Access to affordable housing remains a central policy challenge in Poland, as the social housing stock has declined in recent decades, and ongoing efforts to deinstitutionalise support services have further increased demand. This chapter assesses policy challenges and draws on international practices to provide actionable recommendations for expanding housing solutions for people with limited or no support needs. The chapter recommends increasing the supply of affordable housing and mobilising privately-owned dwellings for social purposes. It also recommends providing tailored housing solutions with integrated social and health services for people with higher support needs by further integrating social and housing services, increasing the supply of supported and training housing, and implementing measures to prevent homelessness. Finally, Poland can provide support for preventive housing adaptations and renovations to improve the physical accessibility of dwellings.
Housing Reforms in Czechia and Poland
Abstract
Access to affordable housing has become an increasingly pressing policy priority in Poland, as housing supply has not kept pace with demand, contributing to growth in real house prices over the past decade. Many low-income households spend a large share of their disposable income on housing: among households in the bottom income quintile, nearly two-thirds of renters in the private rental market and a third of owners with a mortgage spent over 40% of their disposable income on total housing costs (including mortgage principal and interest repayment, rents, insurance, mandatory services and charges, regular maintenance and repair, taxes and utilities) (OECD, 2024[1]). Further, an estimated 35% of all households fall into the “rental gap,” as it is characterised by the Polish authorities – that is, they earn too much to qualify for municipal housing, yet struggle to afford purchasing or renting on the market. The rate varies across different household types and is highest among single-parent households and two parent-households with three or more children, where it can exceed 60% (Czerniak and Kroszka, 2024[2]). Poland’s high rate of home ownership (around 83% in 2021; see Chapter 1) has, in part, traditionally helped to cope with this situation, particularly among households who own their home outright. However, the existing housing stock is, on average, ageing and of poor quality, with just under a third of households living in overcrowded housing conditions (OECD, 2024[1]).
Other factors, including the arrival of over a million Ukrainian refugees in Poland since February 2022, have put further strain on the housing market. More than 1.9 million people have registered for temporary protection in Poland as of the end of 2024 – the highest number among EU countries – and nearly a million refugees have been recorded in Poland (UNHCR, 2025[3]). The vast majority of Ukrainian refugees are women and children, and most have settled in cities, in some cases, expanding the population of urban areas by more than half (see Table 3.1). The inflow of refugees has increased pressure on an already tight rental housing market, reinforcing the upward pressure on rental prices, while also deepening the need for social integration measures in local communities.
These evolutions of the housing market have occurred in parallel to the broader process of deinstitutionalisation, whereby Poland has continued its efforts to shift the provision of social services from institutional to community-based settings in municipalities. The ongoing deinstitutionalisation of support services in Poland, and more broadly in the European Union, relates to, inter alia, long-term care and health facilities, the foster care system, the criminal justice system and emergency shelters for people experiencing homelessness (Cojocariu, 2022[4]). This is in line with the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, as well as EU Guidance on independent living and inclusion in the community (Box 3.1).
Deinstitutionalisation refers to a shift in the provision of services from institutional to community-based care. This transition is based on several international and European conventions and charters, including:
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities;
The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child;
The United Nations Guidelines on the Use and Conditions of Alternative Care for Children; and
The European Fundamental Rights Charter.
As part of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, the Guidelines on deinstitutionalisation, including in emergencies states that “[d]einstitutionalisation comprises interconnected processes that should focus on restoring autonomy, choice and control to persons with disabilities as to how, where and with whom they decide to live.” In addition, “[d]einstitutionalisation processes should aim at ending all forms of institutionalisation, isolation and segregation of persons with disabilities, in both private and public spheres” (UN Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2022[5]).
At the European level, the European Expert Group on the Transition from Institutional to Community-based care defines deinstitutionalisation as “the process of developing a range of services in the community, including prevention, in order to eliminate the need for institutional care” (European Expert Group on the Transition from Institutional to Community-based Care, 2023[6]).
In this context, many individuals in vulnerable situations face challenges in accessing housing solutions and related social and health supports that enable them to live independently in their local communities. This includes people who may require varied types of integrated housing and health and social care support, such as, for instance, older people, people with disabilities, people with a mental health disorder, youth leaving foster care, people experiencing homelessness, and migrants (Box 3.2).
The analysis covers the following vulnerable groups, summarised in Table 3.1.
Older people
Most older people in Poland live in private dwellings, as caregiving is overwhelmingly provided for by the family. While a large share of older people prefers to stay in their current place of residence, their current housing situation is not always suitable to their needs (Jancz and Trojanek, 2020[7]). Challenges related to current dwellings include, for example, difficulties in providing accessibility features such as lifts, ramps, or other physical adaptations that support mobility, independent living, and self-care. Adaptation involves both the ability to access the housing and to use its features effectively.
People with disabilities
In December 2023, there were 4 million people with a valid certificate of disability or degree of disability issued by a disability assessment board, or a certificate of incapacity for work, representing roughly 10% of the total population. The housing-related adaptations and support needs for people with disabilities vary considerably, depending on the type and intensity of the disability. Relevant adaptations may include, for instance, removing architectural barriers inside and outside residential buildings (as discussed for seniors), or varying levels of care integrated within the housing unit, or accessible within the community.
People with mental health disorders
More than 1.5 million adults and 200 000 children were treated in facilities for psychiatric care and addiction in Poland in 2019 (Ministry of Family and Social Policy, 2022[8]). Several surveys have highlighted the preference for people with mental health disorders to live independently in supported housing rather than in institutional settings (Richter and Hoffmann, 2017[9]).
Youth leaving foster care
At the end of 2023, there were 75300 children and youth in the foster care system in Poland (just under 1% of all children and youth), of which 23% were in institutional care. Among all individuals in the foster care system in Poland, 16.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24. Supporting children who are ageing out of the care system and helping them transition to independent living remains a significant challenge in Poland, as it does in many OECD and EU countries (OECD, 2022[10]). One important barrier to access to housing is that young people leaving the care system are at the bottom of a very long waiting list for social and municipal housing and lack family support to secure other housing.
People experiencing homelessness
In 2024, at least 31 042 people were experiencing homelessness in Poland, representing 0.08% of the total population (Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Policy, 2024[11]). Around three-quarters of those experiencing homelessness (23 404 people) were staying in accommodation for the homeless, while roughly 21% (6 648 people) lived in public areas and places not fit for human habitation. Roughly 3% of people experiencing homelessness (990 people) were accommodated in supported or training housing. Alcohol dependence and family conflict were identified as leading causes of homelessness, while evictions also played an important role (Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Policy, 2024[11]).
Migrants
In 2021, the Polish Census recorded roughly 750 000 people born outside of Poland (OECD, 2023[12]), representing an increase of around 10% since 2011 (Statistics Poland, 2023[13]). In 2021, the main countries of birth of the foreign-born population were Ukraine (24%), Germany (13%) and Belarus (9%). By the end of 2024, approximately 0.95 million Ukrainians were living in Poland under temporary protection, while around 1.9 million Ukrainian refugees -- primarily women and children – had applied for temporary protection from the start of the full-scale invasion through January 2025 (Statistics Poland, 2022[14]). According to a survey jointly conducted by the OECD and the European Union Agency for Asylum (EUAA), nearly half of Ukrainians applying for temporary protection were staying with local families (29%) or with family and friends (20%) in the early part of 2022 (OECD, 2022[15]).
Notes: Individuals may fall into multiple categories: for instance, some older people may live with a physical or mental disability; some people with a disability certificate may also be included in data on people with mental health disorders who have been treated in psychiatric care; some individuals experiencing homelessness or children in foster care may also face mental health challenges. (a) Data refer to people recorded in Polish registers and does not consider the recent increase in refugees and asylum seekers from the conflict in Ukraine. (b) Data from the Ministry of Interior and Administration from end of Q4-2023. From February 24, 2022, to December 27, 2023, around 531 000 people were accommodated in organised accommodation in all Polish voivodeships. This includes centres for common accommodation (e.g., hostels, hotels, etc.), which largely accommodate women, children and/or older people.
Source: Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Policy (2022), Strategy of Social Services; Statistics Poland (2024), The situation of older people in Poland in 2023; Statistics Poland (2024), Disabled persons in Poland in 2023; Statistics Poland (2024), Foster care in 2023; UNHCR (2025), Ukraine Refugee Situation; data from the Ministry of Interior and Administration.
In addition to access to social services, vulnerable groups, notably people with disabilities and older people, often require physical adaptations to their dwellings to live comfortably and safely at home. In the context of a rapidly ageing population – the share of the population aged 65 and over as a percentage of working-aged population is expected to increase from below 30% today to 70% in 2060 – the housing stock will require large-scale adaptations to improve accessibility (United Nations, 2022[16]). For instance, relevant adaptations could include removing architectural barriers inside and outside residential buildings, introducing lifts, ramps, or tactile or lighting features. However, the housing-related adaptations and support needs for people with disabilities and older people vary depending on the type and intensity of the disability.
This chapter proposes a series of policy recommendations to support the Polish authorities in improving housing affordability and delivering tailored housing solutions for vulnerable groups, organised into three pillars:
Pillar 1: Boosting the supply of affordable housing to expand housing solutions for people with limited or no support needs;
Pillar 2: Providing tailored housing solutions with integrated social and health services for people with higher support needs;
Pillar 3: Facilitating physical adaptations to housing for older residents and people with disabilities.
Improving the conditions and affordability of the housing market is an important policy objective for the Polish government and can in turn help to expand opportunities for vulnerable groups – particularly those with limited support needs – to access suitable housing. Diverse housing supports have been designed to target different types of households along the income distribution, including, among other things, social rental and municipal housing, rent subsidies and (for higher-income households) mortgage support (Figure 3.1). Several measures are particularly relevant for vulnerable groups, such as municipal housing or social rental agencies (SANs) (Box 3.3). Building on recent and ongoing policy reforms and planned investments, there are opportunities for the Polish authorities to strengthen the national policy framework for affordable housing and to mobilise the private housing stock for affordable housing solutions for vulnerable groups.
Note: (a) The “rental gap” estimate is taken from: Polityka insight (2024), The rent gap in Poland in the years 2010-2022, https://www.politykainsight.pl/_resource/multimedium/20355765.
Source: Adapted from information provided by the Polish authorities.
Affordable housing is understood as an umbrella term that refers to measures aimed at providing housing at below market rates, with clearly defined eligibility criteria.
Within this framework, different instruments target various population groups. In the Polish context, social housing (mieszkalnictwo społeczne) is subset of affordable housing, and is broadly understood to comprise municipal housing and social rental housing (TBS/SIM).
Types of affordable housing
Municipal housing (budownictwo/mieszkalnictwo komunalne, mieszkaniowe zasoby gminy): dwellings for low-income and very low-income households, and individuals at risk of social exclusion. Municipalities are responsible for managing the stock of municipal housing, including undertaking renovations and setting rent levels and eligibility conditions. Since 2019 there are two different rental agreements for municipal housing: regulated rental agreements for an indefinite duration (umowy najmu na czas nieograniczony); and social rental agreements (umowy najmu socjalnego) – regulated, subsidised rental agreements for a fixed term, dedicated to low-income households and most vulnerable tenants.
Social rental housing (budownictwo/mieszkalnictwo społeczne czynszowe) developed and managed primarily by not-for-profit companies - Social Housing Initiatives (Społeczne Inicjatywy Mieszkaniowe, SIM) and Social Housing Companies (Towarzystwa Budownictwa Społecznego, TBS), for households that have sufficient means to regularly pay rent but whose income is too low to qualify for a mortgage. While the legal framework for TBS was introduced in 1995 to expand the social rental housing stock, national policy shifted in 2021 toward supporting SIMs as the new model for affordable housing development. TBS are typically owned by municipalities, whereas SIMs are often co-owned by municipalities and the Polish Development Bank (BGK). Both TBS and SIMs are currently tasked with increasing access to affordable housing.
Housing cooperatives (spółdzielnie mieszkaniowe) are non-profit private entities, which provide a range of affordable housing options (cooperative tenancy rights, cooperative ownership rights, full ownership, and rental apartments). The majority of housing units provided by cooperatives are owner-occupied: the resident owns the apartment itself, while the cooperative retains ownership of the land and the building. A smaller share of units is rented.
Social rental agencies (Społeczne Agencje Najmu, SANs) are entities that act as an intermediary between flat owners and vulnerable renters. SRAs cover the risk of non-payment or damages in rented dwellings and negotiate rents below market levels (discussed further in section 3.1.2).
Note: This typology has been developed specifically for the purposes of this report, to help align the terminology used in various Polish legislative documents with that found in OECD reports. It is not intended to be exhaustive or a rigid classification of existing measures within the Polish legal framework.
3.1.1. Strengthening the policy framework for affordable housing
A long-term national strategy for affordable housing
A long-term national housing strategy can be an important step to help public authorities define priorities, determine clear, measurable goals and the corresponding actions and resources to achieve them, and convene relevant actors to define and pursue a common objective (OECD, 2024[17]). For a cross-cutting issue such as housing – and particularly with respect to housing policies for vulnerable groups, which often require close coordination with other social and health policy areas – a shared strategy tool at the national level is especially relevant.
In 2016, the Polish Council of Ministers adopted the National Housing Programme (Narodowy Program Mieszkaniowy) by Resolution no. 115/2016, which set out the strategic objectives of the state’s housing policy to 2030, including i) expanding access to housing for people with incomes that do not allow for the purchase or rent of a flat under commercial terms and conditions; ii) supporting people at risk of social exclusion to satisfy their basic housing needs, due to low incomes or a difficult situation; and iii) improving the technical condition of housing and enhancing energy efficiency. However, the National Housing Programme, adopted in 2016, was never updated, and many of the policies and programmes identified therein, such as the Mieszkanie+ package, are no longer active. Further, frequent policy changes have generated uncertainty over the long-term viability of public support schemes and a lack of clarity regarding the general housing policy direction, a point raised by respondents to the OECD Stakeholder Survey.
