This chapter presents results from the OECD Skills for Jobs Database 2026 for 38 countries. The results reveal persistent shortages concentrated in high-skilled occupations, particularly among information and communications technology professionals, health professionals and teaching professionals, while surpluses are more common in lower-skilled occupations. These imbalances translate into knowledge shortages in areas related to high-skilled occupations, such as computers and electronics and medicine and dentistry knowledge. Cognitive abilities, important for high-skilled occupations, are also in shortage, while physical abilities, important for lower-skilled occupations, are in balance. Among skills, shortages are most often observed in widely used skills, reflecting their importance for many occupations, while specialised technical skills, associated with a narrower set of occupations, often appear in balance. The chapter concludes by presenting key policy recommendations to tackle these imbalances.
Mapping Skill Shortages in OECD Countries
Abstract
Using the methodology outlined in Section 2.2, occupational imbalances are computed for 38 countries, with the latest available data ranging from 2022 to 2025 depending on the country. Table 3.1, Table 3.2 and Table 3.3 provide an overview of the occupational imbalances for the most recent year available for each country. Orange signifies shortages and blue signifies surpluses, while darker shades indicate larger imbalances. White signifies occupations that are in balance, meaning occupations where the imbalance is negligible. The results can be explored further through the OECD Skills for Jobs Dashboard, available at www.oecd.org/en/data/dashboards/skills-for-jobs.html.
On average in the OECD area, shortages tend to be concentrated in high-skilled occupations, whereas surpluses are more common in lower-skilled occupations. Health professionals, teaching professionals and information and communications technology (ICT) professionals face some of the largest shortages, while food preparation assistants and street and related sales and service workers face some of the largest surpluses. There are, however, significant variations between countries. For example, food preparation assistants are in large shortage in Germany, Spain and the United States.
These findings are consistent with the existing literature, which finds that labour shortages are more prevalent in high-skilled sectors (OECD, 2024[150]; Filippucci, Laengle and Marcolin, 2025[37]). Labour shortages are also found to be higher in firms with green and digital technologies, which often rely on high-skilled labour. Recent evidence indicates that the adoption of generative AI may disproportionately reduce demand for junior workers, while demand for more experienced workers may remain relatively stable (Hosseini Maasoum and Lichtinger, 2025[151]; Westby, Modestino and Cheng, 2026[152]). This points to shortages being concentrated in high-skilled occupations and more senior positions. Supply-side factors may also contribute to labour shortages in high-skilled occupations, where lengthy education and training pathways can limit the responsiveness of labour supply to changes in labour market demand.
Some middle‑ and lower-skilled occupations are also in shortage, such as metal, machinery and trade workers. This aligns with findings from the European Labour Authority, finding that occupations related to building and construction are facing some of the most severe shortages (European Labour Authority, 2026[7]). Part of this shortage reflects rising demand in industries related to the green transition. At the same time, retirements are likely to intensify shortages. For example, in EURopean Employment Service (EURES) countries, workers aged over 50 outnumber those under 30 in these occupations (European Labour Authority, 2026[7]). The shortages may also be linked to difficulties attracting and retaining workers due to poor job quality, including shift work and exposure to physical and mental health risks (Causa et al., 2025[9]).
Note that these results may differ from results from national skills assessment exercises and other analyses of labour shortages because of differences in data and methodology. The OECD Skills for Jobs Indicator complements these exercises by providing a harmonised framework that enables consistent comparisons between countries. By offering a comparable measure of occupation and skill imbalances, it can support cross-country learning, inform labour mobility policies and contribute to the co‑ordination of policy responses to shared labour market challenges.
Occupational imbalances for the most recent year available, by country
Note: The most recent year available is 2024 for most countries. Exceptions are Chile and Norway (2022); Korea, the Slovak Republic, Switzerland and Türkiye (2023); and Australia and New Zealand (2025).The OECD average is the mean of the occupation-level indicator in the latest year for OECD Member countries included in the Skills for Jobs Database, and the EU average is the mean for EU countries included in the database. The categorisation is based on the percentiles for the OECD average from 2019 to 2025, with large surplus being below the 20th percentile, small surplus being between the 20th and 40th percentile, in balance between the 40th and 60th percentile, small shortage between the 60th and 80th percentile and large shortage above the 80th percentile.
