This chapter analyses Northern Ontario’s well-being across economic, social, and environmental indicators relative to Canadian and international benchmarks to identify key regional strengths and challenges linked to the mining industry.
Mining Regions and Cities in Northern Ontario, Canada
Abstract
Northern Ontario has a significant legacy in the natural resources sector and plays an important role in Canada’s critical minerals supply chain. The region is Canada’s top gold producer, a leading supplier of nickel and platinum group elements and home to one-fifth of the country’s identified critical minerals, with 23% of the total exploration spend in Canada. The minerals and metals sector has brought important economic benefits to communities in Northern Ontario located near operations notably through jobs, relatively high wages, and lower unemployment rates, including for Indigenous Peoples whose income is 16% higher in mining subregions of Northern Ontario than in non-mining subregions, as of 2020. Between 2006-20, Indigenous peoples in mining areas of Northern Ontario narrowed the income gap with the regional average (–19.2 percentage points), which was nearly twice as fast as non-mining areas (–11.1 percentage points.).
However, gains from mining have been unevenly felt across Northern Ontario. Subregions in Northern Ontario that do not specialise in mining record a 6% lower median income than those specialised in mining. Despite progress, there is still economic disparities between Indigenous Peoples and non-Indigenous Peoples with an almost 30% higher unemployment rate and 13.5% lower income for Indigenous Peoples in Northern Ontario compared with the regional average. The region has also experienced demographic challenges with weak population growth (2.3% between 2001-21) that is worse in less diversified and small economies that are dependent on natural resources. This suggests that while mining provides positive economic opportunities to those inside the sector, some areas have struggled to maintain population, especially young people, which has been driven in part by cyclicality in the sector and reduced job opportunities in other sectors.
While Northern Ontario has 50% higher tertiary education levels than OECD mining regions and outperforms in other social outcomes, challenges in accessibility of housing and healthcare persist, particularly for Indigenous Peoples. The region reports lower life expectancy and 25% more adults with at least one underlying health condition than the national average. Health indicators are notably worse for Indigenous Peoples, particularly in fly-in-communities with high suicide rates, prevalence of opioid abuse, and the country’s highest concentration of water contamination warnings (referred to as drinking-water advisories). Housing is equally strained, with Indigenous Peoples twice as likely to live in poor housing conditions than the rest of the population, which reflects overall difficulties for land availability across the region for housing and industrial developments. These social challenges not only harm well-being of those living in the region but also regional attractiveness, driving youth-outmigration, and exacerbating skills shortages in the mining sector.
Northern Ontario has significant environmental assets, stewarded by First Nations for millennia. The region is currently experiencing strong performance on GHG emissions (almost 60% lower emissions intensity than the rest of Canada) and leading environmental restoration practices. However, industrial legacies and unequal access to clean energy have created environmental challenges such as abandoned mines, contaminated water, and diesel-reliance, particularly in remote First Nations communities.
This chapter analyses Northern Ontario against Canadian and international benchmarks to measure the region’s performance across economic, social, and environmental indicators, identifying key strengths and challenges. The below section provides a high-level overview that is expanded upon within the chapter.
Economic strengths and challenges:
Northern Ontario experiences relatively high incomes, led by mining areas: Median income (after tax) in Northern Ontario overall is 4% higher than the Canadian average. Mining is seen to have a positive impact on income with 6% higher median incomes in mining vs non-mining subregions and 16% higher total median income for Indigenous peoples in mining vs non-mining subregions. While there is still a 14% disparity between Indigenous and regional median incomes (2020), the income gap decreased by 19.2 percentage points in mining subregions between 2006-20 compared with 11.1 percentage points in non-mining subregions, suggesting a positive impact of mining on income growth.
On average, unemployment persists across Northern Ontario despite high vacancy rates, especially in the mining sector: In 2025 the unemployment rate in Northern Ontario was 7.5% despite 5% vacancy rates across the region and an anticipated shortage of 3 500 workers for the mining sector in 2040, particularly in green collar roles. Moreover, Indigenous Peoples’ unemployment rate is 27% higher than the regional average, as per 2021 data, indicating untapped opportunities to mobilise the labour force for future industry demands.
Northern Ontario performs worse than Canadian and international benchmarks on employment indicators, although Indigenous Peoples sustained the growth of the regional workforce: The average employment rate in Northern Ontario is 5% lower than Canada’s rural regions and 25% below OECD mining regions, decreasing 3% between 2016 and 2021. However, the employment rate of Indigenous Peoples remained stable over this period, highlighting Indigenous Peoples’ responsiveness to local labour demand.
The mining sector is a major source of employment in the region: The share of employment in Northern Ontario in the mining sector (6%) is considerably higher than the national average (1.2%) and other mining jurisdictions in the country such as Saskatchewan (3.2%) and Manitoba (0.7%). Indigenous Peoples represent an important asset to the sector making up almost 15% of the mining workforce in 2021, compared with 3% of Ontario’s mining workforce and 9% of Canada’s mining workforce.
The region has a relatively high concentration of small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs), with many supported by the mining industry, especially those in Indigenous communities: The region has almost three times more businesses per 1 000 people than the national average with 900 mining supply and service companies and many Indigenous businesses in the sector supported by over 140 impact-benefit agreements. However, these are concentrated in mining hubs, thus limiting their employment impact across the entire region.
Innovation in the region remains below national and international benchmarks: Northern Ontario has less than half the patents per inhabitant than the average of Canada’s rural regions (34.9 patents per 1 million inhabitants vs 54.9) and 80% of the OECD mining regions average (44.3), suggesting a potentially limited adaptability and a lack of diversification amongst Northern Ontario’s business ecosystem. However, in the mining sector, patenting is not the only way companies protect their inventions and processes: an alternative frequently used in the industry is undisclosed or confidential information (trade secrets) (Doagoo et al., 2022[1]).
Social strengths and challenges:
The region faces limited population growth, and its population is ageing: Between 2001 and 2021, Northern Ontario’s population growth was only one-fifth of the population growth across Canada’s rural regions (2% vs 10%). This is due to a rapidly ageing population, at almost 30% of people over the age of 65 compared with 19% nationally. More economically diversified areas performed better on population growth during this period (e.g. Muskoka +25%) compared with resource-dependent areas (e.g., Rainy River -12%), suggesting that while mining provides positive economic opportunities to those inside the sector, they lack diversified economic opportunities to attract a range of residents. Recent strategic emphasis on increased critical minerals extraction in the region could, however, lead to improved demographic outcomes in these areas.
Northern Ontario has a relatively large Indigenous population, offering opportunities to help address the region’s slow population growth. Ontario is home to one-fifth of the nation’s total Indigenous Peoples, as the leading province in Canada, with almost 80% living in the north of the province. The Indigenous population in this region may therefore offer opportunities to address current or anticipated skills gaps and labour shortages.
Northern Ontario lacks affordable housing, and conditions are worse for Indigenous peoples despite relatively good housing quality in population centres. While Northern Ontario has a smaller proportion of housing in ‘core need’ (does not meet adequacy, suitability, or affordability standards) than the provincial average (10% vs 14%), the share of Indigenous Peoples experiencing low quality housing conditions (14%) is double the rate reported by the overall population (7%).
The region experiences strong education outcomes with high tertiary education: Over 64% of people in Northern Ontario aged 25-65 have a tertiary education, compared with under 47% across Canada’s rural regions. Despite challenges (e.g. difficulty attracting young talent in the workforce) the region has a strong educational ecosystem to support the mining sector. Mining subregions record a slightly higher education outcomes with 65% of those in mining subregions being tertiary educated compared with 63.7% in non-mining subregions.
Health gaps persist in the region with lower life expectancy than nationally and across OECD mining regions: Northern Ontario has a higher proportion of the population suffering from underlying health conditions than the national average (by 7.3 percentage points). Health outcomes are also worse for Indigenous Peoples, particularly in remote fly-in communities, which face additional challenges such as suicide rates and prevalences of prescription opioid abuse, reaching between 35%-50% in some communities.
Environmental assets and challenges:
Rich ecological assets with invaluable First Nations stewardship: Northern Ontario comprises 90% of Ontario’s land mass, 25% of Canada's wetlands, and expansive boreal forests that make up 74% of forest cover in the province, which is critical for carbon sequestration, biodiversity protection, and liveability of the region (Government of Ontario, 2021[2]). The local ecosystems have been stewarded by First Nations Peoples since time immemorial.
Emissions intensity is low across the region compared to Canadian and international benchmarks, yet many remote First Nations communities rely on diesel power generation: Thanks to the region’s clean energy grid, Northern Ontario emits 56.5% lower GHG emissions per unit of electricity than the national average. Despite the prevalence of clean energy in the region, about 24 remote First Nations communities rely on diesel for power generation, creating environmental and social challenges.
The region has a higher share of green land cover than the average across Canada’s rural regions, yet some unresolved mining legacies persist: Northern Ontario has an 87% share of green area compared with 75% across Canada’s rural regions. While mining’s direct disturbance on land is across a minimal part of the region, the sector has still contributed to ecological disturbance above and below ground with over 5 000 abandoned mine features.
Persistent challenges with water and soil contamination impact remote First Nation communities: Historical industrial activity that occurred when there were no, or inadequate environmental safeguards have contributed to soil and water contamination issues in the region. Over 7 000 lakes in a 17 000 km² area of Northern Ontario (around Sudbury) have acidified due to industrial activity (Keller, 2009[3]), which has disproportionately impacted First Nations communities that relied on the lands and waters for sustenance, cultural practices, and livelihoods. Furthermore, many remote First Nations communities in Northern Ontario live under drinking water advisories as a result of a variety of factors not limited to industry activity and exacerbated by limited funding and source water issues. Across Northern Ontario, 23 First Nations communities are under long-term drinking water advisories, the highest proportion in Canada.