Recent developments highlight the growing importance of housing in the policy agenda and reflect the government’s long-term commitment to expand the supply of affordable housing. In March 2025, the government repealed the National Housing Programme by Resolution No. 21 of the Council of Ministers. A new set of housing policy instruments, Keys to Housing, will be introduced, reflecting a revised strategic vision developed and implemented by the Ministry of Economic Development and Technology. These new measures will be incorporated into the broader framework for housing policy under the Medium-Term Development Strategy to 2035 (Średniookresowa Strategia Rozwoju Kraju do 2035 roku), which is being coordinated by the Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy.
Resources, incentives and tools to expand and improve social rental and municipal housing
While Poland has recorded some of the most dynamic housing development in Europe in recent years, only a very small share of new development (around 2%) has been dedicated to social housing (Samorek and Cichocki, 2023[18]). Social housing (mieszkalnictwo społeczne) makes up around 6.3% of the total housing stock in Poland, close to the OECD and (7%) and EU averages (7% and 7.7%, respectively). In Poland, social housing consists of the dwelling stock owned by municipalities (gminas), social housing initiatives (SIM), social housing companies (TBS) and the State Treasury, in addition to other companies and entities (see Box 3.3).
Municipalities are responsible for providing and maintaining municipal housing (budownictwo/mieszkalnictwo komunalne) for low-income people, but the stock is insufficient and often of poor quality. As a result, many low-income households are not able to access municipal housing, despite meeting the eligibility requirements. There are about 120 000 households on the waiting list nationally (Statistics Poland, 2024[19]) . In 2022, the average waiting time for municipal housing was approximately five years (Statistics Poland, 2022[20]).
Further, many municipalities lack the resources to develop and maintain the municipal stock. This is due, in part, to recently implemented changes to income tax revenues, which have reduced the projected revenues of local governments (Law of 7 October 2022 about amendments to the Corporate Income Tax Act and certain other acts, 2022[21]). This is also due to the rent-setting arrangements of municipal housing. Rent levels are set by municipalities, within the limits defined by national legislation, which sets a cap of up to 3% of the replacement value (wartość odtworzeniowa). The replacement value is determined by regional authorities (voivodeship) for each region and capital city, based on average construction costs. In practice, however, the rent levels set by municipalities are often significantly lower than the 3% limit by national legislation: in 2021, the average base rent rate was 1.27%. This is partially attributable to the issue of rent arears, as over 50% of households living in municipal housing were indebted in 2023; in some cases, however, households with sufficient means may choose not to pay rent due to the complex process of initiating evictions (Lipej and Turel, 2018[22]). Further, rent subsidies are calculated based on municipal rent levels, meaning that any increase in municipal rents would raise the fiscal burden on municipalities. Due to limited enforcement tools, municipal authorities set lower rent levels to minimise losses and alleviate the impact of rent arears on their fiscal health. As a result, municipal rent levels are approximately four times lower than those in the private rental market, according to the Ministry of Economic Development and Technology1. As a result, municipalities struggle to recover maintenance costs and in many cases have sold off a large share of their municipal housing stock (between 1995 and 2022, the stock of municipal housing in Poland decreased by more than half). A recent reform enables local governments to adjust rent levels based on tenant income for leases signed after 2019. Since April 2019, tenants of municipal housing have been required to submit a declaration of assets, which serves as a basis for the adjustment of the level of rent. Refusal to declare assets can result in the termination of the rental contract. However, local authorities are not allowed to verify the income levels of tenants who have signed a contract before 2019. Therefore, it is likely that part of the stock of municipal housing is occupied by people with an income exceeding the maximum income threshold, suggesting that the stock could be put to more efficient use. Finally, the sale of municipal housing often involves substantial discounts, thus generating insufficient revenue to finance the construction of new units and further weakening the long-term capacity of municipalities to meet housing needs.
Municipalities have access to a range of financing tools aimed at supporting local social housing policies (Box 3.4). Programmes operated by the National Development Bank (BGK) (see also Chapter 1) have seen growing interest among municipalities in recent years, with the demand rising sixfold since 2019. In 2023, government funding for the social and municipal housing programme (BSK) reached a record high of over PLN 1.5 billion (EUR 350 million). This marks a substantial increase compared to the funding of just over PLN 81 million (EUR 19 million) for similar projects in 2014. Within the scope of the BSK programme, the number of agreements financed by the subsidy fund of BGK rose from 40 in 2020 to 394 in 2022. At present, BGK cannot meet the demand for all projects, resulting in projects receiving funding on a first-come, first-serve basis. The demand for funds in 2025, based on applications submitted to BGK, is estimated at approximately PLN 3 billion (EUR 704 million), with projections suggesting it could rise to as much as PLN 4 billion (EUR 938 million). This stands in stark contrast to the PLN 1 billion (EUR 235 million) allocated in the 2025 budget law.
To expand the stock municipal housing and social rental housing, the BGK offers the following funding sources:
Social and Municipal Housing Support Programme (Program Wsparcia Budownictwa Socjalnego i Komunalnego, BSK): The BSK programme provides municipalities with non-repayable funding that can cover up to 80% of investment costs in new housing projects, and 50% of investment costs to modernise dwellings. The majority of financing is used to develop the municipal housing stock, but it can also be used to expand the stock of supported and training housing, as well as night shelters for people experiencing homelessness, and the creation or modernisation of social and technical infrastructure (refer to Box 3.9 for an overview of long-term housing solutions and housing-related services for vulnerable groups in Poland).
Social Rental Housing Support Programme (Program Wspierania Społecznego Budownictwa Czynszowego, SBC): The SBC programme provides preferential repayable loans for up to 80% of the cost of the construction or modernisation of rental dwellings with below-market rent, targeted towards households within the rental gap – that is they are that is, they earn too much to qualify for municipal housing (mieszkania gminne/mieszkania komunalne), yet struggle to afford purchasing or renting on the market. This includes the development of rental dwellings managed by social housing initiatives (SIM), social housing societies (TBS), municipal companies and housing cooperatives.
To capitalise on the growing interest of local governments in funding solutions for social housing development, among the housing measures recently proposed by the government, there is a substantial increase in public investment in municipal housing (BSK) and social rental housing (SBC). Approximately PLN 2.5 billion (EUR 600 million) are to be allocated for the BSK and SBC programmes in 2025, with total investment projected to reach up to PLN 45 billion (EUR 11 billion) by 2030. Further, the SBC programme is being extended for another year, with renewed emphasis on the need to develop a successor programme with similar objectives once SBC is phased out. Additionally, new housing policy measures, including "First Keys" and "Investments First Keys," aim to further support affordable housing development. This includes efforts to preserve the supply of municipal housing and social rental housing over the long term, including by reinstating a ban on the sale of SBC-funded housing units and extending the restriction period for selling BSK-funded units from 15 to 25 years, with any proceeds to be reinvested into new or existing municipal housing.
3.1.2. Mobilising the private housing stock for social purposes
In addition to improving and expanding the social housing supply, there are also opportunities to mobilise the private housing stock for social purposes. Social rental intermediation schemes – which are gaining ground in many OECD and EU countries – involve a variety of measures to help tenants access the private rental market at an affordable rent level. Such schemes can complement a country’s formal social housing stock and are often facilitated by social rental agencies, which play an intermediary role between property owners and social tenants. Measures can include, among other things, guaranteed rent or deposit schemes, the procurement of rental dwellings through negotiated leases with landlords on behalf of social tenants, property management on behalf of the landlord, and/or training and support for landlord-tenant mediation. In addition, renovating and repurposing vacant residential and, where feasible, non-residential units to affordable housing can be another potential source to expand the availability of suitable housing solutions.
Efforts to mobilise the private housing stock for social purposes are especially relevant in Poland, where the tenancy system is complex, with 16 types of rental contracts (e.g., verbal contracts, institutional rent contracts, etc.), which vary in the level of protections offered to property owners and tenants. Eviction proceedings last several years on average. As a result, property owners are often hesitant to lease dwellings to low-income households and other people in vulnerable situations, due to perceived risks relating to non-payment or damages, as well as stigma.
Rental guarantees to incentivise property owners to lease dwellings to vulnerable groups
Rental guarantees can be a useful tool to provide assurances to private property owners to lease dwellings to social tenants at affordable rates, thereby aiming to mitigate risks of leasing dwellings to tenants who may be considered higher risk of default. Rental guarantees provide assurance to homeowners that the rent will be paid over the duration of the contract. An analysis based on data in the United States found that the introduction of rental guarantees reduces housing instability and homelessness, particularly for young and lower-income households, while improving risk-sharing and reducing security deposits (Abramson and Nieuwerburgh, 2024[23]). Further, a study conducted in the United Kingdom found that the introduction of rental guarantees improved the likelihood that owners would rent to those receiving minimum income benefits, highlighting the potential for rental guarantees to reduce the discrimination facing vulnerable groups in the housing market (Kolker et al., 2021[24]). A number of OECD countries have put in place rental guarantee schemes, including the Garantie Visale in France (Box 3.5). Such schemes could be relevant in Poland to assuage property owner concerns about the potential risks associated with leasing dwellings to social tenants.
Action Logement in France offers a rental guarantee (Garantie Visale) to low-income workers over 30 and young people independent of their employment status, which covers the risk of unpaid rent for the entire duration of the lease. Prior to signing a contract, renters apply directly through the Visale website, where the application is assessed. Following approval from Action Logement, owners receive a deed of guarantee, which they must formally accept on the Visale website. Last, the contract is signed with confirmation that Action Logement will act as a guarantor up to a pre-specified threshold depending on the employment situation of the renter. In the case of non-payment of rent or damages to the property, Action Logement reimburses the owner with the amount due by the renter. Action Logement then requires the renter to reimburse the sum of unpaid rent, according to a schedule which varies based on the financial means of the renter. In the case of continued non-payment, Action Logement can initiate an eviction procedure against the renter. As of mid-2025, more than 1.7 million households have been covered by Visale since its launch.
Visale is financed directly by Action Logement, which receives 0.45% of the income of non-agricultural workers (14 million workers) in the private sector to expand housing construction in France, including social and affordable housing.
In 2021, the Research Centre for the Study and Observation of Living Conditions (CREDOC) circulated a survey to beneficiaries of Visale, including both renters and owners. The survey found that 83% of users agreed that Visale facilitated their access to housing. Further, it found that 76% of owners loosen their selection criteria for future renters if they utilise Visale, and that 79% of contracts which utilised Visale would not have been agreed upon without Visale.
Social rental agencies as intermediaries between property owners and social tenants
Social rental agencies (Społeczne Agencje Najmu, or SANs) have been gaining in importance in Poland, yet remain underdeveloped. SANs have largely targeted middle-income households and vulnerable individuals at risk of exclusion. SANs assume the risks relating to non-payment or damages in the rented flats and can also offer additional social services for tenants. Analysis from Flanders (Belgium) found that social rental agencies are more likely to reach vulnerable groups than municipal housing, and tenants are more likely to have access to social support services (Winters and Van Den Broeck, 2022[25]). France also has an established system of social rental intermediation schemes to facilitate access to affordable housing for social tenants (Box 3.6).
In France, rental intermediation (intermédiation locative) helps to improve the affordability of rental housing, particularly for vulnerable populations who face difficulties in securing accommodation on the private market. In practice, it involves the collaboration of public and private actors to bridge the gap between landlords and tenants in the commercial rental sector, providing guarantees to owners of private rental dwellings while ensuring stable, accessible housing for tenants.
Rental intermediation relies on two operational modes in France:
Social rental agencies (Agences Immobilières Sociales – AIS), such as AIVS/FAPIL or Soliha-AIS, are accredited by the local prefect to sign management mandates (mandats de gestion) with private owners. The AIS establishes the lease between the landlord and the tenant, ensures the maintenance of the dwellings and can offer a guarantee on the rent to the landlord, as well as social assistance to the tenant. The duration of lease must be at least three years, and in exchange landlords are eligible for a reduction in property income taxes up to 65% (depending on the rent reduction) through the ANAH’s Loc'Avantages programme, as well as technical and financial assistance to renovate their dwellings.
The Solibail rental intermediation mechanism allows property owners to rent their dwellings to an association or NGO at a reduced price for a minimum of three years. It is overseen by the Regional and Inter-Departmental Habitat and Housing Administrations (Direction Régionale et Interdépartementale de l'Hébergement et du Logement – DRIHL), which establishes the list of public-interest NGOs and associations allowed to use Solibail (e.g. NGOs providing housing solutions to people experiencing homelessness). As the formal renter, the association or NGO pays rent to the landlord every month, on behalf of the tenant – meaning the landlord has a guaranteed rental income for the duration of the lease, even if the dwelling is vacant. The association can then rent out the dwelling to people in need of an affordable housing solution. As of January 2023, more than 7 000 flats had been rented in the Paris-Ile de France region through this mechanism, with more than 5 000 participating property owners.
In Poland, SANs may be operated by NGOs, other public benefit entities, limited liability companies and joint stock companies in which the municipality (or municipalities) holds more than 50% of the shares. Property owners have several incentives to set rent at below-market levels, including a tax exemption on rental income, a guarantee of regular rent payments, and relief from administrative duties (which are taken over by SANs). Starting from 1 January 2024, SRAs may also purchase housing to carry out renovations and adapt dwellings that are vacant and/or of poor quality.
The stock of apartments managed by SANs in Poland remains limited. Social rental agencies – including formalised SANs and similar models, all primarily operated by NGOs – currently manage over 400 housing units.2 By the end of 2024, 12 municipalities reported to the Minister of Economic Development and Technology that they had entered into cooperation agreement with an entity operating a SAN. The expansion of SANs depends on municipalities, which must initiate a partnership with an entity interested in operating as one. However, many municipalities face tight budget constraints, especially following the 2023 reforms to income tax revenues and often lack the necessary technical capacity in housing policy. While current programmes provide a legal framework for establishing SANs and offer funding to support the renovation of vacant housing for SAN use, additional efforts are needed to incentivise municipalities to prioritise SAN development and facilitate the ability of SANs to procure housing units to manage.
