[43] Acemoglu, D. (2010), “When Does Labor Scarcity Encourage Innovation?”, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 118/6, pp. 1037-1078, https://doi.org/10.1086/658160.
[67] Acemoglu, D. and D. Autor (2011), “Skills, Tasks and Technologies: Implications for Employment and Earnings”, in Handbook of Labor Economics, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-7218(11)02410-5.
[106] Adamopoulou, E., L. Díez-Catalán and E. Villanueva (2025), “Staggered contracts and unemployment during recessions”, Journal of Monetary Economics, Vol. 156, p. 103830, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmoneco.2025.103830.
[148] Aedo, C. and I. Walker (2012), Skills for the 21st century in Latin America and the Caribbean, Directions in development/human development, World Bank, Washington, D.C., http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/187841468047799960.
[21] Akerlof, G. and J. Yellen (1990), “The Fair Wage-Effort Hypothesis and Unemployment”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 105/2, p. 255, https://doi.org/10.2307/2937787.
[159] Andrews, D., B. Égert and C. de la Maisonneuve (2025), “Adult skills and productivity: New evidence from PIAAC 2023”, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 1834, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/12ac6e8c-en.
[63] Autor, D. (2020), “Extending the Race between Education and Technology”, AEA Papers and Proceedings, American Economic Association, 2014 Broadway, Suite 305, Nashville, TN 37203, https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20201061.
[75] Autor, D. and M. Handel (2013), “Putting Tasks to the Test: Human Capital, Job Tasks, and Wages”, Journal of Labor Economics, Vol. 31/S1, pp. S59-S96, https://doi.org/10.1086/669332.
[64] Autor, D., L. Katz and M. Kearney (2006), “The Polarization of the U.S. Labor Market”, American Economic Review, Vol. 96/2, pp. 189-194, https://doi.org/10.1257/000282806777212620.
[66] Autor, D., F. Levy and R. Murnane (2003), “The Skill Content of Recent Technological Change: An Empirical Exploration”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 118/4, pp. 1279-1333, https://doi.org/10.1162/003355303322552801.
[25] Badillo-Amador, L. and L. Vila (2013), “Education and skill mismatches: Wage and job satisfaction consequences”, International Journal of Manpower, Vol. 34/5, https://doi.org/10.1108/IJM-05-2013-0116.
[114] Bae, S. (2024), “Nurse Staffing, Work Hours, Mandatory Overtime, and Turnover in Acute Care Hospitals Affect Nurse Job Satisfaction, Intent to Leave, and Burnout: A Cross-Sectional Study”, International Journal of Public Health, Vol. 69, https://doi.org/10.3389/ijph.2024.1607068.
[117] Barnichon, R. and A. Shapiro (2024), “Phillips meets Beveridge”, Journal of Monetary Economics, Vol. 148, p. 103660, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmoneco.2024.103660.
[122] Barnow, B., J. Trutko and J. Piatak (2013), “How Do We Know Occupational Labor Shortages Exist?”, Employment Research Newsletter, Vol. 20(2)/2, pp. 4-6, https://doi.org/10.17848/1075-8445.20(2)-2.
[50] Barnow, B., J. Trutko and J. Schede Piatak (2013), Occupational Labor Shortages: Concepts, Causes, Consequences, and Cures, W.E. Upjohn Institute, Kalamazoo, MI, https://doi.org/10.17848/9780880994132.
[147] Beblavy, M. et al. (2016), “What Are the New Occupations and the New Skills? And How Are They Measured?”, State of the Art Report, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1882280.
[15] Becker, G. (1964), Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education, NBER, https://www.nber.org/books-and-chapters/human-capital-theoretical-and-empirical-analysis-special-reference-education-first-edition.
[23] Béduwé, C. and J. Giret (2011), “Mismatch of vocational graduates: What penalty on French labour market?”, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 78/1, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2010.09.003.
[41] Bergeaud, A., G. Cette and J. Stary (2022), “Recruitment Difficulties and Firms’ Characteristics: An Analysis of French Company Data”, Economie et Statistique/Economics and Statistics, https://doi.org/10.24187/ecostat.2022.534.2078.