While mines are typically located in specific areas above ore deposits, their economic, social, and environmental impacts often extend across local communities and Indigenous populations, involving broader functional labour markets and regional economies. Assessing the region’s capacity to harness benefits of mining for development requires national and international comparisons to understand its main challenges and assets. This chapter benchmarks Northern Ontario’s performance against other Canadian areas and OECD mining regions.
The OECD collects comparable data at two regional levels, with Territorial Level 2 (TL2) representing the first administrative tier of subnational government (e.g. provinces in Canada) and Territorial Level 3 (TL3) representing smaller regions that make up each TL2 region (e.g. census divisions in Canada). These classifications enable statistical comparisons to be drawn at an international level.
While Northern Ontario is often recognised as a geographic or policy region, it is not an official administrative region. Northern Ontario is an area inside the TL2 region of Ontario, making up a considerable part of its land mass (over 90%), yet a small proportion of its population (approx. 6%). It is comprised of twelve TL3 regions (census divisions) that will be used for analysis across this chapter (hereafter referred to as subregions). These include Algoma, Cochrane, Greater Sudbury, Kenora, Manitoulin, Muskoka, Nipissing, Parry Sound, Rainy River, Sudbury, Thunder Bay, and Timiskaming. With First Nations as the traditional owners of what is today known as Northern Ontario, analysis is needed to understand their main priorities and impacts from mining, when data is available. While they are included in the different well-being data for the 12 districts, additional analysis across the chapter is done to compare Indigenous outcomes specifically with other Indigenous Peoples in Canada and with Indigenous Peoples living in rural and non-mining regions in Canada.
Given this, the analysis undertaken in this study to benchmark trends and the performance of the region domestically and internationally proceeds as follows:
Canadian national average: Individual responses from national census
Saskatchewan: Saskatchewan has a similar population as Northern Ontario (approximately 1.1 million compared with approximately 940 000 respectively) as well as a similar mining production value (CAD 15.7 billion in Ontario compared with CAD 19.4 billion in Saskatchewan).
Manitoba: Manitoba’s mining contributions to the provincial economy are similar to Northern Ontario with Ontario’s mining sector contributing approximately 3% to GDP and in Manitoba this contribution is around 2%.
Canada rural regions: All census divisions in Northern Ontario are classified as rural regions under the OECD typology, which distinguishes rural from urban regions. This typology also provides classification for non-metropolitan regions into three categories, those with access to a metropolitan region (NMR-M), those with access to a small/medium city (NMR-S), and those that are remote (NMR-R). All census divisions in Northern Ontario are classified as rural, thus comparing them with other rural regions across Canada (using census data) can control for rural characteristics in order to assess whether issues are specific to Northern Ontario or common across rural Canada. This OECD rural definition does not use other rural definitions in Canada such as the StatsCan Rural Small Town definition.
OECD mining regions benchmark: The OECD Mining Regions Toolkit identifies indicators across economic, social, and environmental dimensions to better understand the effects of mining on regional development. It covers 50 mining regions in the OECD (methodology for identification of ‘mining regions’ in Annex A). Where possible, this toolkit was used to compare the performance of Northern Ontario against other TL3 mining regions across OECD countries.
Indigenous Canada: This is data from the national census of all persons across Canada who identify as First Nations, Métis and/or Inuk (Inuit) and/or those who report being Registered or Treaty Indians (that is, registered under the Indian Act of Canada), and/or those who report having membership in a First Nation or Indian band.
Defining ‘mining subregions’ based on employment location quotients (LQ): The degree of regional specialisation in mining is obtained by comparing the share of mining employment in the region, with the share of mining employment in the country. An LQ value greater than 1 implies that the region is more specialised than its respective country. The employment specialisation on mining, based on LQ values, is ranked from highest to lowest. For example, a region with an LQ above 1.5 means that the region has 1.5 times more workers in mining activities than their own country (OECD, 2022[4]). In this case, applying a threshold of LQ above 1.5 to the Northern Ontario census divisions results in five mining subregions (Cochrane, Greater Sudbury, Sudbury, Timiskaming, and Rainy River) and seven non-mining subregions (Muskoka, Nipissing, Parry Sound, Manitoulin, Algoma, Thunder Bay, and Kenora).
Northern Ontario, with a population of 943 899 people and 17.76% identifying as Indigenous (Statistics Canada, 2021[5]), is a vast and diverse region located within the province of Ontario. It makes up over 90% of the province’s land mass but is home to only 6% of its population (Landsby, 2023[6]), including 106 First Nations communities, which is 78% of the First Nations communities in Ontario (Ontario Government, 2018[7]).
The administrative region of Northern Ontario is made up of smaller census divisions , referred to hereafter as ‘subregions;’ Algoma, Cochrane, Greater Sudbury (city), Kenora, Manitoulin, Muskoka, Nipissing, Parry Sound, Rainy River, Sudbury (region), Thunder Bay, Timiskaming (Figure 2.1). Many local districts are natural resource-based, relying significantly on mining, forestry, and energy and there is a large francophone population (approximately 17% of the population) (Northern Policy Institute, 2016[8]).
Local governance is managed directly by single-tier municipalities (cities, towns, townships). In unorganised territories, governance and basic services (e.g. fire, water, garbage) are often provided by Local Services Boards or District Social Services Administration Boards (DSSABs) under provincial oversight. Most First Nations communities are self-governing or governed under the Indian Act. Federal economic support is provided by the Federal Economic Development Agency for Northern Ontario (FedNor), which works across the same census divisions to invest in community-driven development, infrastructure, business growth, and Indigenous and rural partnerships across the region (Government of Ontario, 2023[9]). The region also has access to other federal programs and services such as employment insurance from Employment and Social Development Canada.
Of the census divisions that make up Northern Ontario, this report classifies five out of the twelve as ‘mining subregions’ (Cochrane, Greater Sudbury, Sudbury, Timiskaming, and Rainy River), following the OECD definition of mining specialisation (location quotient), given that their proportion of workers in mining is 1.5 times above the average of the country (see methodology section for further explanation).
Northern Ontario is situated on the traditional territory of the Anishinaabe peoples, including the Ojibwe, Odawa, Potawatomi, Saulteaux, Algonquin, as well as the Cree and Oji-Cree Nations. Northern Ontario encompasses six primary treaties between Indigenous Peoples and the Crown, which continue to shape the region’s legal and political framework pertaining to land use and Indigenous rights. In analysing outcomes of Indigenous Peoples in Northern Ontario, this chapter will measure a range of economic, social, and environmental outcomes of these communities, against broader regional averages of the entire population. The data on Indigenous Peoples in this chapter includes persons who identify as First Nations, Métis and/or Inuk (Inuit) and/or those who report being Registered or Treaty Indians (that is, registered under the Indian Act of Canada), and/or those who report having membership in a First Nation or Indian band (refer to Annex A for terminology).
Source: (Government of Canada, 2024[10])
The global demand for critical minerals is expanding, largely powered by increasing use of digital systems, telecommunications, green energy technology, and defence applications. For instance, global demand for lithium rose 30% between 2022 and 2023; demand for nickel, cobalt, and graphite expanded by 8-10% (IEA, 2024[11]); and demand for nickel is projected to be 14 times higher in 2040 than in 2021 (Ontario Mining Association, 2025[12]). This, coupled with an increasing desire to onshore critical mineral extraction and production, has attracted more investment in critical minerals across the region. Subsequent policy shifts have supported Canada in accelerating critical minerals extraction, including The Canadian Critical Minerals Strategy (2022). Northern Ontario’s mining sector is strategically placed as a leader in responsible mining and a major source of critical minerals and other metals, producing:
26% of Canada’s total mineral production value (NRCAN and Ontairo Ministry of Mines, 2023[13])
81% of Canada’s platinum group elements (NRCAN, 2023[14])
56% of Canada’s cobalt (NRCAN and Ontairo Ministry of Mines, 2023[13])
43% of Canada’s gold (NRCAN and Ontairo Ministry of Mines, 2023[13])
44% of Canada’s copper (NRCAN, 2023[14])
39% of Canada’s nickel (Government of Canada, 2023[15])
From forestry to mining: a recent economic shift for Northern Ontario
Mining has played a key role in fostering resilience across Northern Ontario, helping communities absorb the economic shocks caused by the decline of the forestry sector. While forestry was a major economic pillar throughout the 20th century, global competition, falling demand, and outdated infrastructure led to major mill closures and job losses from the early 2000s onward. Between 2000 and 2018, Ontario’s forestry sector shed over 35 000 jobs and saw a 60% drop in harvest volumes. Towns like Smooth Rock Falls, Kenora, and Fort Frances were among the hardest hit Box 2.2 (Government of Ontario, 2020[16]).
The former forestry towns faced significant population decline in the early 2000s, struggling to retain and attract residents. Declining populations weigh on the economic development of a place. In Canada, federal and provincial funding for services and economic development is often allocated on a per capita basis, placing sparsely populated regions such as Northern Ontario at a disadvantage. They receive less total funding for services, such as healthcare and education, despite delivery costs being higher due to geography and remoteness (Penno, Gauld and Audas, 2013[17]).
Throughout the 20th century and into the early 2000s, forestry was a key pillar of Canada’s and Northern Ontario’s economy with the establishment of pulp and paper mills, sawmills, and logging operations. The forestry sector provided significant employment nationally, with over 74 000 employees in 2001, many of which were based in Northern Ontario. It also provided significant economic opportunities for the region, especially through local SMEs supporting the industry.
Following the early 2000s, the sector declined significantly due to global competition and falling demand, high energy costs, and outdated infrastructure. This resulted in the closure of dozens of mills and significant job losses across the country. In Ontario alone, the province saw a loss of 8.9% of forestry jobs between 2001 and 2006. Between 2000 and 2018, Ontario’s forest sector shed over 35 000 jobs, and harvested volumes were down 60% compared with 2000. Key towns in the region that suffered from mill closures in the early 2000s include Smooth Rock Falls, Kenora, Kirkland Lake, Red Rock, Fort Frances, and Wawa Table 2.1.