The recently adopted legal instrument for SANs (Ustawa z dnia 28 maja 2021 r. o zmianie ustawy o niektórych formach popierania budownictwa mieszkaniowego oraz niektórych innych ustaw (Dz.U. poz. 1243)) is expected to facilitate scaling up SANs in municipalities, and the Ministry of Economic Development and Technology is considering additional legislative proposals to further develop SANs. Although there is currently no legal framework to guarantee stable, long-term central funding for SANs, the Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy has taken steps to leverage ESF+ resources. In 2024 and 2025, the Ministry launched a funding application process, offering a total of PLN 100 million (EUR 23 million) to support local governments in establishing and developing SANs. New agencies can receive up to PLN 10 million (EUR 2.3 million) for three years, to cover operations, renovations, and furnishing. Across the two calls for applications, approximately 700 housing units are expected to be acquired for social leasing. Beneficiaries will include the most vulnerable tenants, in line with the ESF+ programme requirements, reflecting a broadening of the original target group in Poland (e.g., middle-income households caught in the “rental gap”).
The potential to mobilise vacant residential and non-residential buildings for affordable housing
Poland has a substantial share of vacant residential and non-residential dwellings that could be evaluated as a potential of affordable housing. The suitability of repurposing vacant and non-residential dwellings into affordable housing depends on the location and quality of the dwelling, as well as the potential cost-efficiency of undertaking renovations or upgrades. Before moving forward, it would be important for the Polish authorities to assess the role of excess vacancies in limiting the housing supply in high-demand areas (OECD, 2022[26]). If relevant, there are different tools that could be considered to activate the vacant stock. As discussed in section 2.3.2 in Chapter 2, there is some OECD experience with imposing taxes on vacant dwellings. Another option is to offer incentives to property owners to lease a long-vacant property (such as financial support to cover renovation/repair costs, and/or a tax exemption on rental income, see Box 3.7 for examples from Greece).
The Greek government has introduced two measures to activate the vacant private housing stock:
The "Renovate-Rent" programme provides financial support for the renovation or repair of private houses, with the condition that they are later rented out. Participants receive subsidies covering 60% of renovation costs, up to a maximum of EUR 8 000, for total expenses of up to EUR 13 300.
Additionally, the government has introduced a three-year income tax exemption on rental income for property owners who, between September 8, 2024, and December 31, 2025, convert a long-vacant property (unoccupied for at least three years) into a long-term rental.
Such schemes can be costly, however, because they rely on heavy monitoring and compliance checks (OECD, 2022[26]). Experience from Spain suggests that many municipalities lack the technical capacity to ensure the necessary monitoring and compliance (Rousselon and Vessereau, 2023[27]). Such concerns appear relevant in the Polish context. While Polish municipalities have an increasing number of tools to mobilise vacant dwellings, including through setting up municipal companies and/or cooperate with SANs (see previous section), few have the capacity to pursue extensive housing reforms.
Further, mobilising vacant dwellings also often calls for the provision of technical and/or financial support for renovations to improve the quality of the stock, particularly to bring long-vacant dwellings up to standard. While the Polish government provides funding streams to support housing renovations (including through the TERMO and BSK programmes), the scale of funding has so far been insufficient. Additionally, municipalities often lack the technical capacity and human resources to carry out the necessary adaptations. The planned increase in budget allocations for the BSK programme through 2030 presents a valuable opportunity to scale up the renovation of municipal housing stock. Moreover, greater attention could be given to energy renovations in the design of support schemes, with a focus on effectively combining funding streams to achieve greater scale and to reintroduce a more energy-efficient and sustainable housing stock (Box 3.8).
Around 11% of the Polish population is estimated to experience energy poverty, in that they struggle to afford adequate heating, cooling, or lighting. The challenge is closely related to the poor technical condition of much of the residential building stock (see section 1.1.5 in Chapter 1). Nearly 40% of the residential stock was built before 1970 and lacks adequate insulation and efficient heating systems, generating energy losses and, by extension, higher utility bills. As a result, households experiencing energy poverty spend, on average, 35% of their income on heating and lighting, compared to just 13% among the general population (Sokolowski, 2023[28]).
To address this challenge, it will be increasingly important to prioritise energy efficiency improvements in both new housing developments and the renovation of existing buildings. Poland’s Long-Term Renovation Strategy (Długoterminowa strategia renowacji budynków) highlights the need for an estimated EUR 85 billion in investment by 2030 to thermally refurbish both residential and public buildings. To support these efforts, it will also be important to streamline and better coordinate energy renovation funding streams across the public and private sectors, and to leverage relevant EU financial instruments. In particular, the Social Climate Fund should offer a strategic opportunity to finance structural investments in building renovation, clean heating and cooling, and renewable energy deployment.
3.1.3. Recommendations to boost the supply of affordable housing to expand housing solutions for people with limited or no support needs
In the context of ongoing housing policy reforms, clearly defining priorities for affordable housing in strategic documents could help strengthen efforts to boost the supply. In parallel, better mobilising the existing stock, through social rental intermediation schemes and the activation of vacant dwellings, offers additional means in the short- to medium-term to improve access to housing at affordable rent levels for vulnerable groups.
Defining strategic policy priorities for affordable and social housing, along with corresponding actions and resources
The Polish authorities could consider the following policy actions:
Capitalise on the renewed policy emphasis on affordable housing to expand the Medium-Term Development Strategy to 2035 and/or develop other strategic documents to ensure that the affordable housing agenda comprehensively covers the following elements:
Strategies to increase long-term investment in affordable housing, for instance, through:
Exploring the potential to establish a dedicated housing fund (e.g., revolving fund; see examples of different approaches to establishing long-term funding systems for affordable housing in OECD (2024[29]));
Considering potential reforms to the housing taxation system to transition to a value-based system (see OECD (2025[30]) and section 2.3 in Chapter 2).
Complementary policy reforms that would increase the supply of affordable housing, including solutions that are adapted to the needs of vulnerable groups, such as:
Setting targets for affordable housing;
Adjusting incentives to increase the supply of municipal housing, including by reviewing the current income criteria and access thresholds;
Stimulating the private rental market, including by balancing tenant and landlord rights and responsibilities;
Reforming demand-side housing support to better address the needs of vulnerable groups, including reviewing the methodology for setting rent subsidies;
Closely monitoring the impact of other housing policy measures – such as subsidised mortgage schemes facilitating home ownership – on the housing market, to build a robust evidence base on policies that are most effective in supporting the affordable housing agenda.
Such efforts would also benefit from enhanced collaboration among the range of actors in the housing ecosystem (including national ministries, public agencies, municipalities, social housing initiatives and companies (TBS/SIM), housing cooperatives, and other housing developers) to facilitate the provision of a broad range of housing solutions. For instance, the following government institutions could be engaged in the development of the strategy:
Ministry of Economic Development and Technology
Ministry of Family, Labour, and Social Policy
Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy
Ministry of Finance
BGK
Chancellery of the Prime Minister
Additionally, other key actors in the housing sector could be consulted, including:
Regional and local authorities (voivodships, powiats, and gminas)
SANs
Social rental housing providers (TBS/SIM)
Housing cooperatives
Housing developers
NGOs
Mobilising the existing stock for affordable housing, including by scaling up social rental intermediation schemes and exploring the potential to activate vacant buildings
The Polish authorities could consider the following policy actions:
Scale up social rental intermediation schemes, including by offering financial and technical support to help municipalities develop and maintain social rental agencies and incentivise collaboration with private homeowners and legal entities. This could be accomplished through a dedicated legislative proposal for a programme supporting SANs which may include, among other measures, i) dedicated, long-term funding to facilitate the start-up of SANs; ii) support to establish a Community of Practice that could serve as a platform for peer learning, knowledge exchange, and capacity building for actors engaged in social rental schemes.
Consider the introduction of a state-backed rental guarantee system to support vulnerable tenants in the private rental market and incentivise landlords to lease dwellings to social tenants at affordable rates.
Explore the potential to activate, renovate and/or adapt underutilised or vacant buildings, including low-quality municipal housing, by i) assessing the extent of underutilised and/or vacant buildings, as well as the drivers of high vacancy rates; ii) if relevant, considering the feasibility, costs and benefits of activating vacant buildings, as well as the most effective tools to achieve this, such as an exemption from, or a reduced rate of, rental income tax for a specified period for owners who rent out previously vacant dwellings; iii) providing technical support to municipalities to assist them in applying for and carrying out renovations (see also the discussion on municipalities’ technical capacity in section 2.2.4 in Chapter 2).
The following government institutions and other actors could be engaged in the implementation process:
Ministry of Economic Development and Technology
Ministry of Family, Labour, and Social Policy
Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy
Ministry of Finance
SANs
Municipal authorities
Social rental housing providers (TBS/SIM)
NGOs
Some individuals with higher support needs would benefit from more intensive, tailored social and health supports, in addition to housing, to enable them to live independently in their communities, outside of an institutional setting. Temporary shelter and accommodation (e.g., reception centres, night shelters, warming houses) are available in some cases, yet more needs to be done to strengthen the provision of tailored, long-term housing solutions with integrated social and health supports. The type of housing and housing-related supports that are required on an individual basis is highly heterogenous. As a result, a range of long-term housing and housing-related solutions are needed to meet these diverse needs (further detailed in Box 3.9):
living arrangements with 24-hour care to support people who cannot live independently in their communities (such as social assistance homes (DPS), foster care family homes and training appartements for children and adolescents);
supported housing and training apartments providing daytime services for small groups of individuals and/or limited care supports, which can serve either as a long-term solution for individuals requiring lifelong assistance or as an intermediate step towards independent living;
municipal (or social rental) housing that is available to households with low (or moderate) incomes, and adapted to meet any particular physical or care-related needs (see section 3.1.1 above); and/or
support to access market-rate housing (rental or owner-occupied) that can be coupled with any required health and social supports (see section 3.1.1 above).
Longer-term housing solutions and housing-related social servicesa
Social Assistance Homes (Domy pomocy społecznej, DPS): Homes with 24-hour services to support people who cannot live independently in their communities. There are seven types of Social Assistance Homes that each cater to a specific target group: older people, chronically somatically ill people, chronically mentally ill people, adults with intellectual disabilities, children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities, people with physical disabilities and people addicted to alcohol. Homes are managed by municipalities.
Care and educational institution (institutional foster care) (placówki opiekuńczo-wychowawcze): Homes for children who do not have a natural family or a foster family where 24-hour care is provided. Homes are managed by municipalities.
Family Care Homes (rodzinne domy pomocy): Homes with 24-hour living services for three to eight people who require support due to age or disability. Homes are managed by municipalities.
Supported apartments (mieszkania wspomagane): Housing units with day-time services for people who do not require 24-hour care. Supported housing units provide services to encourage and maintain independent living. Homes are managed by municipalities as well as NGOs.
Training apartments (mieszkania treningowe): Housing units with limited services provided for a temporary period of time to teach people to live independently. Homes are managed by municipalities as well as NGOs, with the service commissioned by municipalities.
Housing First (Najpierw mieszkanie): Housing units with extensive wrap-around services provided to people experiencing homelessness on a long-term basis. These are largely managed by NGOs, with the service commissioned by municipalities.
Management of publicly provided housing-related solutions
Social Assistance Centres (Ośrodki Pomocy Społecznej, OPS): Centres that provide most of the social services, including specialised services to vulnerable populations. Social Assistance Centres are primarily responsible for referrals to supported and training housing. These are largely managed by municipalities.
Centres for Social Services (Centra Usług Społecznych, CUS): Recently implemented centres that provide and coordinate a broad range of social services for vulnerable and non-vulnerable populations. When implemented, Centres for Social Services are responsible for referrals to supported and training housing. These are largely managed by municipalities. Social Assistance Centres can be transformed into Centres for Social Services.
District Family Assistance Centres (Powiatowe Centra Pomocy Rodzinie, PCPR): Centres that primarily provide care and counselling to children and young people, as well as mothers with young children. These are largely managed by municipalities.
Note: (a) The housing solutions described here are not mutually exclusive. For instance, the municipal housing stock is also utilised to provide long-term housing solutions, as in the case of supported and training appartements, and Housing First projects.
a. In Poland’s decentralised social policy model, municipalities play a key role in managing support programmes and funding. For example, in the area of disability support, municipal governments administer several PFRON programmes, including: (i) support for persons with disabilities, (ii) the operation of occupational therapy workshops, and (iii) programmes overseen by the PFRON Supervisory Board, such as the Programme for Levelling Regional Disparities and the "Active Local Government" Programme.
3.2.1. Integrating housing and social services to meet the needs of vulnerable groups
One major challenge to providing integrated housing and social services is that housing and social services are treated as distinct policy areas in Poland, both in terms of how the policy areas are governed, as well as how they are funded, making it harder to implement integrated solutions.
Policy co-ordination for housing and social services at central level
Coordination across ministries and government agencies on the provision of housing and social support for vulnerable groups remains limited. The competencies of the Ministry of Economic Development and Technology, which are concentrated on the development of housing infrastructure, generally do not cover social service provision; conversely, the Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Policy, which oversees the provision of social services and supported and training housing, lack competencies relating more broadly to the provision of affordable housing. While both Ministries have an important role in developing housing solutions for individuals who require both housing and integrated social services, there is little coordination between them. Additionally, the Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Development plays a key role in the management of EU funding, which is an important funding source for affordable and supported housing schemes. Reducing the fragmentation between housing and social services would be beneficial both to help individuals access the integrated support they need, while also enabling service providers to meet housing and social needs in a more efficient, co-ordinated way.
OECD experience suggests that an inter-ministerial body with a dedicated staff, budget, and operational mandate can help to improve governance on multidisciplinary issues, including housing for vulnerable groups, preventing silos, and ensuring coordination across subject areas. Poland could draw on France’s Inter-ministerial Delegation for Access to Housing (Délégation Interministérielle à l’Hébergement et l’Accès au Logement, DIHAL) as a successful example (Box 3.10). As a step in this direction – albeit for a more narrow target population – in July 2024, the Polish Commissioner for Human Rights renewed his official request for the Prime Minister to appoint a plenipotentiary or a team for combatting homelessness at the government level to co-ordinate actions across ministries (Public Information Bulletin of the Commissioner for Human Rights, 2024[31]).