Source: OECD (2026[153]), OECD Skills for Jobs Database 2026, www.oecd.org/en/data/dashboards/skills-for-jobs.html.
Occupational imbalances for the most recent year available, by country
Note: The most recent year available is 2024 for most countries. Exceptions are Chile and Norway (2022); Korea, the Slovak Republic, Switzerland and Türkiye (2023); and Australia and New Zealand (2025).The OECD average is the mean of the occupation-level indicator in the latest year for OECD Member countries included in the Skills for Jobs Database, and the EU average is the mean for EU countries included in the database. The categorisation is based on the percentiles for the OECD average from 2019 to 2025, with large surplus being below the 20th percentile, small surplus being between the 20th and 40th percentile, in balance between the 40th and 60th percentile, small shortage between the 60th and 80th percentile and large shortage above the 80th percentile.
Source: OECD (2026[153]), OECD Skills for Jobs Database 2026, www.oecd.org/en/data/dashboards/skills-for-jobs.html.
Occupational imbalances for the most recent year available, by country
Note: The most recent year available is 2024 for most countries. Exceptions are Chile and Norway (2022); Korea, the Slovak Republic, Switzerland and Türkiye (2023); and Australia and New Zealand (2025). The OECD average is the mean of the occupation-level indicator in the latest year for OECD Member countries included in the Skills for Jobs Database, and the EU average is the mean for EU countries included in the database. The categorisation is based on the percentiles for the OECD average from 2019 to 2025, with large surplus being below the 20th percentile, small surplus being between the 20th and 40th percentile, in balance between the 40th and 60th percentile, small shortage between the 60th and 80th percentile and large shortage above the 80th percentile.
Source: OECD (2026[153]), OECD Skills for Jobs Database 2026, www.oecd.org/en/data/dashboards/skills-for-jobs.html.
3.1.1. Occupational imbalances over time
As discussed in Section 1, temporary occupational imbalances are not a major concern. Such imbalances are a natural feature of dynamic labour markets, as changes in labour demand are not immediately matched by adjustments in labour supply. However, when these imbalances persist over time, they may signal structural issues and warrant policy attention. To assess the persistence of occupational imbalances, Table 3.4 presents average occupational imbalances for the OECD Member countries from 2019 to 2023 and Table 3.5 to Table 3.8 presents occupational imbalances for a selected set of OECD Member countries, Australia, France, the United Kingdom and the United States.
On average in OECD Member countries, high-skilled occupations are in persistent shortage, while lower-skilled occupations are in persistent surplus. This is similar to the pattern observed for the most recent year available in Table 3.1, Table 3.2 and Table 3.3. Health, teaching and ICT professionals were in shortage from 2019 to 2023, and food preparation assistants were in surplus over the same period. This implies that for high-skilled occupations, labour demand has remained consistently higher than labour supply, while the reverse applies to lower-skilled occupations.
While occupational imbalances are persistent for the OECD area on average, there are significant variations over time at the country-level. For example, while ICT professionals are in shortage for the OECD area on average, Australia experienced a notable reversal, with ICT professionals moving from a large shortage in 2021 to a surplus in 2025. This suggests that in recent years labour demand may have been lower than labour supply or that supply-side measures have increased the number of professionals available to fill job vacancies. Similarly, ICT professionals in the United Kingdom transitioned from being broadly in balance to being in surplus over the same period. In France and the United States, ICT professionals are in persistent shortage, reflecting the rapid expansion of the ICT sector and the inability of supply to keep up.
Health professionals and health associate professionals have on average been in persistent shortage in OECD Member countries, reflecting a structural imbalance as labour supply has not kept pace with rising demand for healthcare services associated with population ageing and increasing care needs (OECD/European Commission, 2024[154]). Retention challenges linked to demanding working conditions have further exacerbated these shortages (OECD, 2023[155]; Causa et al., 2025[9]; OECD, 2025[156]). The indicator may mask more severe regional imbalances within countries as shortages of healthcare workers are often concentrated in rural regions, which may be less attractive to workers (OECD, 2021[157]; OECD, 2025[156]).