Despite its challenges, Ontario’s forestry sector remains a significant contributor to the economy. In 2023, it generated over 137 000 direct and indirect jobs and federal and provincial funding programmes and initiatives (e.g., the Forest Biomass Action Plan) continue to encourage economic development in the sector. Support for forestry is crucial to ensure economic diversification of the region, and the legacy of the sector provides many important lessons for the mining industry. Furthermore, both sectors can work together in fostering environmentally responsible economic development. For instance, infrastructure developed for mining operations, such as roads and power lines, can also benefit forestry activities if shared adequately. Moreover, wood products can complement mining activities by providing materials for workforce housing.
Northern Ontario’s mining subregions
Five of the census divisions within Northern Ontario can be considered mining subregions as per the OECD classification for mining specialisation. These include Cochrane, Greater Sudbury, Sudbury, Timiskaming, and Rainy River. These subregions also contain Census Metropolitan Areas that can be understood as areas where decision-making and activity related to mining takes place (as noted in ‘Included Metropolitan Areas’ column of Table 2.2).
The five mining subregions that make up Northern Ontario’s mining sector are all characterised by over 6% of their population working in the sector and an employment rate of over 45%. Most areas except Greater Sudbury have a very low population density, highlighting the geographical expansiveness of these regions. Despite its significant presence, mining is not the leading employer in any of the regions, with healthcare being the primary employer across all districts.
Source: OECD author’s elaboration
Key existing and future mines
Northern Ontario hosts 27 producing metals mines, including nine active critical minerals mines (Figure 2.2) and ten processing facilities with over 25 advanced critical minerals projects that include processing, recycling and exploration. (Ontario Mining Association, 2025[12]). This includes increasing capacity for processing facilities, with companies looking to expand these capabilities in the near future. For instance, as of 2024, Canada Nickel is looking at building two processing facilities in Timmins (Northern Ontario Business, 2024[23]). However, the region faces numerous challenges in opening more essential critical minerals processing facilities such as high infrastructure costs, limited existing capacity, and permitting delays.
Across the region there is a strong appetite for mineral exploration. By the end of 2024, there were over 350 000 active mining claims in Ontario, many of which were located in the north. Exploration reached CAD 976 million in 2023, accounting for 23% of the total exploration spend across Canada (Ontario Mining Association, 2025[24]). Large critical minerals projects such as in the Ring of Fire region are in the pipeline and highlight the significant mineral potential in the region and companies’ willingness to undertake exploration and extraction in this area.
The following mines/processing plants were chosen based on production size. They include key gold mines and key critical minerals mines. For the complete table of mines in operations in Northern Ontario please see Annex C.
Strategic importance of Northern Ontario’s mining sector for global mineral supply chains and the green transition
The mining industry is a crucial economic driver in both Ontario and for Canada. The sector contributed over CAD 117 billion or approx. 4% of national GDP in 2023 (Mining Association of Canada, 2025[26]). Its contribution is greater for Ontario, nearly 3% (CAD 23.8 billion) of the total GDP of the province in 2023 (Ontario Mining Association, 2025[27]), and adding indirectly 1.3% of the provincial GDP from contributions linked to associated activities (CAD 8 billion). (Ontario Mining Association, 2025[12]). Resulting from decades of mining activity, Northern Ontario also holds significant mining know-how, a strategic asset in the current context of increasing critical mineral production to meet the green transition (explored further in Ch.4). The region is also recognised globally for its responsible mining practices. In the Fraser Institute’s 2023 Annual Survey of Mining Companies, Ontario ranked 15th out of 82 jurisdictions worldwide in the Investment Attractiveness Index, which evaluates both mineral potential and policy factors such as environmental regulations and community engagement (Fraser Institute, 2024[28]).
Mining is a significant employer in Ontario, supporting high-paying jobs for local, including remote and Indigenous, communities. As of 2022, the sector employed 22 000 people directly and 126 000 indirectly. Direct employees earn an average of CAD 150 000 per year, which is nearly double the provincial average, and 12% of the mining workforce identifies as Indigenous, compared to 3% across Ontario’s overall workforce (Ontario Mining Association, 2025[12]).
Northern Ontario outperforms the OECD mining regions and national averages across some economic, social and environmental indicators such as income, tertiary education level, and GHG emissions, yet lags in unemployment, population growth, and economic diversification. The region has a higher rate of tertiary education attainment than OECD mining regions and the whole of Canada, strong participation of women in the workforce, and an emissions intensity well below domestic and international benchmarks. Northern Ontario has a higher rate of unemployment than the Canadian average or OECD mining regions. Most notably, however, the region’s population growth has been comparatively limited.
While Indigenous peoples in Northern Ontario outperform Indigenous Peoples in other parts of Canada and Canadian rural regions in indicators such as tertiary education and unemployment, they perform worse than the broader population in Northern Ontario on most socioeconomic indicators. This highlights the fact that Northern Ontario faces persistent structural barriers, impacting overall well-being for Indigenous peoples (Figure 2.3). The following section conducts an analysis of the social, economic, and environmental performance of Northern Ontario, with a focus on the role of the mining sector in influencing these outcomes.
Source: OECD author’s elaboration
Note: Value OECD mining regions=100
Northern Ontario’s GDP per capita outperforms OECD mining regions yet lags domestic performance
In 2025, mining, quarrying, and oil & gas extraction in Ontario (with most activity happening in the North) was one of the largest contributors to growth in the province. Real GDP by industry in Ontario rose 0.4% in the first quarter of 2025, following a 0.4% increase in the previous quarter, with the mining, quarrying, and oil and gas extraction sector growing by 1.4% (Statistics Canada, 2025[29]). As GDP specifically for the region of Northern Ontario is unavailable, analysis of some subregions can provide a snapshot of GDP per capita in the region. In 2021, the GDP per capita in the towns of Greater Sudbury (CAD 60 227) and Thunder Bay (CAD 65 298) was on average 13.6% lower than the Canadian national average (CAD 71 303) and slightly below Saskatchewan (CAD 66 470). In contrast, GDP per capita in these hubs outperformed Manitoba (CAD 57 400) and was 12.7% higher than the average of OECD mining regions (approximately CAD 55 681) (OECD, 2022[4]).1
While specific data on Indigenous economic contribution in Northern Ontario is difficult to obtain, studies of specific areas of the region indicate that, overall, Indigenous contributions to the local economy are significant. For instance, in Thunder Bay, a recent study reveals that Indigenous economic contributions to the mining sector (2.7%) are similar to the contribution of mining to Ontario’s overall GDP (approx. 3%) (Indigenous & Community Engagement, 2025[30]).
Northern Ontario outperforms benchmarks on income, showing higher median incomes in areas with mining
Northern Ontario on average has a higher median income (after tax) compared with other Canadian benchmarks, with mining activity having a positive impact on incomes. In 2020, Northern Ontario’s median income (after tax) (CAD 37 663) was approximately 3.8% higher than Canadian rural regions (CAD 36 280) and outperformed both the national average (CAD 36 800) and Manitoba (CAD 35 200), yet lagged behind Saskatchewan (CAD 38 400) (Figure 2.4) (Statistics Canada, 2021[5]). However, Indigenous income is lower than the average of Indigenous Peoples in Canadian rural regions.
Mining has contributed to higher incomes in Northern Ontario where active projects exist, yet high concentrated in some subregions. The median income (after-tax) in mining subregions is approximately 5.8% higher than in non-mining subregions (approx. CAD 39 000 vs CAD 36 900 respectively) (2020). For Indigenous Peoples this is also the case, with those living in mining subregions recording a 16.4% higher median income than those living in non-mining subregions. Mining is therefore seen to contribute to elevated median incomes in the region for both Indigenous and non-Indigenous Peoples. This is likely, in part, due to relatively higher wages associated with employment in the sector. For instance, mining across Ontario offers considerably higher wages than provincial averages at approx. CAD 150 000 per year (Ontario Mining Association, 2025[12]) compared with Ontario’s approximate average annual income of CAD 66 000 (OECD, 2023[31]).
Source: (Statistics Canada, 2021[5])
While Indigenous peoples still have a median income that is 13.5% lower than Northern Ontario’s average, this gap is almost three times smaller in mining subregions (5.8%) than in non-mining subregions (19%). This suggests a positive influence of mining on Indigenous living standards in these areas. The presence of mining also suggests a capacity for Indigenous Peoples to close faster their structural income gap with the region over time. Between 2006 and 2020, the income gap between Indigenous populations in mining regions and the regional average was narrowed by 19.2 percentage points, falling from 25% to just 5.8%. This is almost twice as fast as the reduction of the income gap in Indigenous non-mining regions by 11.1 percentage points (from 30.1% to 19%) (Figure 2.5).
Note: 2011 data is not included due to methodological differences in the National Household Survey, which was voluntary and not comparable to the mandatory censuses in 2001, 2006, 2016, and 2021.
Northern Ontario trails Canadian and international benchmarks on employment, despite high vacancies. Mining does, however, offer opportunities for improved outcomes
Employment across Northern Ontario lags behind benchmarks, although Indigenous Peoples sustain the regional workforce
Northern Ontario’s employment rate (50.8%) in 2021, was lower than Canada’s rural regions (53.31%), the national average (57.1%), Manitoba (59.1%), Saskatchewan (59.9%), and 25.1% below the OECD mining regions average of 67.8% (Figure 2.6). For Indigenous Peoples, the average employment rate in Northern Ontario in 2021 was 48.4%, which was 4.8% lower than the overall employment rate for the region, and 4.2% lower than the employment rate for Indigenous Peoples across Canada.
The region experienced a decrease in its employment rate between 2016 and 2021 of 3.1%, the highest decrease of the benchmarked regions (Figure 2.6). However, this trend contrasts with Indigenous Peoples’ employment trend that stayed stable over time. Additionally, Indigenous Peoples in mining areas in Northern Ontario overall had a 9.6% higher employment rate than Indigenous Peoples across rural non-mining regions in Canada. The comparatively stable employment rate of Indigenous Peoples suggests a responsiveness to local labour demand. In addition, higher employment in mining subregions highlights the potential for stronger Indigenous labour force participation across the entire region.