At the national level, the Inter-ministerial Delegation for Access to Housing (Délégation Interministérielle à l’Hébergement et l’Accès au Logement – DIHAL), created in 2010, leads national policies relating to housing and support services for vulnerable groups, including people experiencing homelessness, and allocates funding to regional services. The DIHAL is administratively linked to the Prime Minister’s office and collaborates closely with the Ministry responsible for housing, including weekly meetings between the DIHAL and the Ministry. It works across departments to facilitate co-operation on homelessness and housing precarity. The delegation is made up of civil servants from diverse backgrounds, including, among other things, housing experts, social policy experts, and health experts. While the DIHAL follows the strategic priorities of the government, it is responsible for drafting national strategies related to homelessness, which notably includes the two Housing First plans (Logement d’abord). The overall budget of DIHAL is around EUR 3 billion per year, which includes funding for the shelter stock, support to social services, and Housing First solutions.
National and EU funds for integrated housing and social supports
Access to long-term funding is perceived as another major barrier to the provision of integrated housing and social services for people who need more intensive services. Currently, there is no legislative framework to ensure the long-term financial feasibility of various housing solutions with tailored support needs, while also allowing the necessary flexibility to adapt these solutions to specific contextual requirements. Rather, existing funding streams are largely programme-based and fragmented, making it difficult to co-ordinate the housing and social support components. As a result, housing providers lack resources and incentives to develop integrated solutions and facilitate deinstitutionalisation at scale. Indeed, in the OECD Stakeholder Survey, over 75% of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that a lack of funding to develop and operate housing solutions with access to support services and/or that can support both housing and social/health care needs was an important challenge to providing tailored housing solutions and related support services (Figure 3.2).
Note: 1) Participants responded to the prompts using a Likert scale: Strongly agree, Agree, Neither agree nor disagree, Disagree or Strongly Disagree. 2) Participants were responding to the following prompts: “Challenges to access long-term funding solutions to develop and operate integrated housing solutions with access to health and social services” (100 responses), “Difficulties to assemble adequate project funding that can support both housing and social/health care needs” (98 responses).
Source: 2024 OECD Stakeholder Survey: Affordable Housing in Poland.
For example, while the “For Life” programme provides up to 80% co-financing for the entire project costs of supported housing (including the reconstruction, renovation or purchase of equipment), the funding is relatively small (PLN 13 million, or EUR 3 million). Other housing programmes, such as the much larger BSK (Program Budownictwa Społecznego Komunalnego) and SBC (Program Społecznej Budowy Czynszowej) programmes (over PLN 5 billion, or EUR 1.2 billion), which aim to increase the stock of municipal and social rental housing, do not cover social service needs. While the BSK programme provides funding for the construction of supported and training apartments – also accessible to powiats, NGOs, and social enterprises – it does not cover operating costs, which has contributed to the limited uptake of the available funds. Combining funding for housing programmes with social services, such as the personal assistant of a person with a disability programme (Asystent osobisty osoby z niepełnosprawnością), is difficult, as funding schedules, programme requirements and application processes vary.
Further, municipal authorities and NGOs face difficulties in leveraging different sources of EU funds – namely through the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and the European Social Fund Plus (ESF+) funding schemes – to finance the development of housing and social services. ERDF funds generally aim to correct imbalances between regions, including through the construction or improvement of infrastructure (European Commission, 2023[32]), whereas ESF+ funds focus on responding to social challenges, including through strengthening social protection and promoting employment (European Commission, 2023[33]). Although each fund has been used to improve housing solutions or the provision of social services, different programme criteria, funding timelines and strict limitation thresholds for cross-financing make it hard for municipalities and NGOs to leverage these funding streams for integrated projects. Moreover, the design of funding applications and programme requirements do not always align with the needs of regional and local actors. Many smaller NGOs and local authorities lack the resources to apply for and manage funding, and there is frequently inadequate preparation, promotion, and dissemination of information regarding planned and ongoing competitions. Finally, according to analysis conducted by the Polish Federation for Combating Homelessness, rules imposing funding limits per beneficiary and service location impede the service providers’ ability to deliver tailored support and can in turn reduce the quality of life for residents.
More can be done to enhance cross-government coordination across national, regional and local authorities and actors to ensure that funding schedules for EU funding sources are aligned at the regional and local level. This would enable managing authorities to develop funding applications that are tailored to local needs and can help to ensure the delivery of integrated housing solutions. Additionally, improved information on available funding and application schedules, and more comprehensive guidance could benefit a wide range of regional and local actors.
Thus far, the potential for partnerships with international financial institutions in Europe for developing social and integrated housing solutions has largely remained untapped in Poland. However, such partnerships and collaborative projects with international financial institutions in Europe could help to ease access to funding for municipalities and local actors struggling to secure external financing, while also helping to deliver solutions at scale. Some countries have introduced approaches that leverage external sources of funding while aiming to simplify the application process for municipalities.
Notably, in France, the Banque des Territoires and the Union Sociale pour l’Habitat partnered with the European Investment Bank and the Council of Europe Development Bank to form the European Alliance for Social Housing (Box 3.11). Poland could draw on the French example of the European Alliance for Social Housing to facilitate access to EU funds.
The European Alliance for Social Housing in France facilitates access to European funding by acting as an intermediary between European funders and French social housing organisations. Established in 2020, it was formed through a partnership between the Banque des Territoires, the Union Sociale pour l’Habitat, the European Investment Bank, and the Council of Europe Development Bank.
In 2021, the alliance secured a loan of EUR 650 million in European funding to support social housing in France. A total of EUR 500 million was earmarked to accelerate social housing construction, while EUR 150 million was allocated to adapted housing – particularly for vulnerable groups – supported housing, and health and social care facilities.
Source: Banque des territoires (2021[34]).
Housing and social service delivery at the municipal level
Many individuals report a shortage of community-based support services for housing and social supports that meet their needs. Over 60% of service beneficiaries responding to the OECD Stakeholder Survey agreed or strongly agreed that they lacked knowledge about available housing solutions that would meet their specific needs (Figure 3.3).
Note: Participants responded to the prompts using a Likert scale: Strongly agree, Agree, Neither agree nor disagree, Disagree or Strongly Disagree. The number of respondents varied from 21 to 22 for each item.
Source: 2024 OECD Stakeholder Survey: Affordable Housing in Poland.
While the responsibility for the provision of housing and social supports for vulnerable groups primarily rests with municipal governments, there is scope to enhance coordination at the local level among actors providing social services. The Centres for Social Services, while still not uniformly developed across Poland, have been created with the objective of improving coordination between a broad range of social actors. This role could be expanded to provide comprehensive information on housing solutions and corresponding services tailored to individuals’ needs, drawing on the Coordinated Access model in Canada (Box 3.12). In this way, Centres for Social Services in Poland could function as a “one-stop-shop”, where individuals could access information about available housing solutions and services and receive referrals to service providers as well as assistance with the application process. Social Assistance Centres could assume the aforementioned role in municipalities where Centres for Social Services have not yet been implemented.
Coordinated Access is an integrated approach adopted by Canada’s Reaching Home Strategy in 2019, through which people experiencing or at risk of homelessness are directed to community-level access points where trained workers use common assessment tools to evaluate their needs and refer them to relevant support services. The approach utilises centralised information management systems (shared databases on people experiencing homelessness and housing inventories) to ensure information is shared between all relevant actors providing housing and social service support. This helps people experiencing or at risk of homelessness receive access to timely and appropriate support based on their specific needs. Coordinated Access typically includes:
Access to a first point of contact;
Triage to determine whether an individual requires eviction prevention or shelter diversion;
Assessment of strengths, vulnerabilities, and barriers to access support;
Prioritisation into centrally managed housing resources based on an assessment tool;
Referral to relevant housing and support services, based on vacancy and priority.
The Coordinated Access approach ensures people experiencing or at risk of homelessness are treated consistently across Canada and helps avoid duplication of efforts from service providers. Moreover, communities can utilise central databases to determine the number of people experiencing homelessness and to monitor their system performance and correct course in real time, if needed.
The Coordinated Access approach became a mandatory requirement in 2019 for communities receiving funding through Canada’s Reaching Home programme, with a 3-year window for implementation.
Dedicated housing and related support for migrants
Migrants tend to face additional difficulties accessing long-term housing and social support; they may lack information, language requirements, or in some cases the necessary education and training to participate in the labour market, and thus struggle to access housing and integrate into society. In October 2024, Poland adopted the Comprehensive and Responsible Migration Strategy for 2025-2030, which includes the establishment of 49 Centres for Integration of Foreigners (CICs) to support refugees, particularly from Ukraine and Belarus. Designed as “one-stop-shop” facilities, CICs aim to streamline access to integration services. CICs are intended to serve as the first point of contact for migrants, providing information on residence, employment, healthcare, housing, and other key areas. They also offer vocational guidance, from basic labour market insights to tailored support, including training referrals and employer connections. Pilot initiatives in the Opolskie and Wielkopolskie regions highlight their potential to improve service delivery.
Despite these positive advancements, housing support – an essential component of successful integration – remains underdeveloped within the current CIC model. Moreover, recent evaluation findings indicate that none of the existing CICs fully function as integrated one-stop-shops. A key constraint is the absence of a dedicated legal and institutional framework governing CICs, which limits their formal role in the broader integration system and undermines the continuity of funding and cooperation with other service providers.
Poland could draw lessons from international practice, including the AGIR programme in France, which successfully incorporated housing into a similar integrated service delivery model for refugees (Box 3.13). For a more detailed discussion on integration policies for migrants and refugees, see OECD (2018[35]; 2019[36]).
The Accompagnement global et individualisé des réfugiés (AGIR) programme, launched in 2022, provides extensive social, employment and housing support to refugees with legal status in France. Refugees are paired with a social workers, which they meet at least once every six weeks, to assist them with integrating into French society. Social workers can support refugees with, inter alia, registering for social security opening a bank account, learning French, finding employment, and finding adequate housing.
There are currently 26 000 refugees in the programme. In 2022, the programme started in six departments but it is now available in all of metropolitan France. The AGIR programme is nevertheless managed at the department level, leading to challenges to access housing and/or employment opportunities in certain areas. In rural areas, affordable housing is often abundant, but job opportunities are scare. The opposite is generally true in large cities.
To monitor the success of the AGIR programme, extensive data are collected on the outcomes of participating refugees. Service providers enter data into an information management system, managed by the Ministry of Interior to monitor programme outcomes. The information collected through the programme complements the wider evaluation system in France, which monitors the number of refugees and the number of available housing units for refugees.
3.2.2. Expanding the supply of supported and training housing, including Housing First solutions
Supported and training housing that couple housing with extensive social services (see Box 3.3) are an essential component of the deinstitutionalisation process in Poland, enabling vulnerable groups to live comfortably and independently within their communities. In particular, Housing First, which is a specific form of supported and training housing for people experiencing homelessness, remains at the grassroots level in Poland, currently available in a limited number of communities.
Progress to expand supported and training housing units
Supported housing allows people with diverse support needs to live independently while receiving appropriate care; training housing provides individuals with individual dwellings with limited services to support their transition to living independently. However, demand for supported and training housing continues to outpace supply. At the end of 2024, there were 1 927 housing units and 5 300 places in supported and training housing in Poland. The Strategy for the Development of Social Services set the goal of building 7 000 new supported and training housing units by 2030 and 12 000 units by 2035. As part of this goal, the national government has enacted legal requirements for local governments to provide supported and training apartments (Act on Social Services, 2023[37]). However, few local governments respect the requirements. This is likely caused, at least in part, by a lack of funding opportunities and enforcement mechanisms.
Moreover, a recent audit by the Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Policy found that approximately 40% of the supported and training housing stock remains underutilised. This suggests that the challenge extends beyond the availability of housing units and points to more systemic issues. A lack of stable funding streams for municipalities and NGOs to develop and sustain such services represents an additional barrier. In addition, allocations to supported and training apartments are generally temporary and are not recognised as long-term housing solutions with integrated support services. This limits their flexibility and responsiveness to a range of needs, including Housing First approaches. These challenges highlight the need to review the current supported and training housing system to support its key role to facilitate the deinstitutionalisation process in Poland.
There is also scope to engage a broader range of actors in the development of training and supported housing units. As the majority of units are currently managed by local governments, further coordination with other housing actors, such as TBS/SIM, cooperatives, NGOs and social rental agencies (see section 3.2 above), could accelerate the development of new supported housing. For instance, municipal governments could pursue partnerships with such actors (in addition to other municipalities) to contribute to the development of supported housing, and/or to designate a share of their available housing units to be used for supported housing. Poland could draw on the role of “housing sensors” in Wallonia (Belgium), which collaborate with agencies to procure dwellings to be used as supported housing units (Box 3.14)
In Wallonia, Belgium, the Walloon Observatory on Homelessness created the housing sensor in 2013 to act as an intermediary between vulnerable groups, owners and social workers to provide supported housing. Housing sensors identify and mobilise private housing units for vulnerable groups, including people experiencing homelessness and people with mental health disorders. Operating in most major cities in the Walloon Region (e.g., Liège, Charleroi, Namur, Mons, La Louvière, Tournai), the housing sensor, which is a regional government agency made up of housing and homelessness experts, regularly scans the private housing stock to identify suitable housing units and negotiates directly with owners. The housing sensors were created as part of a broader strategy to promote Housing First in Wallonia, and they regularly partner with a broad array of social organisations, including social assistance centres, health institutions and non-profit organisations, to provide social support services to tenants.
Although property owners typically receive lower rent in Housing First or housing-led programmes compared to the private market, the housing sensor makes participation more attractive by minimising risk. The housing sensor assumes the risk of tenants not paying rent or causing damages and can also act as mediators if conflict arises between property owners and tenants. Tenants also receive support with administrative processes (i.e. signing the lease and performing inventories), moving in and applying for rent or social subsidies, further minimising the risk of non-payment or conflict between the tenant and the owner.
Co-living housing solutions provide another opportunity to increase the supply of supported housing and accelerate the deinstitutionalisation process. Such settings can also enable people with high support needs to share access to relevant services. A scoping review from Ireland on people with intellectual disabilities has found that several quality-of-life outcomes increase significantly when moving from institutionalised settings to community-based solutions, including satisfaction with life, contact with family and friendships, and social networks (Tatlow-Golden et al., 2014[38]). Central to the development of community housing solutions is the emphasis that individuals live in a place of their choosing – whether alone or with others – which represents a distinction from traditional institutional settings. Such housing solutions have been explored for individuals with different needs, including people with autism spectrum disorder in France (Box 3.15).