Teaching professionals are also in shortage in OECD Member countries, raising concerns about the ability of education systems to meet current and future education needs. At the country-level, Australia, France, the United Kingdom and the United States face persistent shortages of teaching professionals, which may be exacerbated by the ageing population as more teachers are set to retire in the near future (OECD, 2025[158]). While demographic trends are expected to reduce the size of the school-age population and, consequently, demand for teachers in many OECD Member countries (OECD, 2025[158]), growing demand for lifelong learning, including upskilling and reskilling opportunities, is likely to sustain or increase demand for teaching professionals over the longer term.
Some occupations have gone from being in surplus or balance in 2019 to being in shortage in recent years. This change is seen for several middle‑skilled occupations, such as building, metal and machinery, electrical and electronic and related trades workers in Australia and metal and machinery workers in the United States. This implies that labour supply has not kept pace with rising demand in these occupations.
Occupational imbalances over time, OECD area average
Note: The OECD average is the mean of the occupation-level indicator for OECD Member countries included in the Skills for Jobs Database for the given year. The OECD average for 2023 excludes Chile and Norway as the data underlying the indicator is only available for these countries until 2022. The categorisation is based on the percentiles for the OECD average from 2019 to 2025, with large surplus being below the 20th percentile, small surplus being between the 20th and 40th percentile, in balance between the 40th and 60th percentile, small shortage between the 60th and 80th percentile and large shortage above the 80th percentile.
Source: OECD (2026[153]), OECD Skills for Jobs Database 2026, www.oecd.org/en/data/dashboards/skills-for-jobs.html.
Note: The categorisation is based on the percentiles for the OECD average from 2019 to 2025, with large surplus being below the 20th percentile, small surplus being between the 20th and 40th percentile, in balance between the 40th and 60th percentile, small shortage between the 60th and 80th percentile and large shortage above the 80th percentile.
Source: OECD (2026[153]), OECD Skills for Jobs Database 2026, www.oecd.org/en/data/dashboards/skills-for-jobs.html.
Note: The categorisation is based on the percentiles for the OECD average from 2019 to 2025, with large surplus being below the 20th percentile, small surplus being between the 20th and 40th percentile, in balance between the 40th and 60th percentile, small shortage between the 60th and 80th percentile and large shortage above the 80th percentile.
Source: OECD (2026[153]), OECD Skills for Jobs Database 2026, www.oecd.org/en/data/dashboards/skills-for-jobs.html.
Note: The categorisation is based on the percentiles for the OECD average from 2019 to 2025, with large surplus being below the 20th percentile, small surplus being between the 20th and 40th percentile, in balance between the 40th and 60th percentile, small shortage between the 60th and 80th percentile and large shortage above the 80th percentile.
Source: OECD (2026[153]), OECD Skills for Jobs Database 2026, www.oecd.org/en/data/dashboards/skills-for-jobs.html.
Note: The categorisation is based on the percentiles for the OECD average from 2019 to 2025, with large surplus being below the 20th percentile, small surplus being between the 20th and 40th percentile, in balance between the 40th and 60th percentile, small shortage between the 60th and 80th percentile and large shortage above the 80th percentile.
Source: OECD (2026[153]), OECD Skills for Jobs Database 2026, www.oecd.org/en/data/dashboards/skills-for-jobs.html.
3.1.2. Occupational imbalances at the industry level
Labour and skill shortages may constrain industry growth and competitiveness, as they limit firms’ productivity (McGowan and Andrews, 2017[29]; Andrews, Égert and de la Maisonneuve, 2025[159]). Measuring shortages at the industry level enables the identification of industries that are particularly affected, as well as the development of policies tailored to the specific dynamics of each industry. This is particularly relevant in light of the twin transition, which is reshaping skill requirements across industries. To illustrate the extent of occupational imbalances at the industry level, Figure 3.1 shows occupational imbalances by industry for the most recent year available.
In most OECD Member countries, the education industry is facing labour shortages, reflecting mounting pressures on the sector’s capacity to deliver quality education. These shortages are driven largely by a lack of teachers, who constitute the largest occupational group within the industry. Difficulties in recruiting and retaining teaching staff can constrain the ability of educational institutions to meet growing and evolving student needs, increase workloads for existing staff and place additional strain on education systems. As an ageing teaching workforce increases replacement demand and further reduces the available teaching workforce, reducing teacher shortages will be critical to ensuring the long-term resilience and effectiveness of education provision.