Note: Indigenous employment data not available across OECD mining regions. ‘Employment rate’ refers to overall employment rate including Indigenous and non-Indigenous Peoples.
Unemployment persists across the region despite high vacancy rates, yet Indigenous outcomes are improving overtime
Recent figures on unemployment fail to paint a more positive picture of the economic outlook in Northern Ontario. In 2025, Northern Ontario reported a higher unemployment rate (7.5%) than domestic benchmarks of Canada (6.9%), Manitoba (5.3%), and Saskatchewan (4.3%) and increasing approximately 63% from 2022 unemployment levels (Figure 2.7) (Statistics Canada, 2025[35]).2
Even with high unemployment rates, Northern Ontario had some of the highest vacancy rates across Canada at 4.9% compared with 3.8% for all of Ontario (2023) (Future Skills Centre, 2025[36]). This highlights the unique labour market challenges in Northern Ontario, where job vacancy rates exceed both provincial and national averages largely explained by skills mismatches and demographic challenges (ageing population and youth-outmigration) (Law, 2023[37]); (FedNor, 2024[38]). For the mining sector specifically, this is prevalent with the industry anticipating a shortage of 3 500 workers throughout the province by 2040, especially in green-collar positions (National Observer, 2024[39]).
Some towns in the region, however, performed better on unemployment than the regional and national averages, including Greater Sudbury (4.9%) and Thunder Bay (5.1%), highlighting the capacity of population centres within Northern Ontario to match labour supply and demand relative to limited job opportunities in more remote areas (Figure 2.8) (Statistics Canada, 2021[40]).
Note: Indexed to 2022=100. Unemployment rates for 2025 are as of January 2025. Calculated using statistics for Northeast and Northwest Ontario. These Economic Regions do not include Muskoka District that is included in other analyses of this paper.
Source: (Statistics Canada, 2025[41])
Note: Calculated using statistics for Northeast and Northwest Ontario. These Economic Regions do not include Muskoka District that is included in other analyses of this paper.
Indigenous Peoples in Northern Ontario experience higher unemployment rates compared with the regional average, yet this is improving over time and those in mining subregions tend to experience better outcomes. In 2021, the Indigenous unemployment rate in Northern Ontario was 13.5%. This was 27.4% higher than the average for Northern Ontario (10.6%) and higher than Canada (10.3%), Canada’s rural regions (9.7%), Saskatchewan (8.4%), Manitoba (8.3%), and OECD mining subregions (7.7%) as seen in Figure 2.9. It was, however, lower than the average unemployment rate for Indigenous Peoples across Canada (15.1%) and 11.2% lower than the Indigenous unemployment rate of non-mining rural regions in Canada (15.2%). This highlights that Indigenous unemployment is lower in Northern Ontario than elsewhere, yet disparities still exist between Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations.
High relative unemployment rates for Indigenous Peoples in the region are a result of structural barriers that impact labour market participation (discussed further in Ch.3). Economically speaking, barriers can include geographic isolation coupled with limited transportation and infrastructure to access training (creating skills mismatches) and employment opportunities (discussed further in the skills section) (Ministry of Training, Colleges, and Universities, 2015[43]). A lack of inclusive hiring practices and culturally appropriate work conditions can also inhibit Indigenous involvement in the labour market, with discrimination in the workplace contributing to higher unemployment rates amongst Indigenous Peoples across the region (Ontario Human Rights Commission, 2024[44]). Disparities in social outcomes that influence Indigenous unemployment in the region (e.g., education and housing) will be further analysed in the social section of this chapter.
Note: ‘Unemployment rate’ contains both Indigenous and non-Indigenous residents.
Source: (Statistics Canada, 2021[5])
While mining has historically posed negative economic, social, and environmental impacts on Indigenous Peoples and issues still persist (discussed further in Ch.3), certain economic opportunities have emerged from the sector for Indigenous communities, particularly through employment. The Indigenous unemployment rate in mining subregions in Northern Ontario is 12.3%. This is approximately 1.6 percentage points lower than the unemployment rate for Indigenous Peoples in non-mining subregions in Northern Ontario (13.9%) (Figure 2.9). It is also lower than the average unemployment rate for Indigenous Peoples across Canada (15.1%), and almost 20% below the unemployment rate for Indigenous Peoples in non-mining rural regions in Canada (15.2%). Unemployment for Indigenous Peoples has also improved over time in Northern Ontario, with even greater improvement in mining subregions. From the period 2001-21, Indigenous unemployment in the region decreased 33.5%, with mining subregions of Northern Ontario seeing a higher decrease in Indigenous unemployment rates at 38.7% between 2001 and 2021 (Figure 2.10). This highlights that while disparities exist, Indigenous economic outcomes, further assisted by mining sector opportunities, are improving.
Note: Index 2001=100. 2011 data is not included due to methodological differences in the National Household Survey, which was voluntary and not comparable to the mandatory censuses in 2001, 2006, 2016, and 2021.
Mining is a significant contributor to employment in the region, with strong Indigenous representation
In 2021, the mining, quarrying, and oil and gas extraction sectors made up 5.6% of employment in Northern Ontario, which increased 2.48% from 2016, ranking as the 7th largest employer in the region (Figure 2.11) (Statistics Canada, 2021[49]); (Statistics Canada, 2021[50]). Mining employment is also considerably concentrated in the province of Ontario, with over 25% of all direct mining jobs in the country located in Ontario (Ontario Mining Association, 2025[12]). The share of employment in the region in the mining sector is considerably higher than the national average (1.24%) and other provinces with mining in the country such as Saskatchewan (3.21%) and Manitoba (0.74%), signalling that mining is a major source of employment in the region (Figure 2.12).
In Northern Ontario, 5.2% of the Indigenous workforce is employed in the mining sector, which is considerably higher than the national average (1.6%) and Canadian rural regions (3.6%) as seen in Figure 2.12. Indigenous Peoples also represent an important asset to the mining sector, making up 14.6% of the total mining workforce in the region, which is on par with Indigenous representation across the total workforce in Northern Ontario (14.55%), and which is 64% higher than the national average (Figure 2.13).
Note: Calculated using statistics for Northeast and Northwest Ontario. These Economic Regions do not include Muskoka District that is included in other analyses of this paper.
Note: Calculated using statistics for Northeast and Northwest Ontario. These Economic Regions do not include Muskoka District that is included in other analyses of this paper.
Source: (Statistics Canada, 2021[5])
Source: (Statistics Canada, 2021[48])
Northern Ontario has a relatively strong SME ecosystem, with many supported by the mining sector, especially those in Indigenous communities
Northern Ontario’s small and medium-sized enterprises (SME) ecosystem perform remarkably well against the national average, displaying consistency over time and a strong appetite for entrepreneurship. In 2023, the region was home to over 72 000 businesses, nearly all of which are small or medium-sized enterprises (Government of Canada, 2024[10]). This number increased by approximately 9% between the period 2016-23 from 66 125 businesses to 72 042 (Figure 2.14), suggesting a strong regional appetite for entrepreneurship. In 2020, Northern Ontario had almost three times the number of businesses per 1 000 than Canada (87 businesses per 1 000 people compared with 32 businesses per 1 000 people respectively) (Figure 2.15). This density also remained consistent over the period 2016-21, suggesting a stable SME ecosystem across the region. Despite this, innovation remains below benchmarks with 34.9 patents per 1 million inhabitants compared with Canada’s rural regions (54.9) and the OECD mining subregions average (44.3), pointing to a measure of stagnation amongst Northern Ontario’s business ecosystem (OECD, 2020[52]).
Source: (Government of Canada, 2024[10])
Furthermore, despite persistent challenges in the region, namely geographic remoteness creating reduced access to markets, SMEs in Northern Ontario are performing positively across a number of indicators as displayed in Box 2.3.
Nearly all of Northern Ontario’s businesses are SMEs, meaning the below information largely applies to small and medium-sized businesses in the region.
Value of Northern Ontario exports increased by 45% from 2021-22 to USD 11 billion. In 2020, twice as many businesses said they were looking to expand sales into new markets over the next three years (vs 2017)
More high growth firms in the region; twice as many since 2016. However, more businesses reported no growth (6.3% increase)
Businesses are adopting new technologies. More businesses have gone digital (a 25.9% increase in websites from 2017 to 2020)
More businesses are owned by visible minorities, youth and those with a disability. However, there's a decline in the proportion of Indigenous-owned SMEs (by 3%), as well as SMEs owned by women (by 2%) and francophone individuals (by 2%)
More skilled and trades workers in the region to help close the labour gap among skilled workers; 13.5% increase in the number of people employed within the trades sector from 2017 to 2020
Source: (Government of Canada, 2024[10]).
Northern Ontario’s mining sector plays a significant role in supporting SMEs directly and indirectly in the region. Northern Ontario is home to over 900 mining supply and service companies (Northern Ontario Exports, 2024[54]), employing over 40 000 people (Ontario Mining Association, 2025[24]), suggesting significant contributions from the sector to this ecosystem. The province as a whole also produces more than CAD 10 billion worth of mining supplies and services each year, with much of this activity occurring in Northern Ontario (Ontario Mining Association, 2025[24]). Despite this, many of the SMEs supporting the mining sector are concentrated in mining hubs such as Greater Sudbury, which hosts almost 40% (over 345) of these businesses. This points to a concentration of this activity that is not evenly distributed across the region.