[39] Berlingieri, G., S. Calligaris and C. Criscuolo (2018), “The Productivity-Wage Premium: Does Size Still Matter in a Service Economy?”, AEA Papers and Proceedings, Vol. 108, pp. 328-333, https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20181068.
[62] Berman, E., J. Bound and Z. Griliches (1994), “Changes in the Demand for Skilled Labor within U. S. Manufacturing: Evidence from the Annual Survey of Manufactures”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 109/2, pp. 367-397, https://doi.org/10.2307/2118467.
[136] Blázquez Cuesta, M., M. Pérez Navarro and R. Sánchez-Mangas (2025), “Overeducation under different macroeconomic conditions: How Spanish university graduates fit in the labor market?”, Journal of Policy Modeling, Vol. 47/2, pp. 448-470, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2024.10.001.
[87] Boese, R. et al. (2001), Summary of O*NET 4.0 Content Model and Database, National O*NET Consortium, http://online.onetcenter.org.
[174] Borgonovi, F. et al. (2023), “Emerging trends in AI skill demand across 14 OECD countries”, OECD Artificial Intelligence Papers, No. 2, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/7c691b9a-en.
[140] Braakmann, N., B. Eberth and J. Wildman (2022), “Worker adjustment to unexpected occupational risk: Evidence from COVID-19”, European Economic Review, Vol. 150, p. 104325, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2022.104325.
[11] Brave, S. et al. (2026), “Making Sense of Labor Market Indicators Amid Data Imperfections”, NBER Working Papers, No. 35196, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
[38] Brown, C. and J. Medoff (1989), “The Employer Size-Wage Effect”, Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 97/5, pp. 1027-1059, https://doi.org/10.1086/261642.
[33] Brunello, G. and P. Wruuck (2021), “Skill shortages and skill mismatch: A review of the literature”, Journal of Economic Surveys, Vol. 35/4, https://doi.org/10.1111/joes.12424.
[120] Burks, S. et al. (2015), “The Value of Hiring through Employee Referrals”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 130/2, pp. 805-839, https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjv010.
[40] Calvino, F. et al. (2025), “Young firms, job quality and inclusiveness”, OECD Science, Technology and Industry Working Papers, No. 2025/08, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/a6bb0f3a-en.
[131] Cammeraat, E. and M. Squicciarini (2021), “Burning Glass Technologies’ data use in policy-relevant analysis: An occupation-level assessment”, OECD Science, Technology and Industry Working Papers, No. 2021/05, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/cd75c3e7-en.
[42] Camussi, S. et al. (2025), “Labour Shortages in Italy: Determinants, Firms’ Responses and Employment Prospects”, Bank of Italy Occasional Paper, No. 887, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5246994.
[57] Card, D. (1999), “The Causal Effect of Education on Earnings”, in Handbook of Labor Economics, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1573-4463(99)03011-4.
[76] Cassidy, H. (2017), “Task Variation Within Occupations”, Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, Vol. 56/3, pp. 393-410, https://doi.org/10.1111/irel.12179.
[68] Castex, G. and E. Kogan Dechter (2014), “The Changing Roles of Education and Ability in Wage Determination”, Journal of Labor Economics, Vol. 32/4, pp. 685-710, https://doi.org/10.1086/676018.
[8] Causa, O. et al. (2022), “The post-COVID-19 rise in labour shortages”, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 1721, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/e60c2d1c-en.
[9] Causa, O. et al. (2025), “Labour shortages and labour market inequalities: Evidence and policy implications”, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 1832, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/14e62ec0-en.
[19] Cavalleri, M., N. Luu and O. Causa (2021), “Migration, housing and regional disparities: A gravity model of inter-regional migration with an application to selected OECD countries”, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 1691, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/421bf4aa-en.
[96] Cedefop (2024), Cedefop Labour and Skills Shortage Index (CLSSI) dataset, https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/datasets/labour-skills-shortage-index (accessed on 6 July 2026).
[5] Cedefop and UNESCO-UNEVOC. (2025), Meeting skill needs for the green transition. Skills anticipation and VET for a greener future, https://doi.org/10.2801/6833866.
[81] Cheng, S. and B. Park (2020), “Flows and Boundaries: A Network Approach to Studying Occupational Mobility in the Labor Market”, American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 126/3, pp. 577-631, https://doi.org/10.1086/712406.