Furthermore, key industries, such as professional, scientific and technical activities and information and communication activities, face occupation shortages in the majority of countries (see Annex Table A.2 for country-level industry shortages). Results from the Global Forum on Productivity’s Employer Survey also found that the ICT sector was facing the most severe shortages in 2023, suggesting that the shortages are persistent (OECD, 2024[150]). This is concerning as these industries are key in facilitating the twin transition and occupation shortages could slow these down. In addition, these industries require high levels of human capital and industry-specific knowledge, which take time to accumulate. This implies that educating new workers for the industry would require more time, while re‑skilling existing workers may prove challenging. Shortages in these industries require timely action by countries to ensure that digitalisation and their transition to a green economy is not restricted by occupation shortages.
Human health and social work activities also face significant occupation shortages in most countries, as a result of significant shortages of health professionals, health associate professionals and personal care workers. In contrast, in Luxembourg, the human health and social work activities sector is in surplus despite significant shortages of health professionals. This shows that industry-level imbalances can mask underlying occupation shortages, highlighting the importance of analysing both industry and occupational imbalances to fully understand the challenges facing specific industries and design effective policy responses.
The accommodation and food service industry is in surplus in most countries, largely because occupations such as personal service workers and food preparation assistants are in surplus relative to other occupations. In contrast, labour market tightness indicators, measured as the number of vacancies per unemployed person, point to significant shortages in the industry (Causa et al., 2025[9]). Figure 3.2 shows each sub-indicator for personal service workers and food preparation assistants for the OECD area on average for the most recent year available. The growth in OJP does point to a shortage, as the number of OJP for personal service workers and food preparation assistants have been increasing more than for other occupations. At the same time, the high unemployment rate and low growth in hours worked compared to other occupations point to a surplus among personal service workers and food preparation assistants. This highlights that while vacancy measures are a useful indicator of recruitment difficulties, other labour market signals are also important indicators of occupational imbalances. Poor job quality and high turnover in the industry may contribute to persistent hiring difficulties despite the apparent surplus of workers (Causa et al., 2025[9]).
Occupational imbalances for the most recent year available, by industry
Note: The OECD average is the mean of the occupation-level indicator in the most recent year available for OECD Member countries included in the Skills for Jobs Database. The most recent year available is 2024 for most countries, exceptions are Chile and Norway (2022); Korea, the Slovak Republic, Switzerland and Türkiye (2023); and Australia and New Zealand (2025). Annex Table A.2 shows country-level industry imbalances.
Source: OECD (2026[153]), OECD Skills for Jobs Database 2026, www.oecd.org/en/data/dashboards/skills-for-jobs.html.
Sub-indicators of the Skills for Jobs Indicator for personal service workers and food preparation assistants for the most recent year available, OECD average
Note: The OECD average is the mean of the occupation-level sub-indicators in the most recent year available for OECD Member countries included in the Skills for Jobs Database. The most recent year available is 2024 for most countries, exceptions are Chile and Norway (2022); Korea, the Slovak Republic, Switzerland and Türkiye (2023); and Australia and New Zealand (2025). Positive values indicate a shortage, while negative values indicate a surplus.
Source: OECD (2026[153]), OECD Skills for Jobs Database 2026, www.oecd.org/en/data/dashboards/skills-for-jobs.html.
3.2.1. Knowledge shortages
Shortages are concentrated in knowledge areas associated with high-skilled occupations, such as mathematics, computers and electronics and education and training knowledge (see Figure 3.3). This is consistent with observed shortages in high-skilled occupations, such as teaching and ICT professionals. Even in countries such as Australia and New Zealand, where ICT professionals appear to be in surplus, these knowledge areas remain in shortage (see Annex Table A.3 for country-level knowledge shortages). This may reflect an increase in the importance of digital skills for various occupations as a result of digitalisation and AI expansion (OECD, 2026[160]).
Administration and managerial knowledge is also in shortage in many countries, suggesting that demand for these skills exceeds available supply. While advances in algorithmic management may automate some managerial tasks, an OECD survey of mid-level managers in six countries (France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain and the United States) finds that the use of algorithmic management tools is associated with a greater need for general managerial skills, among others (Milanez, Lemmens and Ruggiu, 2025[161]).