Indigenous entrepreneurship is significantly prevalent across the mining sector of Northern Ontario. Many Nations support mining operations through contracting services, that also support the employment of First Nations Peoples. As of 2023, there were over 142 active agreements between mining companies and Indigenous communities, with the many containing contracting provisions that support Indigenous supply and service companies. While data is unavailable for the entire region of Northern Ontario, specific examples provide an insight into the growing commitment of mining companies to Indigenous procurement across the sector. For instance, over the operational period of the De Beers Victor Diamond Mine, 38% of total mine expenditures were directed to Indigenous companies (De Beers, 2016[55]) and for the proposed Ring of Fire development. In another example, Wyloo Metals has committed to awarding CAD 100 million in contracts to Indigenous-led businesses (Wyloo, 2022[56]). These partnerships not only promote shared economic value but also facilitate community development and the establishment of Indigenous-owned enterprises within the mining supply chain (Ontario Mining Association, 2025[24]).
Northern Ontario experiences weak population growth, with stronger performance by Indigenous populations
In 2024, the population of Northern Ontario was 943 899 people, representing around 5.9% of the province of Ontario (Statistics Canada, 2024[57]). In 2021, there was an Indigenous population of 140 320 people in the region, representing over 17.76% of the population, a significantly higher proportion than across the province (2.86%) and across Canada (4.89%) (Statistics Canada, 2021[49]). It is also higher than similar international mining jurisdictions such as the Pilbara, Australia (8.41%) (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2021[58]); (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2021[59]) and Antofagasta, Chile (9.5%) (OECD, 2023[60]). Furthermore, Ontario has one-fifth of the nation’s total Indigenous Peoples, as the leading province in Canada, with almost 78% of Ontario’s First Nation communities located in Northern Ontario (Ontario, 2022[61]). Some 12.3% of Ontario’s Indigenous population lives on reserve, which affects socioeconomic outcomes and service provision compared to those who live off reserve (discussed further in Ch.3).
While the population of the region is expected to grow by 12% by 2046 compared with 2023 (Ontario Government, 2024[62]), the region has seen only a marginal increase in population of 2.3% between 2001 and 2021. This population stagnation is significant when compared with population increases over the same period across Ontario (24.7%), Canada (23.3%), Manitoba (19.9%), Saskatchewan (13.2%), Canada rural regions (10.9%), and OECD mining regions (9.9%) (Statistics Canada, 2001[32]); (Statistics Canada, 2021[5]). There are also significant disparities across Northern Ontario in population growth with a population decline of 5.7% in mining subregions between 2001 and 2021 and a population growth of 6.8% in non-mining subregions across the same period (Figure 2.16). This suggests that while mining subregions provide positive economic opportunities to those inside the sector, they lack diversified economic opportunities to attract a range of residents including women and young people.
Between 2001 and 2021 the Indigenous population grew on average by 71.6% in Northern Ontario, which is lower than the Indigenous Canadian population average for the same period (85.1%). While such significant population growth of Indigenous Peoples in Northern Ontario can be partially attributed to natural growth (increasing birth rates and increasing lifespans), it is likely mostly due to more people identifying as Indigenous across years and status changes. For instance, people answering the census who once did not disclose their Indigenous identity may have become more likely to do so. Moreover, amendments to legislation such as the Indian Act has restored Indigenous status to many individuals and their descendants (Statistics Canada, 2022[63]). This suggests positive changes in social attitudes towards Indigeneity and potentially improved trust in government processes, despite Indigenous data sovereignty remaining a priority for many communities.
Youth outmigration and an ageing population contributes to relatively low population growth in Northern Ontario
Youth outmigration in Northern Ontario is a persistent and concerning demographic challenge across the region, with most young people leaving the region to pursue economic and educational opportunities. This phenomenon refers to a pattern of young people (typically aged between 15-34) leaving the region for larger urban centres, such as Toronto. Young adults aged between 15-34 constitute the largest demographic leaving the region, surpassing all other age groups (Future Skills Centre, 2025[64]). Between 2001 and 2021, there were 18 500 people aged between 15-24 that left the region, making up 17% of 2021’s population of 15–24-year-olds.
On the broader population, youth outmigration such as this creates drains to economic potential and the weakening of rural communities. Many businesses in the region therefore struggle to attract new talent and rely heavily on immigration to fill workforce gaps (Canadian Manufacturing & Exporters, 2025[65]). This includes the mining sector having to hire foreign rather than local talent (Canadian Mining Journal, 2025[66]). In large part, this phenomenon can be explained by young people exiting the region to pursue education and job opportunities unavailable in Northern Ontario and also a lack of activities to entertain young people. For Indigenous communities, youth outmigration can pose other problems such as eroding cultural continuity and deepening socio-economic challenges, especially if systemic barriers prevent return.
Based on a survey of people who left the region, better economic and educational opportunities were the top reasons why young people left, alongside limited ways to enjoy free time. On average 57% of respondents stated that there were “some but not a lot” of job opportunities in their field within their community, with 43% stating job opportunities were something that “would make them stay in their community” (Northern Policy Institute, 2022[67]). In the same survey, nature scored highly in the question of what young people like about the region. On the opposite metric, many young people indicated having nothing to do (Northern Policy Institute, 2022[67]). This presents a clear opportunity to link the region’s natural assets with the appropriate programmes and infrastructure enabling year-round activities for young people.
The region’s ageing population is also creating challenges for Northern Ontario in retaining and increasing their population, meeting labour demands, and providing adequate healthcare, an issue exacerbated by youth out-migration. Currently, 28.8% of Northern Ontario’s population is over 65 years old (Figure 2.18), this is a significantly higher proportion than the national average (18.9%), Manitoba (17.1%), Saskatchewan (17.5%), and OECD mining regions (16.1%). However, the Indigenous population in Northern Ontario has a relatively smaller ageing population with 10.2% of the population over 65, compared with 9.5% across Canada. While this can represent positive dynamics such as higher fertility rates and a younger population structure, it also highlights health inequalities in the region that lead to premature mortality rates and thus fewer elderly members of the Indigenous Peoples population.
To maintain an adequate worker-to-dependent ratio, Northern Ontario needs to retain its current population and attract 8 100 new residents annually over the next 20 years (Future Skills Centre, 2025[64]), a challenge becoming increasingly more difficult due to the combined effects of an ageing population and youth outmigration. Increasingly, mining companies and providers in the region have to hire employees from outside the region or country. For instance, the Bucket Shop, an equipment provider in the region, hire around 10% of their workforce from outside Canada. Furthermore, ageing populations typically require more frequent and costly healthcare as well as the supporting infrastructure such as transport links to ensure accessibility to health centres. This places considerable strain on Northern communities with declining populations, as they struggle to receive the required funding to support their ageing populations (Barber, 2023[68]).
The region shows strong gender parity overall, yet weak representation of women in the mining sector
In 2021, the share of men to women in Northern Ontario was 99 men per 100 women (Statistics Canada, 2021[49]); (Statistics Canada, 2021[50]). This is relatively equal and performing better than Ontario where there are 96 men per 100 women (49% compared with 51% respectively) (Statistics Canada, 2021[5]). This was also the same for Indigenous populations with women making up 51.1% of the population.
The region also performs better on gender parity than many international mining jurisdictions such as the Pilbara in Western Australia, where the male to female ratio is 135 men per 100 women (57.4% compared with 42.6% respectively) (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2016[69]). It also more balanced compared to OECD Mining Regions (approximately 101 men per 100 women). In the workforce, women are well represented at 50.61% outperforming Saskatchewan (50.56%), OECD mining regions (49.97%) and Canada rural regions (47.6%) and falling just shy of Manitoba with 50.63% of the workforce female and 51.02% across Canada. Indigenous women are equally well represented, making up 50.34% of the workforce, compared with 49.84% in Canadian rural regions.
Despite the region performing well overall in gender parity, Northern Ontario’s mining sector experiences a significant gender imbalance in terms of participation in the workforce. In 2021, there were 18 355 men working in the mining and quarrying sector and 2 420 women. This is a gender ratio of 7.6 men per 1 woman, with women making up only 11.6% of the mining and quarrying workforce in the region (Figure 2.19) (Statistics Canada, 2021[49]); (Statistics Canada, 2021[50]). The region therefore performs worse on share of women employed in the mining sector than Manitoba (13.1%), rural regions across Canada (14%), Saskatchewan (18.1%) and the national average (14%), although all benchmarked areas evidently do not have gender parity across the sector.
Indigenous women make up 11.8% of the Indigenous workforce in the sector, representing slightly higher gender parity amongst Indigenous employees than the regional average (Figure 2.19). However, it lags behind Manitoba (14.6%), Saskatchewan (13.6%), Canadian rural regions (15.5%), and the national average (17.4%). Of the total mining workforce, Indigenous women make up 1.7%, yet if representation were equal across genders, Indigenous women should make up approximately 2.5% of the total mining workforce, highlighting an underrepresentation.
Source: (Statistics Canada, 2021[5])
Until 1978, the Ontario Mining Act excluded women from mining workplaces as it prohibited women from working underground (Mining Industry Human Resources Council, 2016[70]). This denied entry of women has had lasting impacts on the sector, leading to entrenched norms (such as some women being dissuaded from entering mining-related study options like engineering), recruitment practices, and workplace cultures that in some cases fail to be gender inclusive. It impacted the long-term development of frameworks necessary today to support female involvement in the sector such as childcare facilities and denied generational knowledge and networking/mentorship pathways that have been available to men for the past century.
Mining in Northern Ontario, as in many mining regions across the OECD, has long been perceived and experienced as a male dominated sector with masculine norms shaping the daily working environment, leadership styles and social dynamics (King, 2019[71]). Even with formalised diversity policies, informal culture on the ground can undermine these efforts and dissuade women from entering the sector. Research on women’s experiences in the mining sector in Greater Sudbury shows that many women working in the sector feel isolated or subject to gender-based discrimination and harassment (Blois, 2022[72]). This includes women struggling to gain acceptance and respect from male colleagues and feeling like they must be “one of the guys” to fit in. This study and others find:
47% of women working in equipment operation, trades, transportation, and other related occupations have experienced behaviours at work that sexually objectify and discriminate against them (Burczycka, 2020[73]).