[44] Danzer, A., C. Feuerbaum and F. Gaessler (2024), “Labor supply and automation innovation: Evidence from an allocation policy”, Journal of Public Economics, Vol. 235, p. 105136, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2024.105136.
[115] Davis, S., R. Faberman and J. Haltiwanger (2013), “The Establishment-Level Behavior of Vacancies and Hiring *”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 128/2, pp. 581-622, https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjt002.
[71] Deming, D. (2023), “Multidimensional human capital and the wage structure”, in Handbook of the Economics of Education, https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.hesedu.2023.03.005.
[70] Deming, D. (2017), “The Growing Importance of Social Skills in the Labor Market*”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 132/4, pp. 1593-1640, https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjx022.
[124] Dogru, T. et al. (2023), “Employee turnover dynamics in the hospitality industry vs. the overall economy”, Tourism Management, Vol. 99, p. 104783, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2023.104783.
[116] Domash, A. and L. Summers (2022), “How Tight are U.S. Labor Markets?”, NBER Working Paper, No. 29739, https://doi.org/10.3386/w29739.
[94] Downs, A. (2009), “Identifying shortage occupations in the UK”, Economic & Labour Market Review, Vol. 3/5, pp. 23-29, https://doi.org/10.1057/elmr.2009.73.
[45] Dueholm, M., A. Kalyani and S. Ozkan (2024), “Does Worker Scarcity Spur Investment, Automation and Productivity? Evidence from Earnings Calls”, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, https://www.stlouisfed.org/on-the-economy/2024/jun/worker-scarcity-spur-investment-automation-productivity-evidence-earnings-calls.
[69] Edin, P. et al. (2022), “The Rising Return to Noncognitive Skill”, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, Vol. 14/2, pp. 78-100, https://doi.org/10.1257/app.20190199.
[51] Eurofound (2024), Company practices to tackle labour shortages, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://eurofound.link/ef24020.
[138] Eurofound (2023), Working time in 2021-2022, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://eurofound.link/ef23007.
[36] European Commission (2023), European Year of Skills: skills shortages, recruitment and retention strategies in small and medium-sized enterprises, Publications Office of the European Union, https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2994.
[91] European Commission (2015), “Measuring skills mismatch”, Analytical Web Note, No. 7/2015, https://op.europa.eu/s/Akq2.
[7] European Labour Authority (2026), “EURES - Report on labour shortages and surpluses - 2025”, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://doi.org/10.2883/0809061.
[175] Eurostat (2006-2024), European Union Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS), European Commission, Eurostat.
[176] Eurostat (2004-2025), European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC), European Commission, Eurostat.
[130] Fabo, B. and L. Kurekova (2022), “Methodological issues related to the use of online labour market data”, ILO Working Paper, No. 68, International Labour Organization (ILO), Geneva, https://doi.org/10.54394/ZZBC8484.
[34] Fanti, L., D. Guarascio and M. Tubiana (2021), “Skill mismatch and the dynamics of Italian companies’ productivity”, Applied Economics, Vol. 53/59, https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2021.1948963.
[142] Feist, L. (2024), “Imbalances between supply and demand recent causes of labour shortages in advanced economies”, ILO Working Paper, No. 115, ILO, Geneva, https://doi.org/10.54394/LUTY2310.
[37] Filippucci, F., K. Laengle and L. Marcolin (2025), “The firm side of labour shortages: Five new facts from the GFP employer survey”, OECD Productivity Working Papers, No. 39, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/aaea297f-en.
[125] Fontaine, I. et al. (2020), “Labour market flows: Accounting for the public sector”, Labour Economics, Vol. 62, p. 101770, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2019.101770.
[141] Forsythe, E. et al. (2020), “Searching, Recalls, and Tightness: An Interim Report on the COVID Labor Market”, NBER Working Paper, No. 28083, https://doi.org/10.3386/w28083.
[77] Freeman, R., I. Ganguli and M. Handel (2020), “Within-Occupation Changes Dominate Changes in What Workers Do: A Shift-Share Decomposition, 2005–2015”, AEA Papers and Proceedings, Vol. 110, pp. 394-399, https://doi.org/10.1257/pandp.20201005.
