabling environment for youth to act as partners in policymaking and hold government accountable by protecting civic space for young people and youth stakeholders and upholding their civil and political rights.
Promote the meaningful and systematic participation of young people in all relevant areas of policymaking, including in Jordan’s national integrity agenda, by harnessing digital technologies, applying a clear and unified methodology, and building skills and competencies among public officials and youth stakeholders, and allocating adequate resources and tools, in line with the objective of Jordan’s 5th National Action Plan for the Open Government Partnership (Commitment 4).
Provide opportunities for youth stakeholders to engage in structured and meaningful dialogue with decision-makers at the national and subnational levels, for instance through the creation of (an) independent youth umbrella organisation(s).
Scale up local youth-led initiatives to monitor the performance and integrity of public service delivery by strengthening capacities to collect, manage, use and share data, provide sustainable funding and reinforce feedback and redress mechanisms to enhance impact.
Issue public communication across all ministries and independent institutions that is responsive to young people’s media habits and preferences, employing tailored messages, tools and channels, for instance in co-operation with youth stakeholders.
Strengthen co-operation and co‑ordination between MoPPA, the IEC, the MoY, JIACC and the MoE and Ministry of Higher Education in rolling out awareness and capacity-building programmes to inform, consult and engage young people in Jordan’s political, public sector and integrity reform in partnership with education and training institutes and young people’s social networks (e.g. families, peer-to-peer approaches).
Create effective systems for the collection, use and sharing of data disaggregated by age to inform priorities in the implementation of Jordan’s political, public sector and integrity reform.
Promote the participation of young people in political life and their representation in positions of political influence in line with the objectives of Jordan’s political reform agenda.
Ministries, subnational authorities and independent institutions (e.g. IEC) should systematically raise awareness among young people for the Law on the Election to the House of Representatives of 2022 and Political Parties Law of 2022 and facilitate young people’s participation in political life as voters, candidates and elected officials, including by safeguarding the integrity of all relevant processes.
Roll out systematic formal and non-formal programmes to increase young people’s interest in politics, voter turnout, civics and citizenship more broadly.
Address financial constraints (“cost of politics”) and other barriers for young candidates to run campaigns, among others, by developing young candidates’ skills and competencies in developing political (party) campaigns and programmes and promoting initiatives to address ageism and other restrictive social norms.
Support young elected officials to perform their duties and act as role models for other young people aspiring to pursue a political career, for instance by promoting their skills and professional development, and issuing clear guidance and support to promote ethical behaviour.
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← 1. According to the OECD Recommendation of the Council on Creating Better Opportunities for Young People (OECD, 2022[12]), “youth” refers to a period of transition from childhood into adulthood, which is characterised by significant changes in young people’s lives and the consolidation of their autonomy. According to this definition, “young people” are considered individuals aged 15 to 29 to allow for comparison of outcomes across countries and facilitate standardisation of data collection by age group. However, this range can vary depending on the topics and indicators.
← 2. According to the United Nations Convention Against Corruption (2004[65]) the term “corrupt behaviour” includes bribes, mis use of resources, embezzlement, trading in influence, abuse of functions, illicit enrichment, money laundering, concealment and obstruction of justice. In turn, public integrity is defined by the OECD as the “consistent alignment of, and adherence to, shared ethical values, principles and norms for upholding and prioritising the public interest over private interests in the public sector” (2017[13]).
← 3. Wasta is understood as using personal connections for obtaining an advantage of gain, for instance in the access to public services.
← 4. Civic Space is defined by the OECD as “the set of legal, policy, institutional and practical conditions necessary for non-governmental actors to access information, speak, associate, organise and participate in public life” (2022[25]).
← 5. Public communication is defined by the OECD as “any communication activity or initiative led by public institutions for the public good. It is different from political communication, which is linked to the political debate, to elections or individual political figures and parties. Public communication activities can include the provision of information, as well as consultation and dialogue with stakeholders” (2021[34]).
← 6. The CoG refers to “the administrative structure that serves the executive (president or prime minister, and the cabinet collectively)”. The CoG includes entities referred to in various countries as: the Chancellery, Cabinet Office, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, Privy Council Office, Office of the President, Executive Office, etc.
← 7. Audience insights are defined by the OECD as “the conducting of research into audiences to gain a deeper understanding of their motivations, impeding factors, fears or barriers, as well as their understanding of the subject to be communicated and their media consumption habits” (2021[34]).
← 8. Ministries that were represented in the Royal Committee include: Ministry of Education, Ministry of Political and Parliamentary Affairs, Ministry of Youth, Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, Ministry of Culture, Ministry of Government Communication, Ministry of Social Development, Ministry of Endowments, Islamic Affairs and Holy Places, Ministry of Labour, Ministry of Digital Economy and Entrepreneurship, Jordan Olympic Committee, Jordanian National Commission for Women (Government of Jordan, 2024[31]).
← 9. As per the law, 65% is the minimum share of seats that parties can eventually reach in the House of Representatives, but government counterparts pointed that it is expected that the percentage will be higher, especially with parties winning seats in local districts.
← 10. Each country’s score on the Transparency International index is a combination of at least 3 data sources drawn from 13 different corruption surveys and assessments. These data sources are collected by a variety of reputable institutions, including the World Bank and the World Economic Forum.
← 11. The following training courses are held to enhance integrity: Initiated in 2022, the national integrity standards compliance course is given to teachers and administrators to be one of the mandatory conditions. The new course targets new teachers who have been appointed by the Ministry of Education. As part of the course to date, professional ethics has been a core area of focus. An awareness workshop was given to all employees of the MoE’s centre, and a workshop on a code of professional conduct and public service ethics in 2022.
← 12. Articles 11(3) and 8 respectively.