70% of women interviewees were hesitant to report instances of harassment against them, many because it was their superior who harassed them (Blois, 2022[72]).
Despite this, many women interviewed for the study in Greater Sudbury (Blois, 2022[72]) expressed satisfaction with their roles, appreciating the work itself and the sense of accomplishment it brought and that they valued the “sisterhood” connections where they could find solidarity with other women in the industry. This presents important opportunities for the region where mining can be a fulfilling career choice for women, if on the ground workplace culture is addressed, ties between female employees are strengthened, and historically absent frameworks are created to support work-life balance. For instance, the median wage for women working in the mining sector in Ontario is CAD 1 600 per week, considerably higher than the national average at CAD 1 100 per week (Ontario Mining Association, 2025[12]); (LMiC, 2024[74]).
There are also specific intersecting barriers for Indigenous women in accessing quality employment in the mining sector. Indigenous women face unique systemic barriers such as limited access to education and training, racial and gender-based discrimination, and cultural and community obligations. Indigenous women across the mining sector in Canada are under-represented, with higher under-representation more marked in higher-paying and leadership roles (Mazer, Mills and Bouard, 2022[75]); (Nightingale et al., 2017[76]); (Cox and Mills, 2015[77]).
Northern Ontario performs well on education, but falls short on housing and healthcare outcomes
The index of remoteness in Canada measures the distance to all the population centres from a given populated community, providing a score between 0 and 1, with 0 being not remote and 1 being extremely remote. Northern Ontario on average scores approximately 0.4 on this index, with Muskoka being the least remote (a score of 0.2) and Rainy River census division being the most remote (0.6) (Figure 2.20). This suggests that on average Northern Ontario experiences higher levels of remoteness compared with the national average, creating challenges including costs for traditional service delivery methods.
Source: (Statistics Canada, 2021[78])
Housing quality In Northern Ontario is overall above national benchmarks, yet Indigenous Peoples face poor housing outcomes compared with the regional average
Northern Ontario faces a complex housing landscape, with both challenges and opportunities. The region faces housing shortages and a lack of housing quality, an issue particularly prominent in Indigenous communities. This influences the ability for the region to attract newcomers and known homelessness across the region surged by 204% between 2016 and 2024. Indigenous Peoples represent 45% of homeless people, despite making up only 17% of the population (Association of Municipalities of Ontario, 2025[79]). Housing challenges significantly impact well-being across the region and the ability of towns to take full advantage of new mining projects by hosting workers and consequently attracting new residents in the long term.
Over 32 000 households in Northern Ontario (approximately 10%) are in core need, meaning they fall below at least one of the adequacy, affordability, or suitability standards (Figure 2.21) (Statistics Canada, 2021[5]). While this is below the average for Ontario (13.8%) and consistent with the national average (approx. 10%), over 6 500 households including 5 300 on Indigenous reserves are not assessed for core housing needs (often due to data limitations). Furthermore, an additional 17 500 households do not qualify for assistance because they can technically afford median rent, despite living in substandard conditions. This means that 73% of inadequate homes in the region are excluded from core housing need metrics, potentially underrepresenting the need for housing support in the region (Northern Policy Institute, 2018[80]). The mining sector in Northern Ontario does not have a significant impact on the proportion of housing in core needs with 9.3% of housing in mining subregions within Northern Ontario in core need compared with 11.6% in non-mining subregions.
Source: (Statistics Canada, 2021[5])
There are also shortages of housing stock across the region, especially to support new mining activity. Issues with zoning for new residential land, high costs of construction, and limited local capacity in the construction sector limits new builds. For instance, within the city of Timmins, the cost of construction per square foot is over CAD 400 (Grant, 2024[81]), which can be higher than the cost of building in Toronto (ODIMA Construction, 2024[82]), making it unattractive for existing and new residents to build and difficult for local governments to replenish housing stock. There is also a short building season (4-6 months) due to long winters (Government of Canada, 2021[83]). The current lack of solutions for addressing these challenges prevents some areas of the region from providing housing for workers for new mining projects, often resulting in temporary camps and fly-in-fly-out or drive-in-drive-out arrangements instead of new residents contributing to the tax base (as has been the case in Geraldton during construction of the Greenstone Gold Mine).
Housing conditions for Indigenous Peoples across Northern Ontario are on average worse than overall housing conditions, with large disparities within the region. For instance, the share of the Indigenous population in the region living in unsuitable housing (meaning too many occupants to live comfortably) is 13.5% compared with 6.7% of the overall population (Figure 2.22). While this is higher than the national average (17.1%), Manitoba (24.9%), and Saskatchewan (25.8%), Indigenous Peoples still make up 48.9% of those living in unsuitable housing, despite being only 17% of the total population.
Note: ‘Share of population in unsuitable housing’ refers to the average across the entire population including both Indigenous and non-Indigenous Peoples.
Source: (Statistics Canada, 2023[84])
Northern Ontario performs well overall on education, yet key issues persist in securing a skilled workforce, particularly for the mining sector
Northern Ontario outperforms domestic and international benchmarks on education, with significant mining know-how and nation-leading education and research institutions that support the mining sector. However, Indigenous disparities exist, and the mining industry still faces challenges attracting a skilled workforce. Northern Ontario’s proportion of the population whose highest level of education is a secondary school is 77.1%, sitting below the average for Manitoba (79.1%), Saskatchewan (80%), and the national average (82%) as depicted in Figure 2.23. The share of the population that is tertiary educated3 is 64.3%, which is higher than the national average (57%), Canada’s rural regions (46.6%), and OECD mining regions (33.4%) (Figure 2.24). This suggests that there is a strong trend of educational progression across the region. Mining activities may have a positive impact on education in Northern Ontario with 65% of those in mining subregions in Northern Ontario being tertiary educated compared with 63.7% in non-mining subregions. Furthermore, Greater Sudbury a district with significant mining activity has the highest tertiary education rate of the region at 77.1%.
However, Indigenous students in Northern Ontario face additional barriers, including the need to leave their communities for both high school and post-secondary education, which leads to lower participation rates. Overall, 64.5% of Indigenous Peoples have a secondary school diploma as their highest level of education, compared with 77.1% across the broader population, yet only 33.3% have a tertiary education compared with 64.3% across the broader population.
Key challenges for mining sector skills in the region
Within Northern Ontario’s mining sector, the lack of a robust workforce pipeline is a critical challenge facing the mining industry (Ontario Mining Association, 2023[85]). While this presents issues in meeting the demand for workers to maintain current and future projects, it also represents a significant opportunity of employment pathways for young people in the region if the adequate education and training is provided and negative perceptions of the sector are addressed.
The remote nature of mining operations in Northern Ontario presents substantial challenges in attracting and retaining skilled workers. Although mining is a major employer in the region, it does not hold the same prominence across the province, and a significant portion of the mining workforce is recruited from outside the region, with some Fly-in-Fly-Out (FIFO) workers also not living in the region, highlighting an unavailability of workers or a potential mismatch between local skills and the type of workers needed for new projects. While specific statistics for Northern Ontario are scarce, the prevalence of FIFO practices in the region suggests a notable presence of non-local workers in the region’s mining industry, a direct result of the remoteness of mines and limited supporting transport infrastructure (Saxinger and Gartler, 2017[86]). This situation compels the industry to draw talent to remote areas, often competing with employers in more accessible locations where the majority of the workforce resides. The challenge is particularly acute for credentialed positions, where the supply-demand gap is evident, and the mining sector must vie for talent without the advantage of a local workforce base.
Furthermore, mining sector employers are increasingly at risk of losing their Indigenous talent. While specific data on Northern Ontario is unavailable, national surveys suggest that Indigenous peoples across Canada are significantly more likely than non-Indigenous employees to say they expect to leave the sector. In a survey conducted in 2016, 42% of Indigenous participants noted they will likely or very likely to look for work outside the Canadian mining industry in the next five years compared to 23% of non-Indigenous respondents (Mining Industry Human Resources Council, 2016[87]).
These educational disparities have significant implications for Northern Ontario's mining sector. The industry anticipates a shortage of over 3 500 skilled workers by 2040 in Ontario, driven by the growing demand for critical minerals essential for electric vehicles and green technologies (National Observer, 2024[39]). For instance, at Northern College in Timmins, the female participation in mining-related courses does not exceed 20%, an untapped wellspring of talent that is visible in Table 2.4.
The strength and diversity of mining education and training institutions in Northern Ontario play a critical role in supporting regional development and sustaining the mining ecosystem. By offering a mix of academic credentials, applied training, and innovation platforms, these institutions help to cultivate a local talent pipeline and improve workforce retention in remote communities. The training and education ecosystem of Northern Ontario is further expanded on in this report in Ch.4.
Northern Ontario faces worse health outcomes than nationally, particularly for Indigenous communities
Northern Ontario faces persistent disparities in health outcomes compared to the rest of the province and the country, despite strengths in healthcare training and innovation, with Indigenous Peoples facing worse outcomes. The region is home to leading institutions such as NOSM University, which has helped increase physician retention in rural and remote areas, and a growing network of community-based healthcare and research centres.
Between 2015 and 2017, life expectancy across Northern Ontario was approximately 79.3 years, which is below the national average of 82.1 years, and life expectancy in Saskatchewan (80.2 years) and Manitoba (80 years) (Statistics Canada, 2017[88]), yet only marginally below the average across OECD mining regions (79.7 years) (OECD, 2023[89]). While data on Indigenous life expectancy within Northern Ontario specifically is not available, the average life expectancy for Indigenous Peoples across the province of Ontario is 77.20. Considering the province overall has a higher life expectancy on average than Northern Ontario (82.6 years) suggests that Indigenous Peoples in Northern Ontario specifically will not only experience lower life expectancy than Indigenous Peoples in Ontario but also compared with non-Indigenous peoples in the region. Furthermore, the health region (classifications used to measure health data at the sub-provincial level across Canada) in Northern Ontario that has the lowest life expectancy rate at 76.6 years (Northwestern Health Unit) also has the highest proportion of Indigenous Peoples (approx. 37.3%), implying disparities may exist.