[80] Gathmann, C. and U. Schönberg (2010), “How General Is Human Capital? A Task‐Based Approach”, Journal of Labor Economics, Vol. 28/1, pp. 1-49, https://doi.org/10.1086/649786.
[61] Goldin, C. and L. Katz (2018), The race between education and technology, Harvard University Press, https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429499821-10.
[65] Goos, M. and A. Manning (2007), “Lousy and Lovely Jobs: The Rising Polarization of Work in Britain”, Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 89/1, pp. 118-133, https://doi.org/10.1162/rest.89.1.118.
[93] Green, A. et al. (2020), “Employer decision-making around skill shortages, employee shortages and migration : Literature Review”, Birmingham; Coventry: City-REDI, University of Birmingham; Institute for Employment Research, University of Warwick, http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/144924.
[92] Green, F., S. Machin and D. Wilkinson (1998), “The Meaning and Determinants of Skills Shortages”, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 60/2, pp. 165-187, https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0084.00093.
[56] Griliches, Z. (1977), “Estimating the Returns to Schooling: Some Econometric Problems”, Econometrica, Vol. 45/1, p. 1, https://doi.org/10.2307/1913285.
[99] Groiss, M. and D. Sondermann (2025), “Help wanted: the drivers and implications of labour shortages”, Applied Economics, Vol. 57/33, pp. 4882-4896, https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2024.2364102.
[121] Gürtzgen, N. and L. Pohlan (2024), “Do employers learn more from referrals than from other recruitment channels?”, Labour Economics, Vol. 89, p. 102574, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2024.102574.
[111] Hamermesh, D. (1986), “The Demand for Workers and Hours and the Effects of Job Security Policies: Theory and Evidence”, NBER Working Paper, No. 2056, https://doi.org/10.3386/w2056.
[149] Handel, M. (2016), “The O*NET content model: strengths and limitations”, Journal for Labour Market Research, Vol. 49/2, pp. 157-176, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12651-016-0199-8.
[84] Hanushek, E. et al. (2015), “Returns to skills around the world: Evidence from PIAAC”, European Economic Review, Vol. 73, pp. 103-130, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2014.10.006.
[82] Hanushek, E. and L. Woessmann (2008), “The Role of Cognitive Skills in Economic Development”, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 46/3, pp. 607-668, https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.46.3.607.
[112] Hart, R. (2023), “Hours vs employment in response to demand shocks”, IZA World of Labor, https://doi.org/10.15185/izawol.393.v2.
[110] Hashimoto, K., Y. Ono and M. Schlegl (2023), “Structural unemployment, underemployment, and secular stagnation”, Journal of Economic Theory, Vol. 209, p. 105641, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jet.2023.105641.
[85] Hauser, R. and J. Warren (1997), “Socioeconomic Indexes for Occupations: A Review, Update, and Critique”, Sociological Methodology, Vol. 27/1, pp. 177-298, https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9531.271028.
[101] Healy, J., K. Mavromaras and P. Sloane (2015), “Adjusting to skill shortages in Australian SMEs”, Applied Economics, Vol. 47/24, pp. 2470-2487, https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2015.1008764.
[58] Heckman, J., L. Lochner and P. Todd (2006), “Chapter 7 Earnings Functions, Rates of Return and Treatment Effects: The Mincer Equation and Beyond”, in Handbook of the Economics of Education, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1574-0692(06)01007-5.
[83] Heisig, J. and H. Solga (2017), “How returns to skills depend on formal qualifications: Evidence from PIAAC”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 163, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/332a43d7-en.
[126] Hershbein, B. and L. Kahn (2018), “Do Recessions Accelerate Routine-Biased Technological Change? Evidence from Vacancy Postings”, American Economic Review, Vol. 108/7, pp. 1737-1772, https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20161570.
[95] Hogarth, T. (2016), Designing an Employer Skills Survey: Notes on How to Develop a Survey to Meet a Range of Policy Issues Relating to the Demand for, and the Supply of, Skills, https://doi.org/10.18235/0010664.
