Chapter 3 focuses on how teachers in the Western Balkans are supported once they begin working in schools and as they progress through their careers. It first examines teachers’ participation in induction and mentoring, looking at the nature of the support teachers receive and how useful they consider it. The chapter then considers teachers’ engagement in professional learning and collaboration. It looks at the types of learning activities that they access, how useful they consider them, and barriers to participation and includes analysis of professional learning related to the use of digital technologies and artificial intelligence tools, specifically. The chapter also considers how often teachers collaborate, learning with and from colleagues through shared practice and reflection. Finally, the chapter explores how teachers in the Western Balkans are appraised throughout their careers and how they receive and perceive feedback.
Findings from TALIS 2024 in Albania, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia
Abstract
Participation in formal induction programmes for novice teachers or those arriving to a new school is high in the Western Balkans, particularly in Albania. Data from the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) 2024 indicate that these programmes tend to be more focused on supervision and guidance than on instructional practice.
Very large shares of teachers in the region report working in schools with mentoring programmes, but relatively few participate, especially in Montenegro and Serbia. Unlike in many other TALIS countries and economies, there is no positive relationship between receiving mentoring and instructional confidence in any participating system in the Western Balkans.
In line with European Union (EU) and OECD trends, teachers’ participation in professional learning is near-universal in the Western Balkans – except in Kosovo - partly driven by formal requirements established within each system. While nearly all teachers in Albania report that this learning has a positive impact on their teaching, the shares are much lower in North Macedonia and Serbia.
As in EU and OECD systems, lack of time and incentives are among the most reported barriers to professional learning in the Western Balkans. However, notable shares of teachers, particularly more experienced ones, also identify cost and low relevance.
There is a high level of engagement in professional learning on digital technologies in the region, perhaps reflecting related policy efforts areas in recent years. Nevertheless, older and more experienced teachers in Albania, Kosovo and North Macedonia are much more likely to report needing training on digital technologies than their younger colleagues.
Teachers across the region report regularly collaborating on activities related to day‑to‑day teaching, such as discussing student progress or exchanging materials. However, they are less likely to participate in joint work on teaching practice, such as peer observation, co-teaching or professional learning, particularly at early career stages.
System-level structures for teacher appraisal are in place across the Western Balkans with more than 95% of teachers in every system working in schools where formal appraisal occurs annually. These processes typically draw on a range of methods though higher-stakes appraisal drawing on student assessment results and surveys and conducted by external actors, appear to be more common in some systems than seen internationally.
Almost all teachers across the region report receiving feedback on their teaching practice. However, the sources of feedback vary by level of experience with more experienced teachers typically receiving outcome-based feedback linked to student performance.
As education systems in the Western Balkans work to improve teaching quality, support for in-service teachers is crucial. While reforms to initial teacher education are also underway, this chapter focuses on how teachers are supported once they begin working in schools and as they progress through their careers.
The OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) captures teachers’ and principals’ own reports of their opportunities for professional growth also making it possible to look at differences according to teacher and school characteristics. This chapter explores the data on how Western Balkan systems support qualified teachers throughout their careers, focusing on three areas:
1. Induction and mentoring, through which novice teachers and those new to a school can receive structured guidance and ongoing practical support to adapt to institutional routines, strengthen classroom practice, and build professional confidence.
2. Professional learning and collaboration, through which teachers strengthen their skills by engaging in continuous professional development and by learning with and from colleagues, including through shared practice and reflection.
3. Teacher appraisal and feedback, through which teaching practice is reviewed and feedback is provided to support reflection, learning, and quality improvement.
There is strong evidence that well-designed induction and mentoring programmes play an important role in supporting teachers, particularly those at the start of their career, helping them navigate the transition into classrooms and reinforcing core aspects of teaching practice (OECD, 2025[1]; Maulana, Helms-Lorenz and van de Grift, 2015[2]). This section examines teachers’ participation in induction and mentoring in the Western Balkans. It looks at the types of induction and mentoring support teachers receive and how useful they consider such activities.
Induction
Induction provides newly qualified teachers or those moving to a new school with an initial framework for understanding their working environment with a view to enhancing their practice. TALIS asks teachers whether they have taken part in formal induction activities, such as regular supervision by the principal, reduced teaching load or formal mentoring arrangements or more informal, unstructured processes, such as general introductions to the school and the work, informal peer work with other new teachers or receiving a welcome pack. It also examines the relationship between teachers’ participation in induction and their self-reported ability to meet lesson aims and manage classroom routines.