Administrative knowledge is in shortage in all countries (see Annex Table A.3). While AI is expected to replace routine clerical tasks, its diffusion may not yet be sufficiently advanced to produce measurable labour market effects. Moreover, residual and emerging tasks – such as managing digital systems, interpreting outputs and handling non-routine processes – continue to require human input. This suggests that any mitigating effect of AI on skill shortages is not yet visible.
Medicine and dentistry are not among the most acute knowledge shortage areas, but they remain in shortage in many countries. This aligns with persistent shortages of health professionals and health associate professionals. In some countries, such as Brazil and Italy, these knowledge areas appear to be in balance despite substantial shortages in health occupations (see Annex Table A.4). This reflects the aggregate nature of the indicator: knowledge areas very important for a small number of occupations may appear less in shortage than those important for a broader range of occupations.
Knowledge shortages for the most recent year available for the OECD area
Note: The OECD average is the mean of the skill-level indicator for the most recent year available for OECD Member countries included in the Skills for Jobs Database. The latest available year is 2024 for most countries. Exceptions are Chile and Norway (2022); Korea, the Slovak Republic, Switzerland and Türkiye (2023); and Australia and New Zealand (2025). The higher the value, the larger the shortage. Annex Table A.3 presents country-level knowledge shortages.
Source: OECD (2026[153]), OECD Skills for Jobs Database 2026, www.oecd.org/en/data/dashboards/skills-for-jobs.html.
Shortages are also evident in knowledge areas linked to middle‑skilled occupations, particularly customer and personal service. This domain is in shortage in all countries. While some customer service functions are expected to be automated, personal services remain less exposed to substitution by AI and technology, as they require in-person interaction, adaptability and interpersonal skills.
Building and construction knowledge remains broadly in balance, despite shortages of science and engineering professionals and associate professionals, as well as of trades workers, such as electrical and electronic trade workers and building and related trades workers. This could suggest that the relevant knowledge base exists, but that workers may not be willing to work in these occupations. This may reflect job quality issues – such as working conditions, job security or wages – which limit the attractiveness of these occupations and hinder the mobilisation of available skills, particularly in trade occupations.
3.2.2. Ability shortages
Cognitive abilities, such as reasoning and verbal abilities, are among the abilities most frequently in shortage (see Figure 3.4). These abilities underpin many of the skills required for work, as well as the capacity to acquire new skills (Woessmann, 2025[53]). As a result, they are important for a wide range of occupations, contributing to the abilities being in shortage. Some of these abilities are also essential abilities, such as verbal abilities, which are needed for many occupations, including ones in surplus. This suggests that, despite indications of shortage, the overall availability of some cognitive abilities in the labour market may be more balanced than implied by the indicator.
Ability shortages for the most recent year available for the OECD area
Note: The OECD average is the mean of the skill-level indicator for the most recent year available for OECD Member countries included in the Skills for Jobs Database. The latest available year is 2024 for most countries. Exceptions are Chile and Norway (2022); Korea, the Slovak Republic, Switzerland and Türkiye (2023); and Australia and New Zealand (2025). The higher the value, the larger the shortage. Annex Table A.4 presents country-level ability shortages.
Source: OECD (2026[153]), OECD Skills for Jobs Database 2026, www.oecd.org/en/data/dashboards/skills-for-jobs.html.
Physical and psychomotor abilities, such as control movement abilities, physical strength and endurance, are generally in balance in most countries. These abilities are generally associated with lower-skilled occupations, which are in surplus in many countries. By contrast, sensory abilities, such as visual, auditory and speech abilities, tend to be in shortage.
3.2.3. Skill shortages
Essential skills, which are important for most occupations, are in significant shortage in OECD Member countries (see Figure 3.5). These skills include active listening, reading comprehension and critical thinking. This finding aligns with evidence from the 2023 PIAAC Survey of Adult Skills, which measures adults’ literacy, numeracy and problem-solving skills, finding that around a quarter of the adult population scored at the two lowest levels of the tests (OECD, 2024[4]). These results vary significantly between countries, ranging from around 10% in Finland to 40% in Portugal. In contrast, there is little variation between countries in the shortage of essential skills.
Social skills, including social perceptiveness, co‑ordination, persuasion, negotiation, instructing and service orientation, are also in shortage in the OECD area. This aligns with the demand for social skills generally being on the rise (Deming, 2017[70]), which can lead to shortages when supply does not increase sufficiently. One possible explanation for the growing demand is that technological advances increase the value of skills that are less amenable to automation, such as social and interpersonal skills.