[35] Horbach, J. and C. Rammer (2022), “Skills shortage and innovation”, Industry and Innovation, Vol. 29/6, https://doi.org/10.1080/13662716.2021.1990021.
[144] Horwich, J. and S. Mongey (2023), Are job vacancies still as plentiful as they appear? Implications for the ‘soft landing’, Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis.
[151] Hosseini Maasoum, S. and G. Lichtinger (2025), Generative AI as Seniority-Biased Technological Change: Evidence from U.S. Résumé and Job Posting Data, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5425555.
[86] ILO (2012), International Standard Classification of Occupations: Structure, group definitions and correspondence tables, International Labour Organization.
[103] International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank (2021), “Public Sector Employment and Compensation: An Assessment Framework”, EFI Insight-Governance, World Bank, Washington, D. C.
[118] Ioannides, Y. and L. Loury (2004), “Job Information Networks, Neighborhood Effects, and Inequality”, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 42/4, pp. 1056-1093, https://doi.org/10.1257/0022051043004595.
[102] Katz, L. and A. Krueger (1993), “Public sector pay flexibility: Labor market and budgetary considerations”, in Pay flexibility in the public sector, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264062412-en.
[60] Katz, L. and K. Murphy (1992), “Changes in Relative Wages, 1963–1987: Supply and Demand Factors”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 107/1, pp. 35-78, https://doi.org/10.2307/2118323.
[27] Kim, S. and S. Choi (2018), “The effects of job mismatch on pay, job satisfaction, and performance”, Journal of Open Innovation: Technology, Market, and Complexity, Vol. 4/4, https://doi.org/10.3390/joitmc4040049.
[10] Knez, K. and A. Arpaia (2026), “The Dual Nature of Labour Shortage”, No. 2026/01, Directorate-General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion, European Commission, https://doi.org/10.2767/7084188.
[105] Kölling, A. (2022), “Shortage of Skilled Labor, Unions and the Wage Premium: A Regression Analysis with Establishment Panel Data for Germany”, Journal of Labor Research, Vol. 43/2, pp. 239-259, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12122-022-09334-1.
[73] Labussière, M. and T. Bol (2026), “Are Occupations “Bundles of Skills”? Identifying Latent Skill Profiles in the Labor Market Using Topic Modeling”, Sociological Science, Vol. 13, pp. 362-407, https://doi.org/10.15195/v13.a16.
[98] Le Barbanchon, T., M. Ronchi and J. Sauvagnat (2023), “Hiring Difficulties and Firms’ Growth”, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4105264.
[72] Levenson, A. and C. Zoghi (2007), The strength of occupation indicators as a proxy for skill, US Department of Labor, US Bureau of Labor Statistics, Office of Productivity and Technology, https://www.bls.gov/osmr/research-papers/2007/ec070030.htm.
[135] Liu, K., K. Salvanes and E. Sørensen (2016), “Good skills in bad times: Cyclical skill mismatch and the long-term effects of graduating in a recession”, European Economic Review, Vol. 84, pp. 3-17, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2015.08.015.
[109] Liu-Lastres, B., W. Huang and H. Bao (2023), “Exploring hospitality workers’ career choices in the wake of COVID-19: Insights from a phenomenological inquiry”, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 111, p. 103485, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2023.103485.
[18] Lochner, L. and A. Monge-Naranjo (2016), “Student Loans and Repayment: Theory, evidence, and policy”, in Handbook of the Economics of Education, Elsevier, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63459-7.00008-7.
[17] Lochner, L. and A. Monge-Naranjo (2012), “Credit Constraints in Education”, Annual Review of Economics, Vol. 4/1, pp. 225-256, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-080511-110920.
[104] Marcinkowski, L., A. Butnaru and A. Rabrenović (2024), “Salary systems in public administration and their reforms: Guidance for SIGMA partners”, SIGMA Papers, No. 71, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/8f08a005-en.
[78] Martin-Caughey, A. (2021), “What’s in an Occupation? Investigating Within-Occupation Variation and Gender Segregation Using Job Titles and Task Descriptions”, American Sociological Review, Vol. 86/5, pp. 960-999, https://doi.org/10.1177/00031224211042053.