Alongside lower life expectancies, Northern Ontario also has a higher share of people with underlying health conditions than the national average, with Indigenous Peoples significantly more likely to suffer from underlying health conditions. In Northern Ontario, 37.2% of the population (18 years and older) have at least one underlying health condition. This is significantly higher than the national average (29.9%), Manitoba (29.3%), and Saskatchewan (31.2%). For Indigenous Peoples, data is not available specifically for Northern Ontario, yet across the province 47.1% of Indigenous Peoples (18 years and older) have at least one underlying health condition. Considering Northern Ontario performs worse than Ontario overall on this indicator (37.2% vs 35%), this suggests that Indigenous Peoples in the region face even greater disparity in terms of health quality.
Structural barriers and behavioural risk factors continue to drive some health challenges in the region. Northern Ontario’s sparse population and vast geography limit access to timely and consistent healthcare, particularly in isolated communities. In Northern Ontario, 86.5% of people report having a regular healthcare provider, which is higher than the average in Manitoba (84.9%), yet below the national average (88%) (Statistics Canada, 2025[90]). Preventable chronic illnesses are more common in Northern Ontario, and rates of smoking, alcohol use, and obesity are significantly higher than the provincial average. For instance, smoking rates are 26.0% in the Northeast and 22.9% in the Northwest, compared to just 17.3% in the province overall (The Globe and Mail, 2017[91]). Addressing these gaps will require sustained investment in healthcare infrastructure, culturally appropriate services, and preventative health initiatives tailored to the unique needs of northern populations.
Indigenous Peoples face compounded challenges in ensuring adequate health outcomes across the region. With 31 First Nations communities inaccessible by road, many First Nations communities in Northern Ontario lack hospitals or primary care facilities. Those with nursing stations are often under-resourced and lack culturally appropriate care. Moreover, mistrust in government services can deter residents from seeking medical assistance (Nguyen et al., 2020[92]); (Maar, 2018[93]). With poor housing conditions, as discussed earlier, overcrowding and poor-quality homes can increase the risk of respiratory and infectious diseases. Likewise, limited education or employment opportunities can lead to poor living conditions and chronic stress. These communities also often face poor water quality with many communities under long-term drinking water advisories (discussed in environmental section), and food insecurity due to the high cost and low availability of fresh food, contributing to high obesity rates, diabetes and other diet-related conditions that can become chronic.
Mental health issues are also prevalent for Indigenous communities across Northern Ontario. Due to colonisation and structural inequalities creating intergenerational trauma, a loss of language, and community disruption, many Indigenous communities face mental health crises. Suicide rates and substance abuse are particularly prevalent among young people in remote Indigenous communities in Northern Ontario (Johnson, 2025[94]). For instance, the fly-in community of Neskantaga First Nation experienced ten suicides between March and August 2020, despite having a population of only 400 people (Ansloos, 2023[95]). Some communities in the northwest of the region report prevalences of prescription opioid abuse between 35%-50% (compared with approx. 12% nationally) with Caribou Lake First Nation having an adult rate of treated opioid dependence of 41% (Kanate et al., 2015[96]).
While Northern Ontario experiences health outcomes below domestic and international benchmarks, particularly for Indigenous populations, the region has a strong healthcare and training ecosystem with many institutions that play a pivotal role in addressing the region's unique healthcare needs. Particularly notable is the high proportion of graduates of these institutions that stay to work in the region. For instance, 90% of physicians who completed both their undergraduate (MD) and postgraduate (residency) training at Northern Ontario School of Medicine University have chosen to stay and practise in Northern Ontario (NOSM, 2025[97]). This is a major strength for the region’s healthcare system as it directly addresses the issue of physician shortages, one of the most persistent challenges in rural and remote areas and presents potential for greater deployment of healthcare services in the future.
Northern Ontario emits less than Canadian and OECD benchmarks, yet remote Indigenous communities are often disconnected from the grid
On average, GHG emissions per unit of electricity generated in Northern Ontario is 56.5% lower than the national average (63.2 compared with 145 TCO2eq per GWh respectively). It is also considerably lower than the OECD Mining Regions average at 326 TCO2 per GWh (OECD, 2022[4]). Rainy River is the only service area in the region with GHG emissions above the national average. This region hosts a large industrial emitter (Rainy River gold mine) and has substantial freight transport flows across the border via major highways and rail, including the Fort Frances–International Falls bridge. Long-distance trucking and rail service for mining and forestry add to transport-related emissions. However, other service areas with mines such as Sudbury, are below the national average. This is largely due to the connection of most mines in Ontario to the Ontario power grid. Of the energy in the grid, 94% of electricity is produced from clean-energy sources, allowing for development of cleaner, lower-emissions mining compared to other jurisdictions (Government of Ontario, 2022[98]).
Emissions intensity is measured by tonnes of CO2 equivalent per gigawatt hour (tCO2eq per GWh).
Note: Saskatchewan emissions intensity is 630 tCO2eq per GWh, which was too high a value to feature in the graph. Manitoba stood at 1.3 tCO2eq per GWh, featured at the very bottom of the graph.
This figure is an unweighted average of emissions intensities (tCO₂eq per GWh) across the 12 census divisions in Northern Ontario. Due to limited availability of electricity generation data at the division level, a weighted average could not be calculated.
Source: OECD author’s elaboration
Despite Northern Ontario overall having lower emissions intensity than Canadian and international benchmarks, many Indigenous communities across the region still rely on diesel-generated electricity for space heating and power generation. Across Canada there are 140 remote Indigenous communities that rely on diesel for power generation, with the most (17.8%) located in Ontario and all situated in the North. This is compared with less than 1% in Saskatchewan and 2.8% in Manitoba (Figure 2.26). While diesel has advantages for remote communities due to its reliability and ease of transport, the lack of connection of many remote communities in Northern Ontario to the power grid poses significant environmental challenges (not to mention social challenges such as the cost of fuel and frequent generator failure). Indeed, carbon and particulate pollution that results from burning diesel creates local air quality issues and some homes have had to deal with leaks in their diesel tanks (Rakshit et al., 2019[99]).
Source: (Statistics Canada, 2025[100])
Industry activity has impacted soil and land-cover, with many abandoned mine sites. Yet Northern Ontario still has a higher share of green area than Canada’s rural regions
One significant consequence of mining is landcover disturbance and soil degradation. Existing operations, such as those in the Sudbury Basin, have historically led to severe deforestation, soil acidification, and ecosystem degradation due to emissions from smelting operations and extensive land clearing. Over a century of industrial activity in Northern Ontario has resulted in the ecological disturbance of more than 10 000 hectares of land, with large swaths of vegetation destroyed due to sulphur dioxide emissions and metal contamination (Boerchers et al., 2016[101]). While this is a relatively small proportion of Northern Ontario’s land mass, emissions acidified soils with samples from this area revealing copper concentrations ranging from 11 to 1,890 mg/kg and nickel concentrations from 5 to 2,150 mg/kg, levels that are significantly higher than background values and detrimental to plant and microbial life (Dudka, Poncehrenandez and Hutchinson, 1995[102]). This has a significant impact on native species, creating long-term habitat degradation and signalling the impact on the land where industry activity takes place.
Despite the evident soil impacts from industry activity, Northern Ontario performs relatively well on the share of green area cover. The share of land with green area cover in Northern Ontario is approximately 87% compared with approximately 75% across Canada’s rural regions and approximately 71% nationally (Figure 2.27). This indicates that despite evident environmental impacts from industry, the region has been able to largely maintain its vast forests, wetlands, and natural landscapes. This does not however, take away from the concentrated environmental impacts on communities located close to mining activity.
Source: (OECD, 2021[103])
Local government initiatives and partnerships such as the Sudbury Re-Greening Programme have however, been instrumental in ensuring the protection of Northern Ontario’s vast green spaces (Box 2.4).
The Sudbury Regreening Project is one of the most recognised ecological restoration efforts in Canada, aimed at reversing the severe environmental degradation caused by over a century of nickel and copper mining and smelting in the Sudbury Basin. By the 1970s, Sudbury had become one of the most polluted regions in North America, with over 1 000 km² of land stripped of vegetation due to acid rain and toxic metal emissions. In response, a multi-decade regreening initiative began in 1978, led by the City of Greater Sudbury, in partnership with community groups, scientists, and industry.
As of 2020, more than 10 million trees have been planted and 3,400 hectares of barren land have been treated with limestone, fertilizer, and seed to restore soil quality and restore vegetation. This regreening has resulted in increased biodiversity, improved air and water quality, and a dramatic transformation of the once-scarred landscape. Despite these successes, challenges remain, particularly in restoring native species and remediating deeper soil contamination.
Despite re-greening efforts, the legacies of mining activity in the region have created significant land cover and underground disturbances with mining infrastructure left behind. In Ontario, there are over 5 000 known abandoned and inactive mine site features across the province, many of which are located in Northern Ontario (Government of Ontario, 2024[105]). While these sites can present new opportunities for employment in mine rehabilitation and potential mine tourism, they also often contain hazards, such as open shafts, unstable structures, and contaminated tailings, that are harmful to the environment and reduce the attractiveness of Northern Ontario towns to new residents.
Across Northern Ontario, there are:
450 open pit/open cut mine features considered an active hazard that have no closure plan
331 tailings dam sites considered an active hazard that have no closure plan
5 018 mine features including open pits, shafts, quarry, tailings, water towers, and ore stockpiles that are considered an active hazard and have no closure plan
Source: (Government of Ontario, 2024[105]).
Despite the challenges faced by the region with abandoned mine sites and associated site features, the rehabilitation of these areas presents an opportunity for economic development through the creation of tourism and employment opportunities in mine rehabilitation, especially for Indigenous communities.