As seen in the EU and OECD, induction in the Western Balkans is more often structured around supervisory support than activities embedded in teaching practice
Teacher participation in induction in the Western Balkans is high in international comparison with the share of teachers reporting that they participated in related activities at their current school far exceeding that across the EU at 77% compared to 66%. Formal induction programmes are more prevalent: around three-fifths of Western Balkan teachers reported having participated in such a programme in their current school, compared to an EU share of 36%, with shares ranging from 64% in North Macedonia to 54% in Kosovo and Montenegro. Informal induction activities are also relatively common in some systems in the region: in Montenegro and Serbia, around two‑thirds of teachers report participating in related activities in their current school compared to an EU share of 56%. In contrast, involvement in informal induction is notably lower in Kosovo where only a third of teachers reported such participation.
As elsewhere, TALIS 2024 data indicate that induction programmes in the Western Balkans tend to be focused on institutional orientation through activities that support teachers to navigate school procedures, expectations, and professional norms. While such elements are important, induction can also be an opportunity to engage directly with classroom practice, supporting teachers who have recently arrived at a school to integrate the school’s instructional culture and adapt their practice to students’ needs. On average across the region, higher shares of teachers report that induction in their current school included supervision by a principal or experienced teacher (88%), planned meetings with school leadership or mentors (86%), and general networking or collaboration with colleagues (85%) (see Figure 3.1). In contrast, participation in team teaching with experienced colleagues, or observing other teachers, is comparatively less widespread at 71% and 74%.
Although induction activities on arrival to a new school can be helpful for teachers at any stage in their career, research indicates that comprehensive induction, including activities focused on both organisational and instructional aspects are particularly valuable for novice teachers, with positive effects on their instructional effectiveness, self-efficacy and retention (Keese et al., 2023[3]). However, in some Western Balkan systems, participation in practice‑embedded activities is reported more frequently by experienced teachers (i.e. those with more than 10 years’ experience) than by novices (i.e. those with 5 years’ experience or less). For example, in Albania and North Macedonia, the shares of experienced teachers reporting participating in team teaching with colleagues as part of induction exceed that of novice teachers by 17 and 10 percentage points, respectively. Moreover, the shares of experienced teachers in Kosovo and North Macedonia reporting that they prepared professional portfolios or reflective journals as part of induction exceeds that of novice teachers by 8 and 6 percentage points, respectively.
Induction in the Western Balkans also place less emphasis on reducing workload to facilitate professional learning than elsewhere. Around one in three teachers (30%) in the Western Balkans report receiving no workload reduction upon entry into the profession, with rates ranging from 44% in Kosovo to 19% in Montenegro, compared to 12% across the EU. This suggests that teachers arriving at a new school are often expected to participate in induction activities while managing a full teaching load. This may contribute to reduced participation in instruction-focused activities, such as observation, co‑teaching, or joint lesson planning, which place higher demands on time.
Share of teachers reporting that the following provisions were part of their induction at their current school
Note: Items are presented in descending order based on EU total‑22 estimates. Values are displayed in full colour only where the difference from the EU total‑22 estimate is statistically significant.
Source: OECD (2025[4]), TALIS 2024 Statistical Compendium, https://app.powerbi.com/view?r=eyJrIjoiYTA0YzRhYmUtY2M0Ny00MGQxLWJh NTEtZTViNTU4NWRjYzM0IiwidCI6ImFjNDFjN2Q0LTFmNjEtNDYwZC1iMGY0LWZjOTI1YTJiNDcxYyIsImMiOjh9 (accessed on 3 February 2026).
Participation in induction is associated with higher reported fulfillment of lessons aims in several Western Balkan systems
Across Western Balkan systems, participation in formal induction programmes is positively associated with teachers’ reported fulfilment of lesson aims, although the strength of this relationship varies across systems and by type of support. Participation in formal induction activities is positively associated with reported fulfilment of lesson aims after accounting for teacher and school characteristics in Albania, Kosovo and Serbia. Similar relationships are seen across the EU and OECD and in 20 countries and economies participating in TALIS, overall. In contrast, informal induction activities show weaker and less consistent associations, with positive relationships observed only in Albania, and negligible or negative associations in other systems.