[108] Martin, J. and S. Scarpetta (2012), “Setting It Right: Employment Protection, Labour Reallocation and Productivity”, De Economist, Vol. 160/2, pp. 89-116, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10645-011-9177-2.
[107] Mathä, T. et al. (2021), “Shocks and labour cost adjustment: evidence from a survey of European firms*”, Oxford Economic Papers, Vol. 73/3, pp. 1008-1033, https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpaa041.
[28] Mavromaras, K., S. McGuinness and M. Wooden (2007), “Overskilling in the Australian labour market”, Australian Economic Review, Vol. 40/3, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8462.2007.00468.x.
[32] Maynard, D. and N. Parfyonova (2013), “Perceived overqualification and withdrawal behaviours: Examining the roles of job attitudes and work values”, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 86/3, https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12006.
[123] McGinley, S. et al. (2014), “A grounded theory approach to developing a career change model in hospitality”, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Vol. 38, pp. 89-98, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2014.01.003.
[29] McGowan, M. and D. Andrews (2017), “Labor market mismatch and labor productivity: Evidence from piaac data”, Research in Labor Economics, Vol. 45, https://doi.org/10.1108/S0147-912120170000045006.
[88] McGuinness, S. et al. (2025), D2.1 Conceptualisations of skill shortages and skill gaps, SkillsPULSE Project, Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI), https://www.skillspulse.eu/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/D2.1-Conceptualisations-of-skill-shortages-and-skill-gaps_Summary.pdf.
[161] Milanez, A., A. Lemmens and C. Ruggiu (2025), “Algorithmic management in the workplace: New evidence from an OECD employer survey”, OECD Artificial Intelligence Papers, No. 31, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/287c13c4-en.
[55] Mincer, J. (1974), Schooling, experience, and earnings, NBER, New York, https://www.nber.org/books-and-chapters/schooling-experience-and-earnings.
[26] Montt, G. (2015), “The causes and consequences of field-of-study mismatch: An analysis using PIAAC”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 167, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5jrxm4dhv9r2-en.
[133] Moreno Galbis, E., F. Wolff and A. Herault (2020), “How helpful are social networks in finding a job along the economic cycle? Evidence from immigrants in France”, Economic Modelling, Vol. 91, pp. 12-32, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2020.05.017.
[13] Mortensen, D. and C. Pissarides (1994), “Job Creation and Job Destruction in the Theory of Unemployment”, The Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 61/3, pp. 397-415, https://doi.org/10.2307/2297896.
[128] Napierala, J., V. Kvetan and J. Branka (2022), “Assessing the representativeness of online job advertisements”, Cedefop working paper series, No. 17, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, https://doi.org/10.2801/807500.
[165] OECD (2026), A Skills-First Labour Market, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/2e1b85f0-en.
[160] OECD (2026), AI and skills: What we know so far, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/f843b352-en.
[90] OECD (2026), Anticipating Skill Needs and Adapting Higher Education: From Insight to Alignment, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/827b3ca4-en.
[164] OECD (2026), Helping adults overcome barriers to training, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1d108027-en.
[1] OECD (2026), OECD Employment Outlook 2026: Geographic Disparities in Jobs and Incomes, OECD Publishing , Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/7e710f54-en.
[153] OECD (2026), OECD Skills for Jobs Database 2026, http://www.oecd.org/en/data/dashboards/skills-for-jobs.html.
[158] OECD (2025), Education at a Glance 2025: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1c0d9c79-en.
[156] OECD (2025), Health at a Glance 2025: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/8f9e3f98-en.
[170] OECD (2025), International Migration Outlook 2025, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ae26c893-en.
[48] OECD (2025), OECD Economic Outlook, Volume 2025 Issue 1: Tackling Uncertainty, Reviving Growth, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/83363382-en.
[6] OECD (2025), OECD Employment Outlook 2025: Can We Get Through the Demographic Crunch?, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/194a947b-en.
[166] OECD (2024), Bridging Talent Shortages in Tech: Skills-first Hiring, Micro-credentials and Inclusive Outreach, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/f35da44f-en.
[4] OECD (2024), Do Adults Have the Skills They Need to Thrive in a Changing World?: Survey of Adult Skills 2023, OECD Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b263dc5d-en.