Software skills, such as programming and troubleshooting, are generally in balance despite widespread shortages of ICT professionals and technicians. This may partly reflect how skill shortages are measured. Since skill shortages are calculated by aggregating information across occupations, skills that are highly important for a relatively small number of occupations may appear less in shortage than more broadly used skills, even when the underlying occupations face significant shortages. The finding that software skills appear broadly in balance should therefore be interpreted with caution. For example, employer surveys suggest that skill shortages are slowing the adoption of AI technologies, indicating that the supply of relevant technical skills may not be keeping pace with demand (OECD, 2026[160]).
Skill shortages for the most recent year available for the OECD area
Note: The OECD average is the mean of the skill-level indicator in the most recent year available for OECD Member countries included in the Skills for Jobs Database. The latest available year is 2024 for most countries. Exceptions are Chile and Norway (2022); Korea, the Slovak Republic, Switzerland and Türkiye (2023); and Australia and New Zealand (2025). The higher the value, the larger the shortage. Annex Table A.5 and Table A.6 present country-level skill shortages.
Source: OECD (2026[153]), OECD Skills for Jobs Database 2026, www.oecd.org/en/data/dashboards/skills-for-jobs.html.
The analysis highlights that there is no single solution to skill shortages. The drivers of shortages differ across occupations and sectors, ranging from rapid growth in demand for digital skills, to demographic pressures in healthcare, to recruitment and retention challenges linked to working conditions. As a result, policy responses need to combine measures that expand the supply of skills, support labour market transitions and improve job quality. This section lists potential policy responses, and Box 3.1 presents policy recommendations tailored to the occupations most in shortage.
Strengthen skills assessment and anticipation systems. Effective skills policies require timely information on emerging labour market needs. Strengthening skills assessment and anticipation systems can help align education and training provision with labour demand and support more efficient allocation of workers across occupations and sectors (OECD, 2016[162]; OECD, 2026[90]).
Strengthen initial education and adult learning. As the green transition and the adoption of AI reshape skill demand, workers increasingly require a combination of strong foundational skills and occupation-specific competencies (OECD, 2023[163]). While the latter may need to be updated repeatedly over the life course, strong foundational skills support continuous learning, adaptability and the acquisition of new technical skills as job requirements evolve (Woessmann, 2025[53]). Developing these skills requires strong initial education systems alongside accessible, high-quality adult learning opportunities (OECD, 2023[163]; OECD, 2026[164]; OECD, 2026[165]). Micro-credentials can contribute by lowering barriers to participation in learning and enabling workers to acquire new competencies throughout their careers (OECD, 2024[166]).
Create flexible pathways into occupations facing persistent shortages. Expanding career and training pathways can help attract workers into occupations where labour demand is expected to remain strong. In healthcare, flexible learning pathways and support for career transitions can broaden the available talent pool (OECD/ILO, 2026[167]). In education, flexible entry routes and programmes for second-career teachers can help reduce persistent teacher shortages (OECD, 2025[158]).
Promote skills-first hiring approaches. Skills-first hiring approaches prioritise demonstrated competencies over traditional qualifications, enabling employers to access broader talent pools and adapt more dynamically to evolving skill needs, particularly in rapidly changing sectors such as technology (OECD, 2024[166]).
Strengthen career guidance to support transitions into shortage occupations. Providing timely information on employment prospects, skill requirements and training opportunities can encourage both young people and mid-career workers to enter occupations facing persistent shortages. This can help expand talent pipelines into these occupations and improve the responsiveness of labour supply to changing skill needs (OECD, 2021[168]; OECD, 2022[169]).
Improve job quality in shortage occupations. Persistent shortages are often linked not only to insufficient skill supply but also to difficulties attracting and retaining workers. Improving job quality, including working conditions, work-life balance and occupational health, can help mitigate shortages in sectors characterised by shift work, physical strain and elevated mental health risks (OECD, 2023[155]; Causa et al., 2025[9]; OECD, 2025[156]).