Mentoring
Mentoring provides teachers with structured professional support through guidance from more experienced colleagues. Quality mentoring typically involves setting aside formal time for collaborative discussion during which mentors and mentees identify learning goals, engage in active listening and reflection, and offer guidance and feedback related to instructional practice and based on lesson observation. Research indicates that mentoring can have a positive effect on teachers’ classroom practice and well-being (Maxwell, Hobson and Manning, 2022[5]).
TALIS examines teachers’ access to mentoring programmes across different career stages, including whether they have an assigned mentor, serve as a mentor to others, or work in schools that offer formal mentoring. It also explores how participation in mentoring is related to teachers’ reported ability to fulfill their lessons aims.
While most teachers in the Western Balkans report working in a school that offers a mentoring programme, relatively few participate, especially in Montenegro
Across the Western Balkans, a large majority of teachers report working in schools that offer a mentoring programme. On average, about 85% of teachers in the region indicate that mentoring is available at their school, with shares ranging from 97% in North Macedonia to 77% in Kosovo. In each system, the share exceeds the EU share of 76%.
However, the high availability of mentoring programmes in Western Balkan schools does not translate into widespread participation. Only a small share of teachers in the region report having an assigned a mentor, ranging from 11% in Kosovo to just 2% in Montenegro. Across the EU, where availability is lower, the share is 7%. This difference suggests that mentoring programmes are either very small scale within each school or uptake is low. As expected, novice teachers are more likely to report having been assigned a mentor than their more experienced colleagues, with particularly large differences observed in North Macedonia and Serbia where gaps reach up to 22 percentage points (see Figure 3.2). While it may be that there are more novice teachers within the teacher cohort in general, this data can suggest that, in these two countries, there is a system-level effort to target mentoring towards early career teachers. This aligns with research indicating that mentoring can be particularly valuable for novice teachers, facilitating transitions into the workforce and increasing professional commitment (Zhao and Zhang, 2017[6]).
The share of teachers that report serving as mentors is also relatively small across the region, with the EU share of 10% exceeding that of all systems except Albania. Participation is lowest in Montenegro and Serbia at around just 6% of teachers. The data for Montenegro reinforce findings from a previous UNICEF study which noted that many teachers in the country highlight a lack of formal mentorship structures within schools and expressed a desire for more (UNICEF, 2025[7]). Albania also sees the biggest difference in participation as a mentor by experience with the share of teachers with more than 10 years’ experience acting as a mentor exceeding that of novices by 11 percentage points. Similar, though less substantial, differences occur in each Western Balkan system except Montenegro (see Figure 3.2).
Share of teachers reporting participating in mentoring, either as a mentor or mentee, by teaching experience
Note: Education systems are listed in ascending order based on the share of novice teachers who report having an assigned mentor (in Panel A) and that are an assigned mentor for one or more teachers (in Panel B).
Source: OECD (2025[4]), TALIS 2024 Statistical Compendium, https://app.powerbi.com/view?r=eyJrIjoiYTA0YzRhYmUtY2M0Ny00MGQxLWJh NTEtZTViNTU4NWRjYzM0IiwidCI6ImFjNDFjN2Q0LTFmNjEtNDYwZC1iMGY0LWZjOTI1YTJiNDcxYyIsImMiOjh9 (accessed on 3 February 2026).
Unlike associations seen across the EU and OECD, being mentored is not related to a positive change in instructional confidence in the Western Balkans
Across Western Balkan systems, being mentored is not associated with changes in teachers’ reported fulfilment of lesson aims. After accounting for teacher and school characteristics, no system in the region shows a statistically significant positive relationship between being mentored and reported fulfilment of lesson aims. This contrasts with relationships seen across the EU and in 18 different TALIS countries and economies, overall.
By contrast, acting as a mentor is positively associated with reported fulfilment of lesson aims in Serbia, and Albania. This positive relationship can be seen in 25 TALIS countries and economies in total. Empirical research has also identified certain positive effects for teachers acting as mentors, including self-reported professional growth and well-being although this typically depends on whether the mentor is provided with related training and protected time (Ingersoll and Strong, 2011[8]; Stevenson et al., 2023[9]). However, the results in the TALIS data do not necessarily indicate that mentoring positively impacts self-reported instructional impact; it may also be that teachers who feel more confident in their capacity to fulfil their lessons aims are more likely to act as mentors.