[150] OECD (2024), OECD Economic Outlook, Volume 2024 Issue 2: Resilience in uncertain times, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/d8814e8b-en.
[3] OECD (2024), OECD Employment Outlook 2024: The Net-Zero Transition and the Labour Market, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ac8b3538-en.
[145] OECD (2024), Real wages regaining some of the lost ground: The OECD wage bulletin, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/2f798dfe-en.
[46] OECD (2024), Understanding Skill Gaps in Firms: Results of the PIAAC Employer Module, OECD Skills Studies, OECD Publishing, https://doi.org/10.1787/b388d1da-en.
[2] OECD (2023), OECD Employment Outlook 2023: Artificial Intelligence and the Labour Market, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/08785bba-en.
[163] OECD (2023), OECD Skills Outlook 2023: Skills for a Resilient Green and Digital Transition, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/27452f29-en.
[155] OECD (2023), Ready for the Next Crisis? Investing in Health System Resilience, OECD Health Policy Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1e53cf80-en.
[89] OECD (2022), Skills for Jobs 2022, Key Insights, https://www.oecdskillsforjobsdatabase.org/data/S4J2022_results.pdf (accessed on 10 September 2025).
[169] OECD (2022), Strengthening Career Guidance for Mid-Career Adults in Australia, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/e08803ce-en.
[168] OECD (2021), Career Guidance for Adults in a Changing World of Work, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9a94bfad-en.
[139] OECD (2021), COVID-19 and Well-being: Life in the Pandemic, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1e1ecb53-en.
[137] OECD (2021), OECD Employment Outlook 2021: Navigating the COVID-19 Crisis and Recovery, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5a700c4b-en.
[157] OECD (2021), Primary Health Care in Brazil, OECD Reviews of Health Systems, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/120e170e-en.
[52] OECD (2017), Getting Skills Right: Skills for Jobs Indicators, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264277878-en.
[162] OECD (2016), Getting Skills Right: Assessing and Anticipating Changing Skill Needs, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264252073-en.
[172] OECD (2016), “Skills for a Digital World: 2016 Ministerial Meeting on the Digital Economy Background Report”, OECD Digital Economy Papers, No. 250, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5jlwz83z3wnw-en.
[31] OECD (2012), Better Skills, Better Jobs, Better Lives: A Strategic Approach to Skills Policies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264177338-en.
[154] OECD/European Commission (2024), Health at a Glance: Europe 2024: State of Health in the EU Cycle, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b3704e14-en.
[167] OECD/ILO (2026), Flexible Learning Pathways into Healthcare Occupations, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/a114f653-en.
[16] Pissarides, C. (2000), Equilibrium unemployment theory, MIT press.
[79] Poletaev, M. and C. Robinson (2008), “Human Capital Specificity: Evidence from the Dictionary of Occupational Titles and Displaced Worker Surveys, 1984–2000”, Journal of Labor Economics, Vol. 26/3, pp. 387-420, https://doi.org/10.1086/588180.
[24] Quintini, G. (2011), “Right for the Job: Over-Qualified or Under-Skilled?”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 120, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5kg59fcz3tkd-en.
[143] Restrepo-Echavarria, P. and A. Cheremukhin (2022), “The Dual Beveridge Curve”, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Working Paper, No. 2022-021, https://doi.org/10.20955/wp.2022.021.
[54] Schultz, T. (1961), “Investment in Human Capital”, The American Economic Review, Vol. 51/1, pp. 1-17, https://www.jstor.org/stable/1818907.
[20] Shapiro, C. and J. Stiglitz (1984), “Equilibrium Unemployment as a Worker Discipline Device.”, The American Economic Review, Vol. 74/3, pp. 433-444, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1804018 (accessed on 6 July 2026).
[146] Skills England (n.d.), Occupations in demand, https://explore-education-statistics.service.gov.uk/find-statistics/occupations-in-demand/2025 (accessed on 30 June 2026).
[129] Sostero, M. and E. Fernàndez-Macías (2021), “The professional lens: What online job advertisements can say about occupational task profiles”, JRC Working Papers Series on Labour, Education and Technology, No. 2021/13, European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Seville, https://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/handle/JRC125917.