There are further opportunities to scale up co-living housing in Poland. In 2024, PFRON began developing assisted living communities (Wspomagane Społeczności Mieszkaniowe, WSM), which are homes with individual housing units for 2 to 12 people with disabilities who require a high level of support.3 The first houses are expected to be built by 2025 (23 WSM are currently under construction), with the majority of financing from the resources of PFRON. Residents will cover the costs of maintaining housing units, up to 50% of their income. However, assisted living communities are still a new development, and remain limited in scale.
Common housing for people living with autism spectrum disorder, including seven individual housing units and shared living quarters. Medical-social services (SAMSAH) are also available onsite. Current occupants include students, salaried and temporary workers, and people searching for employment between the age of 20 and 38 years. The DAALIA helps to reduce costs, as one or two caregivers can support seven to eight people in the same place of residence. The DAALIA is funded by several sources, including financing from the Caisse des Dépôts et Consignations (CDC).
Source: SOLIHA, Dispositif d’Accompagnement au Logement Inclusif pour Adultes.
Housing First and housing-led solutions for people experiencing homelessness
Housing First models provide tailored, intensive support for people experiencing homelessness with high and/or complex service needs by providing them with immediate, long-term housing and enabling them to exercise control over their support services (OECD, 2024[17]). A series of randomised controlled trials have shown that Housing First can produce greater housing retention among the chronically homeless compared to treatment-as-usual groups (Pleace, Baptista and Knutagård, 2019[39])). Housing First does not mean housing only: the provision of tailored, targeted wraparound services is an essential part of the Housing First model. Housing First can be complemented by broader housing-led approaches that prioritise the immediate provision of long-term housing but are typically targeted at individuals with limited or no support needs (OECD, 2024[1]). Housing First is an effective and resource-efficient intervention over the medium- to long-term, even if there are short-term costs to expanding the supply of affordable housing. Such models can over time generate large cost savings in a range of policy areas (e.g., reducing the use of emergency services, hospitalisations, and interactions with the criminal justice system) (OECD, 2024[17]).
The “National Programme for Combating Poverty and Social Exclusion” (update 2021-2027, with a perspective to 2030) identifies the Housing First model as a key pillar in the fight against homelessness, emphasising the need to promote the approach and to develop and advocate for Housing First programmes. While the Strategy for the Development of Social Services calls for facilities for people experiencing homelessness to be transformed into integrated supportive housing units or intervention-oriented facilities, with targets of 25% by 2030 and 60% by 2035, few resources are provided to achieve this objective.
Nevertheless, the Housing First model is not widely implemented throughout Poland. Some NGOs partnering with municipalities – such as those in Warsaw, Gdańsk, and Wrocław – are delivering Housing First services. Gdynia has developed an innovative approach that could serve as a model for other Polish municipalities (Box 3.16). However, the absence of a national framework and supporting legal instruments currently limits the consistent implementation and scaling-up of Housing First initiatives across the country. Moreover, while the Programme to Overcome Homelessness (Pokonać bezdomność) includes funding to support organisations providing Housing First services, this has represented only a share of the programme’s relatively small budget (PLN 24 500 000 [EUR 6 million] between 2021 and 2023) and thus remains insufficient to scale up Housing First at the national level.
Since 2015, the city of Gdynia has funded and implemented a social programme to support people experiencing homelessness through a comprehensive, person-centred approach. Inspired by a Dutch initiative in Utrecht, the project applies key principles of the Housing First model: securing stable housing as a foundation for further social and professional reintegration.
With an annual budget of around EUR 95 000, the programme provides housing benefits to help beneficiaries access rental accommodation on the open market. Around 50 new participants join each year – equivalent to 10-15% of Gdynia’s population experiencing homelessness. The programme is open to individuals in various living situations (e.g., living in shelters, informal dwellings, or on the street) and requires active participation and cooperation with social workers. Each participant co-develops a personalised support plan to achieve long-term independence, which may include vocational activation and/or access to community-based services. Local NGOs contribute through complementary activities, such as life skills training and social inclusion opportunities.
The programme supports the deinstitutionalisation of homelessness services by reducing reliance on shelter-based solutions. Evidence suggests its cost-effectiveness: the monthly support costs of the programme are over five times lower than average shelter costs, while enabling sustainable housing outcomes and enhanced social integration.
The existing strategies could serve as an important foundation for a Housing First framework, which could be operationalised through the development of regional targets and financial and legal instruments. The experience of other OECD countries, such as Finland, can be a useful model of a dedicated strategy to expand the Housing First approach at the national level (Box 3.17).
In Finland, the government introduced its Housing First approach in 2007, as part of its first national homelessness strategy, Paavo I (2008-2011) (Juhila, Raitakari and Ranta, 2022[40]). Housing First has consistently been at the core of subsequent national strategies, including Paavo II (2012-2015) and the current Action Plan for Preventing Homelessness. Finland is one of the few OECD countries to have recorded a consistent and significant decline in homelessness over recent decades. The total population of individuals experiencing homelessness has dropped by 80%, from over 18 000 in 1987 to less than 3 500 in 2023. Meanwhile, long-term homelessness declined by over 70% between 2008 and 2023, to around 1 000 individuals (The Housing Finance and Development Centre of Finland (ARA), 2024[41]).
Finland’s consistent strategy engaged co-ordinated efforts from the central government, local authorities and NGOs to commit budgeted resources and set achievable targets for housing development and acquisition (Pleace et al., 2015[42]). For instance, the national strategies have emphasised the key role of NGOs in developing and acquiring housing in the private sector and providing tenant support, as well as ensuring the availability of services to vulnerable youth and adults and facilitating the transitions for individuals leaving institutions, such as prisons or health centres (Pleace et al., 2015[42]).
3.2.3. Introducing targeted support measures to prevent homelessness and housing instability among vulnerable households
Vulnerable groups can be especially at risk of housing instability and homelessness. Measures to support households who face economic challenges and risk losing their dwelling can help prevent housing instability and homelessness. Rent arrears are not uncommon in Poland – over 25% of all households housing were indebted in 2018 (Statistics Poland, 2018[43]). However, services to manage debt and prevent evictions are not available in most municipalities. Further, people living the care system, notably youth leaving the foster care system, face challenges in securing suitable housing.
Services to manage debt and prevent evictions
Eviction prevention measures are usually provided by municipalities, and may include debt counselling, one-time financial support, landlord-tenant mediation, and other services. The Strategy for the Development of Social Services aims to increase the percentage of municipalities providing such services to 15% by 2030 and 30% by 2035. However, as it stands, few municipalities provide services to manage debt and prevent evictions in Poland, despite being legally obligated to provide municipal housing to those being evicted. Further, there are few programmes to facilitate landlord-tenant mediation, which can help address disputes without calling upon the court system. More broadly, a key challenge lies in the lack of coordination between various municipal agencies, which hinders the implementation of effective early-warning systems and other preventive approaches.
The Polish authorities could draw inspiration from housing advisors, debt counsellors and landlord-tenant mediation programmes in Austria, Estonia, Finland, and the United States (Box 3.18), and rent banks in Canada (Box 3.19). (See also Box 3.17 for a discussion of how a Housing First approach has proven effective to support people experiencing homelessness transition to long-term housing.)
In Austria, counselling centres provide counselling and support with the application process for Wohnschirm, a federal programme providing financial support to prevent evictions. If granted, two types of financial support exist: one assumes rent arrears, and another provides lump-sum support payments to enable beneficiaries to move into an affordable dwelling. Since the start of the programme, over 11 700 households have received financial support; from these, 10 500 apartments have covered rent arrears, and 1 200 have received support to change their residence. The law is currently in force through the end of 2026.
In Estonia, the Estonian Debt Counsellors Association offers targeted support to households facing debt through debt advisors. Debt advisors offer comprehensive support to beneficiaries, including legal and financial counselling, as well as psychosocial support for life crises such as unemployment or illness. Additionally, they can assist households in negotiations with creditors. Debt advisors provide holistic support for beneficiaries, covering legal and financial counselling, but also psychosocial support, including life crises. Moreover, debt advisors support households by mediating and negotiation with creditors.
In Finland, the Housing Finance and Development Centre of Finland (ARA) provides grants to municipalities to hire and fund housing advisors. Housing advisors design action plans to help clients address a variety of challenges, including eviction threats and rental arrears. Housing advisors conduct screening processes and work together with housing providers, NGOs, and social workers, which allows service referrals for clients.
In the United States, the Massachusetts Housing Mediation Program (HMP) is a free state-wide programme, offering mediation services to improve housing stability with the aim of preventing homelessness arising from landlord-tenant conflict. Initially implemented amidst COVID-19 demand-side measures, the program has continued to receive funding through the state’s Executive Office of Housing and Livable Communities (EOHLC) and is delivered on a county-level to 11 Community Mediation Centers. While HMP began as an eviction prevention measure, it has updated its focus in 2023 towards early intervention, to include any situation which may jeopardize overall housing stability. Meeting either in-person or remotely, a mediator meets with tenants and landlords to provide conflict coaching, restorative circles, and community building workshops, as well as referrals to other relevant community resources.
Several evaluation studies have been conducted by the University of Massachusetts Boston and have found that the programme has produced significant cost-savings for state government and considerably improved housing stability for participants. In the fiscal year of 2023, by diverting individuals from the shelter system, the programme produced savings of USD 6 425 000, and USD 1 734 255 in legal savings and recovered rents for landlords. Most programme participants (69%) used HMP due to rental arrears, with 86% facing evictions. In interviews with participants, evaluators found that the programme had a positive effect on housing stability, and case management data found that mediation resulted in 65.2% of tenants maintaining their housing tenure.
Source: OECD (2024[17]), OECD Toolkit to Combat Homelessness, https://doi.org/10.1787/0fec780e-en; Palihapitiya and Zeferino (2025[44]).
The British Colombia (BC) Rent Bank is a Canadian rent bank operating at the provincial level, which supports local rent banks in providing interest free loans to households facing eviction due to rental arrears. The BC Rent Bank operates under a hub and spoke model in which the provincial rent bank provides public funding and capacity building to non-profit local rent banks, which provide financial assistance directly to renters. Local rent banks aim to stabilise housing through short term funding for rental arrears or security deposits and deliver some degree of service integration—dependent on region—such as utility programs, food/clothing/furniture supports, debt consolidation, and financial counselling. Applicants are subject to the following eligibility requirements:
Owe a maximum of two months’ worth of rental payments or CAD 3 500 (whichever is lower).
Be a low to moderate income household, as determined by household size and the minimum income required to afford appropriate accommodation in a particular municipality/region.
Applicants may contact a local rent bank through an online application, in-person meeting, or phone call. After applying through a case manager, the local rent bank informs candidates of their approval within 24 hours of application submission. Currently, local rent banks receiving support from the BC Rent Bank provide a maximum payment of CAD 3 500 to approved applicants, who can repay the loan over a maximum period of 36 months. The BC Rent Bank distributed over CAD 2.35 million in arrear funding to local rent banks, helping to support over 1 500 households in the 2023-24 fiscal year (BC Rent Bank, 2024[45]).
Source: British Columbia (BC) Rent Bank (2024[45]).
Young people leaving the care system
Vulnerable youth and individuals leaving institutional settings (such as hospitals, youth care systems or facilities, centres for asylum seekers) are often at a higher risk of experiencing homelessness when transitioning out of care settings toward independent living (OECD, 2024[17]). This issue poses a challenge in Poland as in many OECD and EU countries.
At central level, different ministries are responsible for the range of institutional settings for youth, and there are no common operational guidelines for facilitating transitions to independent adulthood. Moreover, distinct implementation challenges persist. There have been ongoing efforts to enhance foster care system responsiveness since the 2012 Act on Supporting Families and the Foster Care System, and in the broader context of deinstitutionalisation. However, shortages of housing and transition mentors, inadequate local support networks, and fragmented institutional cooperation persist. Many agencies lack professionals in psychology and pedagogy, limiting support for care leavers (Korczak University, 2023[46]; Foundation for Good Initiatives, 2023[47]).
Further, experts have proposed that the preparation to transition to independence, currently set at ages 17-18 in Poland, should begin much earlier, with a stronger focus on practical skills. At present, care leavers often receive insufficient support during this critical stage (Foundation for Good Initiatives, 2023[47]). Additionally, the number of children with special needs in care facilities has risen in recent years, including those with disabilities, young mothers and refugee children. Existing support remains inadequate and fails to address their specific needs effectively (Foundation for Good Initiatives, 2023[47]).
Strengthening transition support, including through expanded housing assistance and enhanced social services provision, can play a pivotal role in preventing homelessness and fostering long-term stability for care leavers. Poland could draw on the foyer model to support foster children leaving institutional care (Box 3.20). For further discussion and policy recommendations on facilitating transitions from care settings, see (OECD, 2022[10]).
The Foyer model is a transitional housing model that is characterised by a focus on education, training and employment support for disadvantaged, youth experiencing homelessness in their transition to adulthood. It has been particularly used as a model to facilitate the transition between foster care and adulthood, as youth leaving care are particularly vulnerable to housing insecurity due to the lack of stable natural supports. Participants, commonly those between the ages of 16 to 24, are permitted to stay at a Foyer with the condition of setting goals with a case manager and following a plan to achieve said goals. There is an emphasis on individualised supports and integrated services, such as employment coaching, training and mentoring, mental health/addictions support, and arts-based or social programming. Accommodation can vary according to the programme, with some operating under a scattered site model (dispersion of private dwellings with portable, wraparound supports), whereas others might be under a single site in a more institutionalised setting. Unlike transitional housing for adults, a typical length of stay in a Foyer can be up to two years or more in order to build up the skills to facilitate a successful transition between adolescence and adulthood. Paying monthly programme fees is additional characteristic of the programme, which encourages participants to develop the habit of paying rent and cultivate individual responsibility.
Originally conceived in the postwar period by France as a housing model for young workers (Foyers pour les jeunes travailleurs), the United Kingdom adapted the model in the early 1990s through the Foyer Foundation to address high youth unemployment. The model has since been replicated in Europe, Australia and the United States as a response to youth homelessness and youth who had been in care. In Australia, the Youth Hub programme was found to have facilitated 82% of residents move into long accommodation and responded well to the employment and educational barriers that youth faced. However, there is limited evidence to suggest positive effects for youth with extensive social service needs.