This section examines teachers’ engagement in professional learning and collaborative practices in the Western Balkans. It looks at the types of learning activities that teachers can access, how useful they consider them, and what they identify as ongoing learning needs. It also reviews barriers to participation and how these differ across teachers and schools. In addition, the section considers how often teachers engage in collaborative practices, such as peer observation, joint lesson planning, or team teaching, and whether participation varies by school and teacher characteristics. These elements help assess whether in-service teachers have the conditions and support needed to continuously improve their practice.
Participation in professional learning, barriers and perceived impact
TALIS 2024 asked teachers about their engagement in professional learning, focusing on what types of activities they took part in in the 12 months prior to the survey and how useful they found them. These activities include formal qualification programmes, school‑based coaching or training, and participation in teacher networks (formal or informal). TALIS also asks teachers to report the perceived impact of these activities on their teaching, alongside their experiences of common obstacles to learning such as lack of time, cost and limited support, incentives or relevance.
While almost all teachers in the Western Balkans report having recently participated in professional development in the last year, there is substantial variation across and within systems in the types of learning activities undertaken
Participation in professional development is nearly universal in the region. Like in EU and OECD systems where about 95% of teachers report having taken part in at least one professional development activity in the 12 months prior to the survey, in Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia the share ranges from 98% to 100%. Kosovo is the only system in the region with notably lower participation at 87%. These high participation levels can be considered alongside the formal regulatory frameworks governing teachers’ professional development, which establish mandatory expectations for professional learning in all Western Balkan systems although scope, structure and minimum requirements vary (see Table 3.1).
Despite near-universal participation, engagement varies considerably by type of professional learning activity, pointing to differences in how systems operationalise professional development (see Figure 3.3). As seen across the EU and OECD, by far the most common activity in the region is participation in courses, seminars or workshops; it is highest reported in each system except Kosovo, where lesson observation is more common, and Albania, where a larger share of teachers report participating in formal or informal teacher networks.
Previous OECD research has shown that networks can be a powerful tool in disseminating and mobilising knowledge and evidence-based good practice among teachers, but this requires careful design, dedicated resources and ongoing facilitation (Révai, 2020[10]). In Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia just over half of teachers (53%, 59% and 54%, respectively) report taking part in networks, levels slightly above the share of teachers across the EU (45%). Reported participation in this type of professional development is lower in Kosovo (39%). As in EU and OECD systems, novice teachers in Montenegro, Serbia and North Macedonia are more likely to participate in networks, with percentage-point differences ranging from six to eight, consistent with their recognised role as a valuable form of early‑career peer support (Ansmann et al., 2014[11]). Teachers in rural schools also report higher participation in networks in all Western Balkan systems except Montenegro.
More intensive professional learning activities such as formal coaching programmes, lesson observation and studying for formal qualifications are less common in the Western Balkans, as they are across the EU and OECD. Nevertheless, there is considerable variation in engagement in coaching. Participation rates are relatively similar in Kosovo, North Macedonia and Serbia, ranging from 42% to 45%, but diverge sharply in Montenegro at 22% and Albania at 83%. Meanwhile, teachers in rural schools report higher participation in coaching in Kosovo, North Macedonia and Serbia; the reverse is true in Montenegro and Albania. Meta-analyses looking into the impact of instructional coaching for teachers show large positive effects on classroom practice and a positive, though smaller, effect on student achievement (Kraft, Blazar and Hogan, 2018[12]).
Source: European Commission/Eurydice (2025[13]), Albania: Continuing professional development for teachers working in early childhood and school education, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/eurypedia/albania/continuing-professional-development-teachers-working-early-childhood-and-school (accessed on 3 March 2026); European Commission/Eurydice (2023[14]), Republic of North Macedonia: Continuing professional development for teachers working in early childhood and school education, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/eurypedia/republic-north-macedonia/continuing-professional-development-teachers-working-early (accessed on 3 March 2026); European Commission/Eurydice (2023[15]), Serbia: Continuing professional development for teachers working in early childhood and school education, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/eurypedi a/serbia/continuing-professional-development-teachers-working-early-childhood-and-school (accessed on 3 March 2026); Krasniqi (2022[16]), “Teacher professional development trends: Perspectives of teachers and principals in Kosovo”, Issues in Educational Research, 32(4), https://www.iier.org.au/iier32/krasniqi.pdf (accessed on 3 March 2026); UNICEF (2025[7]), Assessment of the Teachers’ Professional Development System in Montenegro, https://www.unicef.org/montenegro/en/media/25 686/file/Assessment%20of%20the%20Teachers%E2%80%99%20Professional%20Development%20System%20in%20Montenegro.pdf (accessed on 3 March 2026).