[12] Spence, M. (1978), “Job Market Signaling”, Uncertainty in Economics, pp. 281-306, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-214850-7.50025-5.
[173] Squicciarini, M. and H. Nachtigall (2021), “Demand for AI skills in jobs: Evidence from online job postings”, OECD Science, Technology and Industry Working Papers, No. 2021/03, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3ed32d94-en.
[30] Tang, J. and W. Wang (2005), “Product Market Competition, Skill Shortages and Productivity: Evidence from Canadian Manufacturing Firms”, Journal of Productivity Analysis, Vol. 23/3, pp. 317-339, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11123-005-2213-y.
[113] Tan, K. et al. (2020), “Overwork and overtime on turnover intention in non-luxury hotels: Do incentives matter?”, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights, Vol. 3/4, pp. 397-414, https://doi.org/10.1108/JHTI-09-2019-0104.
[97] Terry, E. and M. De Zeeuw (2018), “How Do Firms Respond to Hiring Difficulties? Evidence from the Federal Reserve Banks’ Small Business Credit Survey”, Atlanta Fed Community and Economic Development Discussion Paper, No. 2018-1, https://doi.org/10.29338/dp2018-01.
[59] Tinbergen, J. (1974), “Substitution of graduate by other labour”, Kyklos, Vol. 27/2, pp. 217-226, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6435.1974.tb01903.x.
[132] Tsvetkova, A. et al. (2024), “How well do online job postings match national sources in large English speaking countries?: Benchmarking Lightcast data against statistical sources across regions, sectors and occupations”, OECD Local Economic and Employment Development (LEED) Papers, No. 2024/01, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/c17cae09-en.
[47] Ugurlu, E. and A. Aboobaker (2025), Investment Responses to Labour Scarcity in Europe, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5341239.
[119] van Ours, J. (1989), “Durations of Dutch job vacancies”, De Economist, Vol. 137/3, pp. 309-327, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02115697.
[49] Veneri, C. (1999), “Can occupational labor shortages be identified using available data?”, Monthly Labor Review, https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1999/03/art2full.pdf.
[134] Weber Handwerker, E. and A. Pepper (2025), ““Ghost” Job Postings: Online job ads for positions not planning to fill immediately”, CRS Report, No. IF12977, Congressional Research Service, https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/IF12977 (accessed on 6 July 2026).
[152] Westby, S., A. Modestino and P. Cheng (2026), “Generative AI and the Redefinition of Entry-Level Software Work Generative AI and the Redefinition of Entry-Level Software Work”, IZA Discussion Paper, No. 18723, https://docs.iza.org/dp18723.pdf.
[171] WHO Regional Office for Europe (2025), Health workforce migration in the WHO European Region: country case studies from Albania, Armenia, Georgia, Ireland, Malta, Norway, Republic of Moldova, Romania and Tajikistan, https://www.who.int/europe/publications/i/item/WHO-EURO-2025-10839-50611-76542.
[14] Wiswall, M. and B. Zafar (2015), “How Do College Students Respond to Public Information about Earnings?”, Journal of Human Capital, Vol. 9/2, pp. 117-169, https://doi.org/10.1086/681542.
[53] Woessmann, L. (2025), “Skills and Earnings: A Multidimensional Perspective on Human Capital”, Annual Review of Economics, Vol. 17/1, pp. 397-425, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-economics-081324-081733.
[22] Wolbers, M. (2003), “Job Mismatches and their Labour-Market Effects among School-Leavers in Europe”, European Sociological Review, Vol. 19/3, https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/19.3.249.
[74] Yamaguchi, S. (2012), “Tasks and Heterogeneous Human Capital”, Journal of Labor Economics, Vol. 30/1, pp. 1-53, https://doi.org/10.1086/662066.
[127] Zilian, L., S. Zilian and G. Jäger (2021), “Labour market polarisation revisited: evidence from Austrian vacancy data”, Journal for Labour Market Research, Vol. 55/1, p. 7, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12651-021-00290-4.
[100] Zwysen, W. (2026), “Labour Shortages and Wages. An Examination of Varying Bargaining Power among Workers”, Relations industrielles / Industrial Relations, Vol. 80/2, https://doi.org/10.7202/1122501ar.