Source: Norwegian Institute of Public Health (2018[48]).
3.2.4. Recommendations to provide tailored housing solutions with integrated social and health services for people with higher support needs
Improving the provision of tailored housing solutions with integrated social and health services requires coordination among a large body of actors, as well as sustainable, long-term funding. Such efforts could help integrate decision making, funding, and service provision across the three policy areas, including to expand the availability of supported and training housing, as well as support measures to prevent housing instability and homelessness.
Improving coordination between housing and social services, including by creating an inter-ministerial body to oversee and operationalise housing and support services
The Polish authorities could consider the following policy actions:
Introduce a dedicated inter-ministerial body (organ międzyresortowy) to facilitate and oversee the provision of integrated housing and social services for vulnerable groups. This operational body could include a dedicated budget, and full-time employees recruited from different ministries. Given the existing legal framework and established practice in public administration in Poland, the body could be created under the Council of Ministers. During the process, it would be important to consider i) the body’s core mission, objectives, functions and governance vis a vis relevant ministry; ii) the body’s composition (staffing); and iii) its financial resources. The body could be tasked with formulating a comprehensive strategy to develop and implement housing solutions for vulnerable groups, helping to inform Poland's housing policy agenda.
Ensure the availability of sustainable, long-term, and flexible funding to deliver integrated housing solutions at scale. In the initial phase, this could involve, where relevant, identifying opportunities to improve coordination in funding schedules and application processes for integrated programmes. This could include close collaboration with BGK to review existing funding mechanisms for social and affordable housing. In the subsequent phase, it may involve exploring the expansion of current funding sources to ensure that financing solutions are accessible to a broad range of stakeholders, supporting the development of diverse housing solutions with tailored support.
Leverage European funding and facilitate access for local actors to such funding to support the development of integrated housing solutions. This could involve:
Further co-ordinating eligibility requirements and funding schedules for EU funds and providing guidance to local actors. There is scope to strengthen coordination between national and regional authorities and local actors to better guide managing authorities in aligning funding application requirements (particularly for ESF+ and ERDF) and to facilitate the combination of funding streams for projects that integrate housing and support services. Further, municipalities and NGOs could benefit from clearer guidance on available funding opportunities and application timelines.
Collaborating with international financial institutions in Europe (e.g., European Investment Bank, the Council of Europe Development Bank) to explore partnerships that could enhance funding opportunities for local projects and strengthen the overall governance of financing for integrated housing solutions.
Enhance housing support for migrants by building on the one-stop-shop model of the recently established Centres for Migrant Integration (CICs). To maximise the impact of CICs, future policy efforts could focus on embedding these centres within the institutional framework, supported by regulatory provisions and stable financing. Expanding their mandate to include more comprehensive housing assistance would represent another important step forward.
Improve individuals’ access to information with respect to integrated housing solutions and social services. The relevant government institutions could consider different ways to develop technical and operational guidance for municipalities to support the introduction and subsequent expansion of housing advisory services, for instance by introducing housing advisors in Centres for Social Services and/or Social Assistance Centres. Additional measures to improve access to information could include the creation of a housing support gateway on the centres’ websites.
The following government institutions and other actors could be engaged in the implementation process:
Chancellery of the Prime Minister
Ministry of Economic Development and Technology
Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Policy
Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy
Ministry of Infrastructure
Ministry of the Interior and Administration
BGK
Municipal authorities
Municipal social policy actors (Centres for Social Services, Social Assistance Centres)
Increasing the supply of supported and training housing, including Housing First solutions
The Polish authorities could consider the following policy actions:
Address legal, financial, and operational bottlenecks to bolster the existing system of supported and training housing, including by:
Reviewing existing legislation on supported and training housing to ensure greater adaptability to individual needs, and improving the access of municipalities and NGOs to long-term funding to strengthen their incentives to provide and maintain such housing solutions;
Considering expanding the legislative framework to support the development of a broader spectrum of housing solutions accompanied by tailored support services, with a focus on ensuring flexibility along housing pathways and enhancing interoperability between various housing options;
Enhancing financial support mechanisms for construction to encourage a broader range of housing actors (such as TBS/SIM, housing cooperatives, and social rental agencies) to contribute to the expansion of the supported and training housing stock. Expanding the supply of supported and training housing could, by extension, form the backbone of efforts to scale up Housing First and housing-led solutions in Poland (as discussed below). Adjusting incentives for construction will only be meaningful within a reformed, more flexible supported and training housing system.
Building on the National Programme for Combating Poverty and Social Exclusion, develop a national framework for Housing First to facilitate the transition from temporary and emergency shelter towards long-term housing solutions for people experiencing homelessness. The framework could be further supported by the development of relevant legislative instruments to ensure effective implementation, including measures that would facilitate the provision of supported and training apartments for Housing First and housing-led approaches (see above). Additionally, to support the expansion of Housing First initiatives, increasing funding for the Programme to Overcome Homelessness (Pokonać bezdomność) could be considered. Other avenues might include increasing the awareness around Housing First among all relevant stakeholders
Assess the effectiveness of co-living housing programmes, including assisted living communities (Wspomagane Społeczności Mieszkaniowe), and exploring their potential to be scaled up to serve other vulnerable groups. Developing additional programmes that provide flexibility in the design of housing solutions and enable the merging of funding streams for both housing unit development and the maintenance and delivery of support services could be further explored.
The following government institutions and other housing sector actors could be engaged in the implementation process:
Ministry of Economic Development and Technology
Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Policy
Municipal authorities
Powiats
PFRON
Expert Commission for Homelessness Prevention (Komisja Ekspertów ds. Przeciwdziałania Bezdomności)
NGOs
SANs
Introducing and scaling up targeted support measures to prevent homelessness and housing instability among vulnerable households
The Polish authorities could consider the following policy actions:
Identify opportunities to provide integrated housing and social services to people preparing to exit institutional or care settings, to support the development of a case-management approach. The Centres for Social Services and/or Social Assistance Centres could provide key support in this direction, staffed by trained social workers working in multidisciplinary teams to provide individual assistance to care leavers and liaise with relevant institutions. Additionally, staff in relevant institutions (such as prisons, hospitals, or children's homes, as well as those supporting individuals after they leave, such as job centres) could be sensitised to the specific needs of different client profiles to ensure appropriate and effective assistance.
Expand the coverage of eviction prevention measures in municipalities, which could include, among other things, the introduction of housing counsellors, support for debt management, and/or landlord-tenant mediation programmes. These measures could be introduced through a pilot programme in selected municipalities and then scaled up based on rigorous evaluation and the identification of the most effective practices. Irrespective of the pilot programme, housing advisory services could be delivered by housing advisors in municipalities that opt to establish this role within Social Assistance Centres or Centres for Social Services.
The following government institutions and other actors could be engaged in the implementation process:
Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Policy
Ministry of Health
Ministry of Education
Ministry of Justice
Boards of psychiatric hospitals and addiction treatment facilities
Mental Health Centres (Centra Zdrowia Psychicznego)
Central Board of the Prison Service (Centralny Zarząd Służby Więziennej)
Municipal authorities
Municipal social policy actors
Powiats
Powiat social policy actors [Powiat Centres of Family Support (Powiatowe Centra Pomocy Rodzinie), children homes]
NGOs
Across the OECD, the number of people with disabilities is expected to increase, as the population ages and chronic diseases affect a larger share of the population (Plouin et al., 2021[49]). This is especially true in Poland, given the rapidly ageing population. The old-age dependency ratio (defined as the share of population aged 65+ as a percentage of working-age population (20-64)) is at roughly 30%, which is similar to the OECD average. However, it is expected to more than double to 70% by 2060 – well above the OECD average for the same period (OECD, 2024[29]).
To ensure that people with disabilities and/or older people who are at risk of losing their autonomy can live comfortably and safely in their homes, physical adaptations to the dwelling and its immediate surroundings may be required. In light of the heterogeneity of the population with disabilities (in terms of the type and severity of impairment), there is no “one-size-fits-all” housing solution (Box 3.21) (Plouin et al., 2021[49]). A case in point is the issue of the "prisoners of the fourth floor”4 – that is, individuals with reduced mobility who live on higher levels of multi-apartment buildings without lifts – which highlights both the difficulty of addressing these challenges now and the need to prevent them from arising in the future. Further, with Poland's rapidly ageing population, housing adaptations to meet the needs of older people will become increasingly important. Older adults face a higher risk of domestic accidents, particularly falls – which are the leading cause of pain, disability, loss of independence, and premature death in this age group (WHO, 2008[50]). The estimated prevalence of falls in older people globally is above 25% (Salari et al., 2022[51]). Home adaptations can be an effective tool to prevent falls and other domestic accidents (WHO, 2017[52]). Within the broader context of deinstitutionalisation, adaptations to the dwelling stock should be considered as one important policy option, alongside the expansion of smaller-scale housing solutions that incorporate care for people with higher support needs (discussed in section 3.2).
Poland has recently made considerable progress in improving the accessibility of public areas, through the Accessibility Plus (Dostępność Plus) programme. Further, the Ministry of Infrastructure and Construction has published accessibility standards for people with disabilities, based on the concept of universal design, providing support to developers in designing accessible housing (Ministry of Infrastructure and Construction, 2017[53]). Moreover, since 2022, the PFRON programme Accessible Flat (Dostępne Mieszkanie) has been in operation, providing co-financing for the exchange of housing with architectural barriers for people with mobility impairments. The programme has a budget of PLN 150 million and an estimated 1 000 beneficiaries. However, more needs to be done to ensure that people with disabilities and older people have access to the necessary adaptations to individual dwellings, along with relevant social and health services, to support independent living.
There is a broad range of housing needs for people with disabilities, depending in large part on the type and severity of impairment. This means that there is no “one-size-fits-all” housing solution.
General challenges in OECD and EU countries include:
a lack of dwellings that are accessible to people with disabilities, including people with reduced mobility and other types of disability;
a shortage of alternative living arrangements that meet the needs of people with diverse needs; and
the general challenge of providing integrated housing-related and community services to people with more complex needs.
Specific features in dwellings that can be relevant, depending on the type and severity of disability:
mobility-related features in and around the dwelling for people with reduced mobility or those with sensory (sight, hearing) impairments, such as no-step entries, guardrails, ramps or open floorplans.
attention to lighting and sounds, the incorporation of tactile design features as well as household features that are generally easy to manipulate and operate in and around the dwelling are especially important for people with intellectual, cognitive or sensory disabilities.
additional support services for people with more complex needs to ensure that they can live safely an independently at home.
Source: Plouin et al. (2021[49]), “A crisis on the horizon: Ensuring affordable, accessible housing for people with disabilities”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 261, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/306e6993-en.
3.3.1. Introducing a legal definition of accessible and adaptable dwellings in Poland
A key barrier to facilitating physical adaptations to individual dwellings is that there is no legal definition of accessible or adaptable housing in Poland. The Act of 7 July 1994, Construction Law (Ustawa z dnia 7 lipca 1994 r. - Prawo budowlane) and the Regulation of the Minister of Infrastructure on the technical conditions to be met by buildings and their location of April 12, 2002 (Rozporządzenie Ministra Infrastruktury w sprawie warunków technicznych, jakim powinny odpowiadać budynki i ich usytuowanie z dnia 12 kwietnia 2002 r.) outline several regulations to improve the accessibility of new housing, notably by establishing a minimum width of an entrance to multi-family residential buildings and mandatory parking spaces for people with disabilities, and ensuring that units on the ground floor are accessible in buildings without lifts. Adaptable dwellings, meanwhile, are those that can be easily renovated to improve accessibility over time.
While these regulations help guarantee that new developments meet basic accessibility standards, they are not always sufficient, and they do not apply to older dwellings. Indeed, further adaptations are often necessary to make the housing unit fully adapted to the differing needs of people with disabilities (including adaptations for people with vision or hearing impairments, walk-in showers, raised toilets, lighting adaptations, etc.). There is no requirement for lifts in buildings with fewer than five storeys, and the requirement to install lifts in buildings with five or more storeys applies only to new construction. Given the ageing housing stock, a significant share of multi-family buildings remains without lifts, and there is currently no obligation to retrofit them, regardless of the number of floors. However, plans are being developed to introduce such an obligation, together with funding to support it. More broadly, there is a lack of enforcement of the rights of people with disabilities, in part due to a lack of information on legal regulations on the right to accessibility (Ministry of Funds and Regional Policies, 2024[54]).
The government has been working to address some of these regulatory challenges, including through amendments to the Regulation of the Minister of Infrastructure, which will expand the scope of accessibility obligations for investors. Under the draft regulation, newly constructed public utility buildings, collective residence buildings, and multi-family residential buildings must provide people with disabilities access from ground level to all usable floors, excluding technical levels. Secondly, managers of multi-family residential buildings will be able to access funding from BGK and PFRON to install a lift, provided that at least two residents with disabilities live in the building. Further, between 2022 and 2025, the Accessible Housing programme, operated by PFRON, provides co-financing for the exchange of a flat with architectural barriers for people with mobility impairments. The budget for the implementation of the programme is PLN 150 million (EUR 35 million) and should support around 1 000 people, who will change their place of residence to one free from architectural barriers.
Building on these developments, introducing a legal definition of accessible and adaptable housing can provide a common basis to assess the extent to which a housing unit is accessible (i.e., enables people with disabilities to enter, move around, and exit the dwelling) and/or adaptable (i.e., can easily accommodate future renovations to improve accessibility). Poland could draw on definition of accessible and adaptable housing in France (Box 3.22). Establishing a category of adaptable dwellings can ease the process of identifying suitable dwellings and tailoring homes to residents’ individual needs over time. The introduction of these definitions could also, in a later stage, facilitate the possibility to establish minimum thresholds for accessible and adaptable units in new housing developments. Before establishing such thresholds, it would be important to assess the potential impacts on housing development costs. Poland could benefit from experiences during the implementation of the Elan law (Loi Elan) in France, which requires that all newly constructed dwellings on the ground floor or accessible by elevator be considered adaptable dwellings, while 20% of dwellings be considered accessible dwellings. Similarly, Poland could draw on consultations performed in the United Kingdom on implementing accessibility standards (UK Ministry of housing, Communities & Local Government, 2022[55]).