TALIS 2024 data indicate that, in many contexts, teachers that participate in lesson observation have a greater sense of effectiveness. In 20 education systems, participation in professional learning activities based on reflections on lesson observations is positively associated with the fulfilment of lesson aims, after controlling for teacher and school characteristics (OECD, 2025[1]). Within the Western Balkans, this relationship is evident in both Albania and Serbia. Across the region, lesson observation is a more prevalent form of professional learning both in relation to EU and OECD systems and compared with several other forms of professional development. The share of teachers reporting that they participated in reflections on lessons observations in the 12 months prior to the TALIS 2024 survey ranges from 83% in Albania to 54% in North Macedonia compared to an EU share of 44%.
Formal qualifications for in-service teachers, such as degree programmes for more specialist roles or skills sets (e.g. supporting students with SEN, instructional leadership or digital pedagogy) have been implemented in some EU and OECD systems as a way of making the teaching profession more responsive to fast-changing contexts (OECD, 2024[17]). Participation in formal qualifications, which typically require a sustained time and workload commitment, is naturally lower than participation in shorter, modular forms of professional learning and remains limited in most Western Balkan systems. Around one‑fifth of teachers in Montenegro and North Macedonia report having taken part in such programmes, in line with EU and OECD averages, while participation is higher in Kosovo (around one-in-four) and lowest in Serbia (15%). Albania again stands out, with nearly half of teachers reporting that they undertook a formal qualification programme in the 12 months prior to the survey. As in EU and OECD systems, more experienced teachers are more likely to report this type of professional learning in all Western Balkan systems except Albania, where the share of novice teachers participating in formal qualification is 18 percentage points higher than among their more experienced colleagues.
Share of teachers who participated in professional learning activities in the 12 months prior to the survey
Note: Items are presented in descending order based on EU total‑22 estimates. Values are displayed in full colour only where the difference from the EU total‑22 estimate is statistically significant.
Source: OECD (2025[4]), TALIS 2024 Statistical Compendium, https://app.powerbi.com/view?r=eyJrIjoiYTA0YzRhYmUtY2M0Ny00MGQxLWJh NTEtZTViNTU4NWRjYzM0IiwidCI6ImFjNDFjN2Q0LTFmNjEtNDYwZC1iMGY0LWZjOTI1YTJiNDcxYyIsImMiOjh9 (accessed on 3 February 2026).
Nearly all teachers in Albania report that recent professional learning activities had a strong impact on their teaching in contrast to only around half of those in North Macedonia and Serbia
Teachers’ views on the usefulness of their professional learning differ substantially across Western Balkan systems. In Albania, perceptions are uniformly positive: nearly all teachers (96%) report that the activities they completed in the past 12 months had “quite a bit” or “a lot” of impact on their teaching (see Figure 3.4, Panel A). Elsewhere, the picture is mixed. In Kosovo, around four-fifths of teachers (79%) report high impact, compared to around two‑thirds in Montenegro (64%). Reported impact is lower still in North Macedonia, where about half of teachers (52%) report strong benefits and in Serbia, where fewer than half (43%) do so, both below the EU share of 56%.
In all Western Balkan education systems except Albania, novice teachers are significantly more likely than their experienced peers to say that professional learning has had a positive impact on their teaching. These gaps are particularly pronounced in Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Serbia (see Figure 3.4, Panel B), suggesting that professional learning in these systems may be perceived as especially relevant during the early years of a teaching career.
Share of teachers reporting that the professional learning they received in the 12 months prior to the survey had a positive impact on their teaching
Note: Education systems are listed in descending order based on the share of teachers reporting that professional learning activities had a positive impact on their teaching (Panel A) and in ascending order of the share of novice teachers reporting the same (Panel B).
Source: OECD (2025[1]), Results from TALIS 2024: The State of Teaching, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/90df6235-en.
Teachers in the Western Balkans most frequently report professional learning barriers related to time, cost, incentives and relevance.