Industry activity has contributed to water contamination in the region and remote First Nations communities still struggle to access clean drinking water
Ontario is home to about 25% of Canada's wetlands, with a significant concentration in the north (Ontario Nature, 2022[106]) and Northern Ontario is home to over 250 000 freshwater lakes, rivers, and waterways including parts of the Great Lakes basin (Northern Ontario Travel, 2023[107]). These freshwater systems are vital for drinking water, recreation, and supporting aquatic ecosystems.
Water contamination remains a concern in Northern Ontario due to historical and ongoing industrial activities. Industry activity in the region has impacted water bodies leading to the acidification of over 7 000 lakes within a 17 000 km² area, adversely affecting aquatic life (Cooperative Freshwater Ecology Unit, Laurentian University, 2004[108]). For instance, in the town of Cobalt, legacy silver mining has resulted in elevated levels of arsenic and mercury in local water bodies as well as mercury levels in certain species exceeding safe consumption limits (Leung, 2009[109]). Similarly, the mercury contamination in the Wabigoon River system, stemming from industrial discharges from a chemical plant in the 1960s and 1970s, continues to affect communities like Grassy Narrows, with mercury levels in fish remaining dangerously high (Lee et al., 2025[110]).
The unique and vital environmental assets of Northern Ontario including its waterways have been stewarded by First Nations communities since time immemorial. First Nations stewardship is integral to conservation efforts and ecological resilience. Ongoing initiatives such as the Biinaagami project protecting the Great Lakes are essential to preserving local waters (Box 2.5). Furthermore, collaborative initiatives between Indigenous groups, governments, and mining companies are essential for effective environmental management. This is particularly true in the mining sector, where partnerships between companies and First Nations communities allows for the effective monitoring of mining impacts on local environments. For instance, Long Lake 58 First Nation has taken a primary role in environmental monitoring as part of the Definitive Agreement with the Greenstone Gold Mine, ensuring thorough environmental conservation of lakes and waterways in the region (Anishinabek News, 2019[111]).
Biinaagami (meaning pure, clean water in Anishinaabemowin) is a collaborative, interdisciplinary and multimedia project aimed at restoring and protecting the environmental and cultural sustainability of the Great Lakes region. The initiative emphasises a ‘two-eyed seeing approach’ harmonising Indigenous and western sciences.
The Biinagami giant floor map is an immersive tool allowing viewers to traverse the majestic watershed to understand its geography, history and cultures. Through augmented reality, this map will serve as a portal to myriad narratives, commencing with the Water Walkers, who exemplify the connection of First Nations peoples with these waters.
Source: (Canadian Geographic, 2023[112])
Despite First Nations’ significant contributions to environmental stewardship across the region, these communities are often the most negatively impacted by environmental degradation including water contamination issues that are largely a consequence of industry activity. Recent studies have detected the presence of toxic PFAS chemicals in the Great Lakes basin in Northern Ontario. Pollution occurring within the region has led to increasingly difficult living conditions for many First Nations communities in Northern Ontario, particularly due to drinking-water advisories and diesel reliance. Northern Ontario has the highest concentration of drinking-water advisories (warnings regarding contamination of drinking water) across Canada. In Ontario, there are 27 long-term drinking water advisories on First Nations reserves, 23 of which are located in the North. This is significantly higher than the number of advisories in other areas of Canada, compared with six in Manitoba and two across the province of Saskatchewan, as laid out in Figure 2.28. This has been a significant issue for Northern First Nations communities spanning decades with some communities such as Neskantaga, under drinking-water advisories for over thirty years, the longest in Canada.
Northern Ontario is a strategically important region for Canada’s low-carbon transition, offering a wealth of critical minerals, ecological assets, and Indigenous knowledge. The mining sector has delivered clear economic benefits in subregions with high specialisation, supporting higher incomes, lower unemployment, and stronger labour market outcomes for both Indigenous and non-Indigenous populations. In particular, mining subregions have enabled Indigenous Peoples to close income gaps at faster rates than in non-mining subregions of Northern Ontario.
However, these gains have not always translated into broad-based regional development. Population decline, youth outmigration, and high unemployment persist, particularly in areas lacking economic diversification. Social challenges remain acute for Indigenous Peoples, who continue to face structural barriers in housing, healthcare, and education. These challenges are most severe in remote and fly-in communities. While Northern Ontario outperforms benchmarks on tertiary education and emissions intensity, the region continues to grapple with environmental legacies, including contaminated water, abandoned mines, and diesel reliance, which are once again worse for remote First Nations communities.
Unlocking the region’s full potential requires a more inclusive and coordinated approach to development. This means building stronger partnerships with First Nations, improving infrastructure and service delivery in remote areas, and aligning workforce, education, and innovation policies with long-term economic goals, topics which will be discussed in Chapters 3 and 4. With the right investments and governance, Northern Ontario can move beyond resource dependence toward a more resilient, equitable, and sustainable future.
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The original Nations and Peoples of what is now Canada include the Mi’kmaq, Mohawk, Anishinabek, Cree, Dakota, Piikani, Kainaiwa, Inuit, Dene, Haida Nations and many others. Today, for official purposes and in relation with modern state institutions, other names for them have come into use:
The collective noun ‘Indigenous Peoples’, analogous to the term ‘European’, is used to refer to the descendants of all of the original nations and Peoples of northern North America.
The synonymous term ‘Aboriginal Peoples’ is still used in the Canadian Constitution, though under the influence of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples and international law it is being supplanted.
Both terms ‘Indigenous’ and ‘Aboriginal’ are artefacts of the arrival of European settlement, useful for distinguishing the societies that were here from the societies of the new arrivals who began to settle around 500 years ago, but otherwise concealing important national and cultural differences.
While the most salient and accurate terms are the names used by Indigenous Nations and Peoples to identify themselves, for the purposes of statistical record keeping, program eligibility, and some political processes, other distinctions have been created. The Constitution Act (1982) in Section 35 recognises ‘the existing aboriginal and treaty rights of Indians, Inuit and Métis’. It is generally accepted that these three constitutional categories exhaust the possible ways of being Indigenous, although in most parts of Canada, the term ‘Indian’ has been replaced by ‘First Nation’.
An older distinction survives, and still has practical effect. This is the legal distinction between people who have ‘status’ under the Indian Act, and those who do not. Someone who has status is registered on a list maintained by the Department of Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada and the Department of Indigenous Services (hence the near synonym for Status Indian, ‘Registered Indian’). A person who is so registered is usually but not necessarily a member of an “Indian Band,” and is subject to the federal Indian Act. The Indian Act assigns ‘province-like’ responsibilities for Status Indians’ health, education and social welfare provision to the federal executive branch, even while it makes Status Indians subject to provincial laws of general application. Importantly, people subject to the Indian Act also, for decades, did not have the rights of full Canadian citizens (e.g., no right to vote in federal elections until 1960). Status Indians are also subject to Band Council bylaws, which is another jurisdictional layer that creates uncertainties around application in specific contexts (e.g., provincial/territorial hunting regulations versus Band Council conservation bylaws).
The other two constitutional groups, Inuit and Métis, were never registered under the Indian Act, although both have been subject to now-abandoned enrolment procedures. Métis, who are members of an Indigenous society that developed in the western Canadian plains during the 18th century, were never subject to registration or the Indian Act. Métis individuals were listed during the late 19th century during as an attempt at the settlement of their land rights through the issuing of ‘scrip’, which entitled them to land or a cash settlement. Outside of the Indian Register, there can be some debate about specific individuals’ claims to Indigenous identity.
Source: Adapted from OECD 2020. Linking Indigenous Communities with Regional Development in Canada. OECD Publishing, Paris.
The OECD Mining Regions Toolkit uses the following methodology to identify areas in OECD countries to classify as a ‘mining region (OECD, 2022[4]):’
1. Identify the small regions in the OECD country (Territorial Level 3). The OECD has more than 2 400 TL3 regions in its 38 member countries. The distribution of these regions by country is a mix of statistical and administrative boundaries that are at a geographically comparable scale and consistent with national classifications. Thus, the segmentation of the country into these territories is consistent for the cross-country analysis. The OECD territorial classification provides a list of all TL3 regions for OECD countries.
2. Defining regional mining specialisation based on employment location quotients (LQ).
3. The degree of regional specialisation in mining is obtained by comparing the share of mining employment in the region with the share of mining employment in the country.
4. A value of LQ above one implies that the region is more specialised than its respective country. The employment specialisation in mining, based on LQ values, is ranked from highest to lowest. The threshold selected to categorise a mining region is an LQ above 1.5, so a region is considered to be specialised if it exceeds 50% of the country’s mining specialisation. Applying this threshold to the sample of OECD TL3 regions, 360 OECD regions are 1.5 times more specialised in mining than their own country.
Final adjustment based on desk research. To build a geographically balanced benchmark and control by country effects of the LQ (e.g. countries highly specialised in mining with a relatively even geographical distribution of the activity), the methodology assigns the regions with a higher LQ than the benchmark by following the country’s weight in total OECD mining employment. In other words, the number of regions in the benchmark is in line with the share of the country’s mining employment in the total number of mining workers across the OECD. A desktop research process examines each selected region to ensure there is a good geographical balance in the benchmark (and avoid overrepresentation of a given country). As a result of this process, 50 mining regions constitute the OECD mining regional benchmark.
← 1. The GDP per capita for OECD mining regions is available for 2018. It was calculated in USD (USD 40 312) and converted to CAD against the exchange rate as of 02 May 2025.
← 2. Unemployment for 2025 is calculated using statistics for Northeast and Northwest Ontario. These Economic Regions do not include Muskoka District that is included in other analyses of this paper
← 3. Tertiary educated refers to the total number of individuals with their highest certificate, diploma, or degree including College, CEGEP or other non-university certificate or diploma, university certificate or diploma below bachelor level, and bachelor’s degree or higher (including master’s and PhD).