To ensure people with physical disabilities have access to suitable housing, France has introduced accessibility obligations for new construction. Since 2015, accessible housing is defined as:
“Any collective residential building or any arrangement linked to a building allowing a resident or visitor with disabilities, with the greatest possible autonomy, to move around, access premises and equipment, use the equipment and find their way around and communicate is considered accessible to people with disabilities. The access conditions for people with disabilities must be the same as those of other audiences or, failing that, present an equivalent quality of use.” (art R162-2 of the construction and housing code, known as CCH)
As per article 64 of the law 2018-1021 of November 23rd, 2018, the ELAN law on planning and digital technology and the decree n° 2019-305 of April 11, 2019, developers must follow the following regulations on new construction projects:
20% of the housing units on the ground floor or on floors accessible by elevator must be accessible housing.
The remaining housing units on the ground floor or on floors accessible by elevator must be “adaptable housing” (logement évolutif). These units must satisfy the following requirements:
A person in a wheelchair can enter, move around the living room, and use the restroom.
The housing unit can be upgraded to meet the regulatory standards with simple modifications that do not affect structural elements or certain embedded networks within the walls.
Any building with more than 2 floors above or below the ground floor, must have an elevator.
The regulations also specify that if a renovation project is worth more than 80% of the value of the building, the following areas need to be accessible:
Communal areas, inside or outside, even if they are not part of the renovation.
Parking spaces, cellars, and private storage areas where the work is being carried out.
Housing units where the work is being carried out, if they are on the ground floor, or can be accessed using an elevator.
The regulations do not apply to housing built for personal use, and exceptions exist for specific types of housing (e.g. housing units in historical monuments).
3.3.2. Providing funding for preventive housing adaptation
While Poland already provides funding to support housing adaptations for people with disabilities and older people, the programmes eligibility criteria do not allow for preventive adaptations. Under the Accessibility+ programme, older people can indirectly benefit from the Accessibility Fund (Fundusz Dostępności), which provides loans to, among others, housing cooperatives, TBS, and local governments to improve accessibility in areas such as multi-family housing. However, these loans are intended to support adaptations in communal-use spaces, rather than individual dwellings. Further, PFRON provides funding to remove architectural barriers in homes, and for the purchase of rehabilitation equipment. However, funds are only available to those with valid disability certificates.
Poland could consider expanding support programmes for housing adaptations to include preventive measures that support autonomy and independent living among older people, as is the case in Germany (Box 3.23) and France (Box 3.24). This could include programme support for necessary home adaptations for older people without disability certificates. The focus on preventive adaptations for older people would complement the key objectives of Poland’s national strategy, Social Policy for Older Adults 2030: Security – Participation – Solidarity, in particular its fourth thematic area focusing on “facilitating access to services that enhance independence and adapting living environments to the functional capabilities of dependent older adults”.
The Federal Government of Germany facilitates ageing in place through two main housing adaptation programmes. The KfW Grant Programme “Age-Appropriate Renovation (455-B)”, administered by the KfW Development Bank and financed by the Federal Ministry for Housing, Urban Development and Building (BMWSB), provides non-repayable investment grants to support barrier-reducing modifications in existing housing. Since its launch in 2014 and through the end of 2023, the programme approved over 340 000 grants, enabling the renovation of more than 388 000 housing units. The programme is open to private homeowners (including owner-occupiers) and tenants (with the consent of the landlord), regardless of income or age. Typically funded measures include the installation of walk-in showers, lifts, stair lifts, grab bars and lifts; the removal of thresholds; and widening of doorways. In parallel, the KfW Loan Programme “Age-Appropriate Renovation – Credit” offers low-interest loans to housing companies, cooperatives, and private landlords for similar renovation projects.
Additionally, regional and municipal authorities across Germany provide funding opportunities for barrier-free renovations. These can be accessed through the federal and state funding database, with local authorities offering detailed guidance tailored to specific regional programmes.
To raise awareness of the importance of home adaptations, particularly those that support ageing in place, the Federal Ministry of Education, Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women, and Youth has developed a comprehensive set of informational resources. These materials offer practical guidance on the types of available modifications, how to assess the need for them, and the key steps involved in implementation. For example, they include a checklist for identifying qualified tradespeople and service providers, as well as information on available support services and how to access them. Other ministries, such as the Federal Ministry of Health, have also produced relevant resources that promote and support ageing in place.
Source: Bundesministerium für Wohnen,Stadtentwicklung und Bauwesen (2024[56]); Bundesministeriums für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend (accessed on 5 May 2025[57]).
SOLIHA, a non-profit organisation dedicated to improving housing and living conditions for vulnerable populations, provides support services to enhance the functionality of living spaces for seniors, while preventing accidents and preserving autonomy. The organisation offers tailored solutions for homeowners, landlords, and tenants looking to implement modifications that improve overall living conditions.
The adaptation process begins with a comprehensive assessment conducted by SOLIHA professionals, including building technicians, occupational therapists, and financial advisers, to identify necessary adjustments. Based on this evaluation, personalised recommendations are provided to ensure that living spaces meet safety and accessibility standards. Preventive adaptations may include improving access to entrances, modifying the layouts of kitchens, bathrooms, and bedrooms, installing aids for stair navigation, and automating systems such as electric shutters and gates. SOLIHA delivers expert guidance throughout all stages of the adaptation process. While property owners maintain decision-making authority, SOLIHA provides support from initial assessments through project completion and financial aid processing. Financial assistance represents a crucial component of SOLIHA’s support framework. Guidance is provided in navigating different funding sources and efforts are made to maximize financial aid opportunities to support the adaptation process.
Moreover, SOLIHA is actively engaged in various awareness-raising initiatives designed to educate older adults about the risks of falls and the support solutions available to meet their evolving needs. A notable example is the “Well at Home” (Bien chez soi) workshops covering a range of topics, including proper postures and movements for daily activities, the use of innovative accessories to ease daily life, or the significance of housing adaptations.
Preventive measures should be coupled with public awareness campaigns. In the OECD Stakeholder Survey, roughly 80% of beneficiaries reported that they lacked knowledge about available renovation and adaptation support programmes and advisory services (Figure 3.4). Public awareness campaigns can improve the publics knowledge base of renovation and adaptation support programmes, educating people about the benefits of adapting their homes before accidents occur and encouraging them to take advantage of existing support programmes.
Note: 1) Participants responded to the prompts using a Likert scale: Strongly agree, Agree, Neither agree nor disagree, Disagree or Strongly Disagree. 2) Participants were responding to the following prompts: “I struggle to access adequate financing (e.g. bank loans) to renovate and/or improve my dwelling to make it more adapted to my needs”, “I lack knowledge about available renovation financing programmes and advisory services that I could potentially access”, “I think that the renovation costs are too high to be affordable”, “I do not have sufficient information about dwelling improvement options and their financing (loans, subsidies, grants, etc.).” The number of respondents varied from 20 to 21 for each item.
Source: 2024 OECD Stakeholder Survey: Affordable Housing in Poland.
3.3.3. Processes to adapt the existing housing stock to the needs of people with disabilities
Funding to undertake accessibility upgrades to dwellings, including the elimination of architectural and technical barriers and the purchase of rehabilitation equipment, are generally managed by PFRON, which provides financial resources to eligible individuals pursuant to the Rehabilitation Act and relevant regulations. People with various levels of disabilities, as well as institutions, including municipalities and employers, are eligible to receive funding from PFRON. Further, the Accessibility Plus programme, managed by the Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy, provides funds to improve the accessibility of public areas, as well as public utility buildings and multi-family housing. However, the scale of adaptations so far has been small, which may be due, among other things, to inadequate financial coverage of available support (for example, maintenance costs for installing a new lift in a multi-family building are not covered) and low public awareness. Further, approval processes for dwelling adaptations in specific settings represent additional administrative hurdles. For instance, people living in multi-apartment buildings generally require approval from housing managers, which can be a lengthy process. People living in historical buildings must receive municipal authorisation, which can be even more complex. Further, tenants require prior permission from owners, which can delay or prevent adaptations.
There is scope to further streamline funding and simplify approval processes. According to the OECD Stakeholder Survey, roughly 80% of institutional stakeholders agreed that streamlining administrative process to make it easier to undertake renovations would accelerate efforts to meet the housing needs of vulnerable residents. Drawing on examples from other countries, notably MaPrimeAdapt from France, Poland could simplify the application process for housing adaptation support, making it easier for people with disabilities to receive funding (Box 3.25). For instance, PFRON could consider allowing beneficiaries to apply for several types of funding through a single application. Moreover, the process can be further standardised to simplify the application process for people living in multi-apartment buildings, as well as tenants. Looking ahead, it will be increasingly important to consider aligning funding for housing adaptations with the various supports available for energy renovations, including those that will be made available under the Social Climate Fund (Box 3.8).
To help people with physical disabilities or older people stay in their homes, the Ministry of Labour, Heath and Solidarity has merged all adaptation schemes into a single programme. The programme, titled MaPrimeAdapt’, aims to adapt 250 000 dwellings by 2027, and 680 000 dwellings by 2030. All people aged 70 and over, and all people with disabilities are eligible for the MaPrimeAdapt’ benefit. People aged between 60 and 69 are eligible depending on their level of independence. The benefit can be used for both inside renovations (e.g. electric stair climber, support bars, movement detecting lights, etc.) and outside renovations (e.g. ramps, increasing the size of doorways, etc), including in multi-family buildings. The value of the benefit is equal to 50-70% of the value of the renovations depending on the income of the beneficiary, as long as the renovation is worth less than 22 000 euros. MaPrimeAdapt’ has a separate stream for people living in multi-family dwellings, where funding can be provided to improve the accessibility of common spaces. To apply for this funding, the adaptations must be approved by the co-ownership association.
Both owners and renters are eligible to receive the MaPrimeAdapt’ benefit. Renters must inform the owner of the residence of the adaptation plans, and the owner must provide approval. However, in the case that the owner does not respond within two months, the renter can move forward with the adaptations without written approval.
All beneficiaries are also required to consult a project management assistant (AMO) throughout the duration of the project. The project management assistant visits dwellings to provide diagnostics and tailored advice on adaptations based on specific needs.
Source: France Rénov (2024[58]).
Further, Poland could consider providing tailored guidance to people undergoing adaptations. Housing technical advisors, which exist in countries such as Ireland (Box 3.26), can act as a “one-stop-shop” for detailed information on housing services available to people with disabilities or older people that are available in each municipality. Such advisors can also provide technical support, helping people better understand which adaptations could benefit them, and how to apply for support. Additional forms of support could include guidance in finding contractors to perform the necessary renovations. These advisors would help increase take-up of adaptation programmes for people with disabilities, and help programmes be further tailored to the specific needs of vulnerable groups.
Age Friendly Technical Advisors act as a one-stop shop for information related to technical housing adaptations for older people in Ireland. Each local authority has a specialist technical housing advisor that provides advice to the authority itself, private sector organisations and to the general public. The role of the Age Friendly includes:
Acting as the key point of contact for technical housing adaptations for older people;
Provide clients with contacts that can perform renovations;
Sharing technical plans and development specifications.
The Age Friendly Technical advisors meet regularly to share best practices from their respective communities. They also receive technical training on key issues related to housing for older people. There are 31 technical advisors in Ireland.
Source: Age Friendly Ireland (2023[59]).
3.3.4. Recommendations to facilitate physical adaptations to housing for older residents and people with disabilities
To improve the physical accessibility of the housing stock, tailored guidance and information for older residents and people with disabilities would be beneficial. Introducing a legal definition of accessible dwellings would make it easier for those requiring specific adaptations to identify housing suited to their needs. In addition, promoting preventive adaptations would help older people access the necessary support early, reducing the risk of falls or injuries. Streamlining funding and approval processes for home adaptations would also improve the user experience and ensure beneficiaries receive personalised guidance and high-quality modifications suited to their needs.
Introducing a legal definition of accessible and adaptable dwellings
The Polish authorities could consider the following policy actions:
Introduce a legal definition of accessible and adaptable dwellings, which can be used to label housing units for people with disabilities and include different degrees of accessibility and adaptability. Consultations with key stakeholders, housing developers and beneficiaries would be important in establishing the definition.
Assess the feasibility and potential impacts of setting a minimum share of accessible and/or adaptable dwellings in new housing developments, drawing on experiences from other OECD countries. To balance the introduction and implementation of standards with the need to keep construction costs affordable, conducting an ex-ante impact evaluation of various scenarios for introducing minimum requirements could be valuable. This process can be further strengthened through consultation and engagement with key stakeholders, including housing developers.
The following government institutions and other actors could be engaged in the implementation process:
Ministry of Economic Development and Technology
Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Policy
PFRON
Government Plenipotentiary for Persons with Disabilities
NGOs (working for and fostering the rights of people with disabilities)
Housing developers
Affordable housing providers (TBS/SIM)
Introducing preventive measures to help older people live independently, including support for home adaptations, and enhancing awareness of existing support
The Polish authorities could consider the following policy actions:
Expand the scope of existing housing adaptation subsidy programmes to cover preventative home adaptations and facilitate ageing-in-place. This includes PFRON’s adaptation subsidy programme for people with disabilities and the Accessibility Plus programme.
Develop public awareness campaigns on available housing adaptation support schemes, working with municipalities where relevant. A public information campaign to highlight the importance of housing adaptations and the risks associated with falls in old age could be developed, with potential collaboration with relevant partner institutions (e.g., municipalities, hospitals, health clinics, community centres, organisations supporting older people, churches).
The following government institutions and other actors could be engaged in the implementation process:
Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Policy
Ministry of Economic Development and Technology
Ministry of Finance
Minister for Senior Policy
PFRON
Municipal authorities
NGOs (working for and fostering the rights of older people)
Streamlining funding and approval processes to adapt dwellings and providing tailored support and guidance for individuals with specific housing needs
The Polish authorities could consider the following policy actions:
Streamline application processes for different funding streams for housing adaptations into a single programme. This process could further consist in reviewing the existing regulations and approval requirements to identify provisions that could be streamlined or eliminated to reduce administrative burdens. Creating an accessible and user-friendly housing adaptation webpage could also be considered.