Across the Western Balkans, teachers’ self-reported barriers to participating in professional learning tend to cluster around four recurring constraints: time pressure, financial cost, lack of incentives and the perceived relevance of the offer (see Figure 3.5). Barriers related to physical access and employer support are reported less frequently overall but take on greater importance for teachers working in rural or disadvantaged school contexts.
Lack of time due to other commitments and conflicts with work schedules, are among the most frequently reported constraints in several systems, particularly Montenegro and Serbia. Time pressures may be shaped by differences in teachers’ work organisation and responsibility as well as by how professional learning is scheduled and integrated into teachers’ working time, and the expected level of participation. In Serbia, nearly half of teachers (47%) cite lack of time due to other commitments as a barrier, with conflicts with work schedules also ranking highly (see Figure 3.5). In Montenegro too, time pressure is the most reported barrier, but with a smaller share of teachers reporting it (36%). According to teachers’ reports of their time spent on work-related tasks and except in Albania, Western Balkan teachers spend more time on professional learning activities than their EU and OECD peers, ranging from 3.2 hours a week for full time teachers in North Macedonia to 1.4 hours in Albania, compared to 1.7 hours across the EU.
Alongside time constraints, financial costs emerge as a key barrier across Western Balkan systems. Such costs can be related to the direct cost of the activity, travel and accommodation costs or loss of payment for time outside school. This is the most reported barrier in Albania and second in North Macedonia and Serbia. Close to half of teachers report cost as a barrier in most Western Balkan systems except Montenegro; across the EU the share is 40%.
Share of teachers agreeing that the following present barriers to participation in professional learning
Note: Items are listed in descending order based on the values for the EU total-22.
Source: OECD (2025[1]), Results from TALIS 2024: The State of Teaching, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/90df6235-en.
The absence of incentives, such as financial compensation or career progression, is another frequently reported barrier in the region. This concern is particularly pronounced in Kosovo and North Macedonia, where more than half of teachers report insufficient incentives, compared with an EU share of 49%, making it the most cited barrier in both systems (see Figure 3.5). Interestingly, in Kosovo, participation in professional learning is a requirement for teacher license renewal; TALIS data indicate that this alone may not be sufficient to motivate teachers to participate, particularly in activities beyond the necessary 100 hours every 5 years (see Table 3.1).
Concerns about the relevance of available professional learning also feature prominently in several Western Balkan systems, ranking among the most reported barriers in Kosovo, North Macedonia and Serbia. Further evidence from the region corroborates this. UNICEF has previously reported that, in Montenegro for example, current teacher professional development programmes do not always address the specific challenges faced by educators working with diverse and marginalised student populations (UNICEF, 2025[7]). Meanwhile, OECD research in North Macedonia has previously found that training offered by external providers is not sufficiently matched to teachers’ needs, recommending that the Ministry play a more active role in shaping the content of provision (OECD, 2019[18]).
Barriers related to physical access and employer support, while reported by smaller shares of teachers overall, are relevant for specific groups. Limited accessibility due to distance is more frequently reported by teachers in rural schools, especially in Albania, North Macedonia, Serbia and Albania, where gaps reach 17, 8 and 17 percentage points, respectively. Lack of employer support shows the same pattern of variation: rural teachers and those working in disadvantaged schools in Albania are more likely to report insufficient support.
In the Western Balkans, teachers’ concerns regarding the relevance of professional development and available incentives are often more prevalent among experienced teachers
There is notable variation in teachers’ reports of barriers to their professional learning by age and experience in several Western Balkans systems. For example, in Kosovo and North Macedonia, around one third of teachers report barriers related to time constraints, but young teachers (i.e. those aged under 30) are significantly more likely to report conflicts with work schedules than their older colleagues (i.e. those aged 50 or over). In contrast, teachers in Albania report time constraints less often overall (26%), but they are more prevalent among older and more experienced teachers. Albania is the only country in the region where there is no difference in teaching load by level of experience; however, more experienced teachers do report spending more time on marking and school management (see Chapter 1). In Serbia and North Macedonia, more experienced teachers are also substantially more likely to report cost as a barrier (by around 18 and 10 points respectively), while in Montenegro novice teachers are more likely to do so (by 12 points).