Support labour mobility while strengthening international co‑ordination. Labour shortages often differ between countries, creating opportunities for labour mobility to improve the matching of workers to jobs. Within Europe, policies that facilitate the recognition of qualifications, improve information on job opportunities and support worker mobility through instruments, such as EURES, can help alleviate shortages in occupations and sectors where labour demand exceeds local supply (European Labour Authority, 2026[7]). However, mobility is less effective where shortages are widespread across countries, as is the case for health professionals. In such occupations, cross-border mobility can alleviate shortages in destination countries while exacerbating them in countries of origin, particularly in parts of Eastern and Southern Europe that experience significant outflows of doctors and nurses (OECD, 2025[170]; WHO Regional Office for Europe, 2025[171]). Mitigating these shortages therefore requires co‑ordinated approaches that combine mobility policies with investments in domestic training capacity, workforce planning and retention.
ICT professionals, as well as information and communications technicians, are among the occupations facing the greatest shortages. These shortages are likely linked to digitalisation of economies and the rapid development of AI technologies, as labour supply has struggled to keep pace with growing demand (OECD, 2016[172]; Squicciarini and Nachtigall, 2021[173]; Borgonovi et al., 2023[174]). The share of women in these occupations is very low (only 20% in OECD Member countries – see Figure 3.6), which suggests potential to tackle these shortages by increasing participation among under-represented groups. In addition, information and communications technicians tend to have a relatively older workforce, indicating a need to strengthen talent pipelines to replace workers approaching retirement. Reducing these shortages will require broadening the supply of ICT talent through career guidance, skills-first hiring practices, flexible learning pathways and micro-credentials, as well as designing education and training courses to respond to rapidly changing skill needs (OECD, 2024[166]).
Share of females, under 30 and over 50 among ICT professionals and information and communications technicians
Note: The statistics include Austria, Belgium Flanders, Canada, Chile, the Czech Republic (Czechia), Denmark, England, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Korea, Lithuania, Latvia, the Netherlands, Norway, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States.
Source: PIAAC Survey of Adult Skills 2023.
Health professionals and health associate professionals have been in persistent shortage in OECD Member countries over the last two decades, reflecting a structural imbalance as labour supply has not kept pace with rising demand for healthcare services, resulting from growing care needs and population ageing (OECD/European Commission, 2024[154]). Retention challenges linked to demanding working conditions have further exacerbated these shortages (OECD, 2023[155]; Causa et al., 2025[9]; OECD, 2025[156]). These shortages may intensify as a sizeable share of the healthcare workforce approaches retirement age: around 30% of workers in these occupations are aged over 50, while less than 20% are under 30 (see Figure 3.7).
Mitigating these shortages requires educating more health professionals and health associate professionals and improving working conditions (OECD, 2023[155]). Expanding participation among under-represented groups could contribute to these efforts, particularly among men, who account for less than 30% of employment in these occupations (see Figure 3.7). However, health professionals currently have, on average, more than 16 years of education, implying that expanding the supply of qualified workers is likely to take considerable time (OECD, 2024[4]). Complementary measures, such as expanding flexible learning and career pathways into healthcare occupations, including for workers transitioning from other sectors, can help broaden the available talent pool (OECD/ILO, 2026[167]).
Share of females, under 30 and over 50 among health professionals and health associate professionals
Note: The statistics include Austria, Belgium Flanders, Canada, Chile, Czechia, Denmark, England, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Korea, Lithuania, Latvia, the Netherlands, Norway, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States.
Source: PIAAC Survey of Adult Skills 2023.
Teaching professionals, like health professionals, have been in persistent shortage in many OECD Member countries, and these shortages will likely intensify as a sizeable share of the workforce approaches retirement age. More than 30% of teachers are aged over 50, compared with only around 10% aged under 30 (see Figure 3.8). In addition, teachers have, on average, more than 16 years of education, implying that educating more teachers is unlikely to alleviate shortages in the short term (OECD, 2024[4]; OECD, 2025[158]). Reducing these shortages will therefore require measures to facilitate entry into the profession, including through flexible learning pathways and opportunities for mid-career transitions (OECD, 2025[158]). Educating more teachers and expanding participation among under-represented groups can contribute to reducing shortages in the long-term.
Share of females, under 30 and over 50 among teaching professionals
Note: The statistics include Austria, Belgium Flanders, Canada, Chile, Czechia, Denmark, England, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Korea, Lithuania, Latvia, the Netherlands, Norway, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, the Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United States.
Source: PIAAC Survey of Adult Skills 2023.