Provide guidance to consider the specific challenges and needs associated with adaptations of diverse housing arrangements (including rental housing, multi-family building and historical buildings). This could include additional support to help people with disabilities and older people, including those with limited mobility living on the upper floors of buildings without lifts, obtain funding approval from municipalities or building managers for renovations.
Provide technical advice to help people with disabilities and older people obtain funding approvals, improve the quality and efficiency of housing modifications, and enhance coordination between beneficiaries and local authorities.
The following government institutions and other actors could be engaged in the implementation process:
Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Policy
Ministry of Development and Technology
Ministry of Development Funds and Regional Policy
Ministry of Digitalization
PFRON
Municipal authorities
This section summarises the recommendations to improve housing affordability and tailored housing solutions for vulnerable groups in Poland across the three pillars, linked to the relevant existing programmes and legislation when applicable.
Pillar 1 focuses on boosting the supply of affordable housing to expand housing solutions, in particular for people with limited or no support needs. This can be supported by defining strategic policy priorities for affordable housing, along with corresponding actions and resources; and exploring the potential to mobilise the existing stock for affordable housing, including by scaling up social rental intermediation schemes and activating vacant buildings.
Pillar 2 aims to support the provision of tailored housing solutions with integrated social and health services for people with higher support needs. This could be supported by improving coordination between housing and social services (e.g., through the creation of an inter-ministerial body to oversee housing and support services); increasing the supply of supported and training housing, including Housing First solutions; and introducing and scaling up targeted support measures to prevent homelessness and housing instability among vulnerable households.
Pillar 3 addresses strategies to facilitate physical adaptations to housing for older residents and people with disabilities by introducing a legal definition of accessible dwellings; introducing preventive measures to help older people live independently and enhancing awareness of existing support; and streamlining funding and approval processes to adapt dwellings.
References
[23] Abramson, B. and S. Nieuwerburgh (2024), “Rent Guarantee Insurance”, National Bureau of Economic Research, Vol. Working paper 32582, https://doi.org/10.3386/w32582.
[37] Act on Social Services (2023), , https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=WDU20230000901.
[59] Age Friendly Ireland (2023), Technical Advisors, https://agefriendlyireland.ie/meet-the-team/technical-advisors/.
[34] Banque des territoires (2021), L’Alliance européenne pour le logement social apporte 650 millions pour financer l’investissement, https://www.banquedesterritoires.fr/lalliance-europeenne-pour-le-logement-social-apporte-650-millions-pour-financer-linvestissement#:~:text=Dans%20le%20cadre%20d'un%20partenariat%20avec%20l'Union%20sociale,investissements%20des%20bailleurs%20sociaux%20fra.
[45] BC Rent Bank (2024), Impact Report 2023-2024, https://bcrentbank.ca/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/BC-Rent-Bank-Impact-Report-2023-2024.pdf.
[56] Bundesministerium für Wohnen,Stadtentwicklung und Bauwesen (2024), Altersgerecht Wohnen [Age-adapted living], https://www.bmwsb.bund.de/DE/wohnen/foerderprogramme-bmwsb/foerderprogramme-wohnen/altersgerecht-wohnen/altersgerecht-wohnen_node.html.
[57] Bundesministeriums für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend (accessed on 5 May 2025), Zuhause im Alter [Ageing at Home], https://www.serviceportal-zuhause-im-alter.de/.
[4] Cojocariu, I. (2022), Role of the European Union funding in supporting deinstitutionalisation around the world: A call for change, https://www.edf-feph.org/content/uploads/2022/02/PDF-ENIL-EDF-DI-Global-Report.pdf.
[2] Czerniak, A. and J. Kroszka (2024), Luka czynszowa w Polsce w latach 2010-2022 [The rental gap in Poland in the years 2010-2022], https://www.politykainsight.pl/_resource/multimedium/20355765.
[32] European Commission (2023), European Regional Development Fund, https://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/funding/erdf_en.
[33] European Commission (2023), European Social Fund Plus, https://ec.europa.eu/european-social-fund-plus/en.
[6] European Expert Group on the Transition from Institutional to Community-based Care (2023), Home page, https://deinstitutionalisation.com/.
[47] Foundation for Good Initiatives (2023), Start w Dorosłość. Sytuacja Młodych Dorosłych Po Doświadczeniu Życia W Instytucjonalnej Pieczy Zastępczej [Starting Adulthood: The Situation of Young Adults After Experiencing Life in Institutional Foster Care], https://fdi.org.pl/raport/.
[58] France Rénov (2024), MaPrimeAdapt’, https://france-renov.gouv.fr/aides/maprimeadapt.
[7] Jancz, A. and R. Trojanek (2020), “Housing preferences of seniors and pre-senior citizens in Poland-A case study”, Sustainability (Switzerland), Vol. 12/11, https://doi.org/10.3390/su12114599.
[40] Juhila, K., S. Raitakari and J. Ranta (2022), “Housing First”, in Successful Public Policy in the Nordic Countries, Oxford University PressOxford, https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192856296.003.0024.
[24] Kolker, E. et al. (2021), Encouraging landlords to let to people receiving benefits and at risk of homelessness: Two online randomised controlled trials, https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/59f07e67422cdf0001904c14/606dcd83340c93b7aa641b90_CHI%20Landlords%20Trial%202021.pdf.
[46] Korczak University (2023), Ogólnopolska diagnoza w zakresie deinstytucjonalizacji usług społecznych na terenie 16 województw Polski [Nationwide Assessment of the Deinstitutionalisation of Social Services in the 16 Voivodeships of Poland], https://uczelniakorczaka.pl/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/DI-raport-2023-19.pdf.
[21] Law of 7 October 2022 about amendments to the Corporate Income Tax Act and certain other acts (2022), , https://orka.sejm.gov.pl/proc9.nsf/ustawy/2544_u.htm.
[22] Lipej, B. and G. Turel (2018), Housing cooperatives as an opportunity for solving the housing issue, https://doi.org/10.26262/RELAND.V1I0.6478.
[8] Ministry of Family and Social Policy (2022), Social Services Development Strategy.
[11] Ministry of Family, Labour and Social Policy (2024), Results of the National Survey of the Number of Homeless People - 2024 Edition, https://www.gov.pl/web/rodzina/wyniki-ogolnopolskiego-badania-liczby-osob-bezdomnych---edycja-2024.
[54] Ministry of Funds and Regional Policies (2024), Report on the implementation of the government’s Accessibility Plus programme 2018-2025, https://www.funduszeeuropejskie.gov.pl/strony/o-funduszach/fundusze-europejskie-bez-barier/dostepnosc/program/o-programie/.
[53] Ministry of Infrastructure and Construction (2017), Standardy dostępności budynków dla osób z niepełnosprawnościami [Standards of Building Accessibility for People with Disabilities], https://www.gov.pl/web/rozwoj-technologia/standardy-dostepnosci-budynkow-dla-osob-z-niepelnosprawnosciami.
[48] Norwegian Institute of Public Health (2018), A Systematic Mapping Review: The Foyer Model for Homeless Youth, https://www.fhi.no/globalassets/dokumenterfiler/the-foyer-model-for-homeless-youth-rapport-2018v2.pdf.
[30] OECD (2025), OECD Economic Surveys: Poland 2025, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/483d3bb9-en.
[1] OECD (2024), OECD Affordable Housing Database, http://www.oecd.org/social/affordable-housing-database.htm.
[17] OECD (2024), OECD Toolkit to Combat Homelessness, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/0fec780e-en.
[29] OECD (2024), Soeciety at a Glance 2024: Social Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/918d8db3-en.
[12] OECD (2023), International Migration Outlook 2023, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b0f40584-en.
[10] OECD (2022), Assisting Care Leavers: Time for Action, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1939a9ec-en.
[15] OECD (2022), “Housing support for Ukrainian refugees in receiving countries”, OECD Policy Responses on the Impacts of the War in Ukraine, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9c2b4404-en.
[26] OECD (2022), Housing Taxation in OECD Countries, OECD Tax Policy Studies, No. 29, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/03dfe007-en.
[36] OECD (2019), The Road to Integration: Education and Migration, OECD Reviews of Migrant Education, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/d8ceec5d-en.
[35] OECD (2018), Working Together for Local Integration of Migrants and Refugees, OECD Regional Development Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264085350-en.
[44] Palihapitiya, M. and K. Zeferino (2025), Massachusetts Community Mediation Center Grant Program Fiscal Year 2024 Report and Evaluation, Massachusetts Office of Public Collaboration.
[39] Pleace, N., I. Baptista and M. Knutagård (2019), Housing First in Europe: An Overview of Implementation, Strategy and Fidelity, https://www.homelesshub.ca/sites/default/files/attachments/2019-10-10-HFinEurope_Full-Report2019_final.pdf (accessed on 24 October 2019).
[42] Pleace, N. et al. (2015), The Finish Homelessness Strategy. An International Review, http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-11-4381-6.
[49] Plouin, M. et al. (2021), “A crisis on the horizon: Ensuring affordable, accessible housing for people with disabilities”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 261, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/306e6993-en.
[31] Public Information Bulletin of the Commissioner for Human Rights (2024), The Ombudsman’s renewed statement to the Prime Minister on the coordination of state activities in counteracting homelessness, https://bip.brpo.gov.pl/pl/content/rpo-bezdomnosc-premier-koordynacja-mrpips-ponowne.
[9] Richter, D. and H. Hoffmann (2017), “Preference for Independent Housing of Persons with Mental Disorders: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis”, Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, Vol. 44/6, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-017-0791-4.
[27] Rousselon, J. and L. Vessereau (2023), La fiscalité du logement : comparaisons internationales, Le Conseil des prélèvements obligatoires, https://www.ccomptes.fr/sites/default/files/2023-12/20231218-Fiscalite-du-logement-rapport-particulier-5.pdf.
[51] Salari, N. et al. (2022), “Global prevalence of falls in the older adults: a comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis”, Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery and Research, Vol. 17/1, https://doi.org/10.1186/s13018-022-03222-1.
[18] Samorek, B. and M. Cichocki (2023), Polski rynek nieruchomości mieszkaniowych [The Polish Residential Real Estate Market], Institute of Urban and Regional Development, https://doi.org/10.51733/opm.2023.03.
[28] Sokolowski, J. (2023), Energy Poverty and Unfit Housing in Poland, https://www.feantsa.org/en/report/2023/09/19/energy-poverty-and-unfit-housing-in-poland.
[19] Statistics Poland (2024), Municipal Housing Stock in 2024 – Preliminary Result, https://stat.gov.pl/obszary-tematyczne/infrastruktura-komunalna-nieruchomosci/nieruchomosci-budynki-infrastruktura-komunalna/mieszkaniowy-zasob-gmin-w-2024-r-wyniki-wstepne,15,3.html.
[13] Statistics Poland (2023), National Population and Housing Census 2021, https://stat.gov.pl/files/gfx/portalinformacyjny/en/defaultaktualnosci/3701/3/1/1/population._size_and_demographic-social_structure_in_the_light_of_the_2021_census_results.pdf.
[20] Statistics Poland (2022), Housing Economy and Municipal Infrastructure in 2022, https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/municipal-infrastructure/municipal-infrastructure/housing-economy-in-2022,10,6.html.
[14] Statistics Poland (2022), The situation of older people in Poland in 2021, https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/older-people/older-people/the-situation-of-older-people-in-poland-in-2021,1,4.html#.
[43] Statistics Poland (2018), Housing Economy and Municipal Infrastructure, https://stat.gov.pl/en/topics/municipal-infrastructure/municipal-infrastructure/housing-economy-and-municipal-infrastructure-in-2018,5,15.html?pdf=1.
[38] Tatlow-Golden, M. et al. (2014), Living Arrangement Options for People with Intellectual Disabilities: A Scoping Review, https://oro.open.ac.uk/55665/.
[41] The Housing Finance and Development Centre of Finland (ARA) (2024), Homeless People 2023, https://www.ara.fi/en/media/101#:~:text=Based%20on%20the%20data%20reported,There%20were%20123%20homeless%20families.
[55] UK Ministry of housing, Communities & Local Government (2022), Raising accessibility standards for new homes: summary of consultation responses and government response, https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/raising-accessibility-standards-for-new-homes/outcome/raising-accessibility-standards-for-new-homes-summary-of-consultation-responses-and-government-response.
[5] UN Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2022), CRPD/C/5: Guidelines on deinstitutionalization, including in emergencies, https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/legal-standards-and-guidelines/crpdc5-guidelines-deinstitutionalization-including.
[3] UNHCR (2025), Ukraine Refugee Situation, https://data.unhcr.org/en/situations/ukraine.
[16] United Nations (2022), World Population Prospects, https://population.un.org/wpp/.
[52] WHO (2017), Integrated care for older people: Guidelines on community-level interventions to manage declines, http://www.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/258981/1/9789241550109-eng.pdf?ua=1.
[50] WHO (2008), WHO Global Report on Falls Prevention in Older Age, https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241563536.
[25] Winters, S. and K. Van Den Broeck (2022), “Social housing in Flanders: best value for society from social housing associations or social rental agencies?”, Housing Studies, Vol. 37/4, pp. 605-623, https://doi.org/10.1080/02673037.2020.1823329.
← 1. Municipal rent levels are, on average, estimated at 18 PLN sqm, with a possible subsidy of 5 PLN sqm in Warsaw, compared to 75 PLN sqm average private market rent levels.
← 2. As of the end of 2024, 186 housing units were managed by formally established social rental agencies (SANs), with approximately 250 additional units operated by NGOs following the SAN model in municipalities where local authorities have not yet decided to launch or finance an official SAN initiative.
← 3. A residential complex within the WSM consists of 2 to 6 apartments, with a maximum of 12 units per WSM. Each resident has a private apartment with a bathroom and kitchenette. The complex also includes shared spaces, such as a living room and, where possible, additional common areas, such as a dining or exercise room.
← 4. Among the solutions being considered to address this issue is a measure proposed by the Minister for Senior Policy, which would allow older people to transfer the management of their current apartments in exchange for a ground-floor housing unit from the municipal housing stock.