Across systems, more experienced teachers are more likely than novice teachers to report insufficient incentives to participate in professional learning in all systems except Montenegro. In North Macedonia and Serbia, the gaps are particularly large at 15 and 16 points, respectively. In both these countries, more experienced teachers are also significantly more likely than novices to cite relevance as a barrier, with percentage-point differences of 12 points. These two barriers may be linked: as perceived relevance declines for more experienced teachers, the need for more extrinsic incentives grows. Each of the five systems has defined different stages in the teacher career to help structure professional growth for teachers as they gain experience. However, TALIS data indicate that their implementation does not currently ensure all experienced teachers feel stimulated by the professional development opportunities on offer (see Box 3.1).
There are three progression levels in Albania’s teacher career structure based on regulated qualification categories: “qualified”, “specialist” and “master”. Promotion is based on years of experience, the accumulation of accredited continuous professional development credits on any topic, and a summative appraisal process that primarily draws on an examination. Teachers can take on other different roles throughout their careers, such as mentor or head of subject but these are not explicitly connected to qualification categories.
Kosovo’s teacher licensing system is structured into four stages: career education, advanced teacher, master teacher and Meritus teacher. The first two stages focus on the teachers’ individual professional competence; the second two continue building on individual competence whilst also assigning responsibilities related to supporting colleagues, such as mentoring and running professional development sessions. Kosovo’s teacher licensing system links teachers’ career advancement with their professional development but UNICEF has previously reported that effective implementation requires enhancing quality assurance of the professional learning offer and its coherence with career structures.
In Montenegro, a teacher may advance towards the positions of teacher-mentor, teacher-advisor, teacher-senior advisor and teacher–researcher. Teachers progress to these positions based on the quality of their work, determined by a summative appraisal process that considers student performance and participation in professional development. Each position comes with an increase in salary and other benefits.
From 2019, North Macedonia introduced legislative changes establishing a teacher career with two opportunities for formal progression. Teachers with at least seven years of work experience can be promoted to a role as teacher mentor, whose additional responsibilities include mentoring others, supporting colleagues to implement action research and participating in school development planning. Those with at least three years of experience as a mentor may apply to a role as a teacher advisor, whose responsibilities include those of a mentor plus leading innovative school projects. Both positions are defined within North Macedonia’s teacher standards and come with financial compensation. Appointments are made according to municipal-level quotas.
Serbia has a merit-based career ladder with five career levels marked by increasing responsibility for pedagogical leadership. Progress to the next level is based on an initial referral by the school’s teacher council and a summative appraisal by the Regional School Authority. However, the OECD has previously reported that teachers’ perceptions of the complexity of the promotion process discourage many from applying. For example, teachers are required to document professional development activities, curriculum-related engagement and project participation as part of their application. Serbia has introduced financial incentives for career progression, with salary top-ups, ranging from 5%-12%. This has provided additional motivation for teachers to progress in their career and has helped lead to an increase in applications for promotion.
Sources: Dehari-Zeka & Ymerhalili (2023[19]), TIMSS 2023: Kosovo, International Association for Assessment of Educational Achievement, https://timss2023.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Kosovo.pdf (accessed on 16 January 2026); European Commission/Eurydice (2024[20]), Montenegro: Teachers and education staff, https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/eurypedia/montenegro/continuing-professional-development-teachers-working-early-childhood-and (accessed on 16 January 2026); Maghnouj, S. et al. (Maghnouj et al., 2020[21]), OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education: Serbia, OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/225350d9-en; Maghnouj, S. et al. (2020[22]), OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education: Albania, OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/d267dc93-en; Parliament of the Republic of North Macedonia (2019[23]), Law on teachers and professional associates in primary and secondary schools, Official gazette of the Republic of Macedonia, https://portal.mdt.gov.mk/post-body-files/zakoni-mon-file-z6Ri.pdf (accessed on16 January 2026); UNICEF Innocenti - Global office of research and foresight (2023[24]), Transforming Education in Kosovo with the Learning Passport: The case of Shkollat.org, UNICEF, https://www.unicef.org/kosovoprogramme/media/3916/file/English-2023.pdf (accessed on 16 January 2026).
Professional learning on the use of digital technologies
The rapidly expanding use of digital technologies, including artificial intelligence (AI), calls for renewed efforts to provide teachers with the necessary skills to deploy such resources effectively (OECD, 2025[25]). While Chapter 2 explored TALIS data focused on teachers’ use of digital technology and AI to implement teaching practices that respond to learners’ diverse needs, this section focuses on building professional capacity for the use of digital technologies more broadly. It considers teachers’ participation in related professional learning activities over the past 12 months and their self‑reported needs for further development on such topics. Specifically, the section considers training on pedagogical skills for integrating digital tools into teaching, technical skills for operating digital tools and platforms, and training on the use of AI for teaching and learning.
Higher shares of teachers in the Western Balkans report participating in training on digital tools than on AI‑related topics, with novice teachers consistently reporting higher engagement
Participation in professional learning in digital technologies is widespread in all Western Balkan education systems. The share of teachers reporting that they participated in training on digital resources and tools in the 12 months prior to the TALIS survey ranged from 91% in Albania to 74% in Kosovo, compared to the EU share of 74%. This high level of engagement may reflect the substantial investments made in digital infrastructure and competence among teachers in recent years (see Box 3.2). The share of teachers reporting participation in AI-focused professional learning was smaller, ranging from 46% in Albania to 28% in Serbia and compared to an EU share of 30% (see Figure 3.6, Panel A).
Western Balkan education systems have taken concrete steps to expand the availability and use of digital tools – primarily through investment in connectivity and equipment, development of national digital platforms and training to improve teachers’ digital competences.
Albania is expanding digital infrastructure via the Smart Labs programme, supported by a financing package of EUR 27 million to refurbish and equip over 600 public schools. The programme aims to strengthen digital learning opportunities and teacher capacity to use technology in instruction. By September 2024, Albania reported that Smart Labs had been installed in 200 schools, with plans for a larger expansion (including 654 additional labs) planned for completion by 2026.
Kosovo is combining system-level planning for digital education through the Education Strategy 2022-2026 and the World Bank Digital Readiness Assessment, with digital platforms and training at school level. Kosovo launched the Shkollat.org digital learning platform in 2021, and more recent school-level work includes a memorandum signed in October 2023 to support digital transformation in selected schools through online training and complementary coaching
Montenegro’s approach is anchored in the Education System Digitalisation Strategy (2022-2027), complemented by implementation support that directly targets capacity building for teachers. Between August 2024 and April 2025, more than 300 teachers were trained in Microsoft 365 with follow-on self-paced courses hosted on the national Digital School platform.
North Macedonia’s Education Strategy 2018-2025 identifies the integration of digital tools and digital literacy as system-wide priorities. Since 2020, the education system expanded digital learning resources through the EDUINO platform and related e‑Classrooms, using large libraries of video lessons and other online materials to support classroom practice. In parallel, development‑financed school rehabilitation initiatives, such as the Primary Education Improvement Project, have focused on improving school facilities and learning environments, including upgrading digital infrastructure and classroom equipment to support everyday use of digital tools.
Serbia has pursued large-scale digital infrastructure updates with major investment projects, such as the Connected Schools (2019) programme, partially supported by the European Investment Bank. The programme has helped introduce wireless connectivity in more than 95% of classrooms in Serbia. In addition, the government is currently implementing a project that will provide additional fibre optic connectivity to more than 1 000 rural schools.
Sources: European Investment Bank (2024[26]), Digital education in Serbia: Rollout of the Connected Schools project in Serbia is providing equal digital opportunities for children throughout the country, https://www.eib.org/en/stories/digital-education-serbia (accessed on 13 January 2026); UNICEF (2023[27]), Digital learning landscape in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, Montenegro, and North Macedonia: A policy analysis, https://www.unicef.org/innocenti/reports/digital-learning-landscape-western-balkans (accessed on 12 January 2026); World Bank (2025[28]), Digital Transformation and Public Sector Reform: Western Balkans' Progress toward EU Accession and Economic Growth, https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/eca/brief/digital-transformation-and-public-sector-reform-western-balkans-progress-toward-eu-accession-and-economic-growth (accessed on 13 January 2026).
In all systems, novice teachers report higher participation in AI-related professional learning than more experienced teachers (see Figure 3.6, Panel B). The largest gap appears in Kosovo, where 44% of novice teachers report taking part in training on using AI for teaching and learning, compared to 30% of experienced teachers. Smaller differences in the same direction are also observed in Kosovo for training on both technical skills for incorporating digital resources (by 7 percentage points) and pedagogical skills (by 6 percentage points). These values suggest that, in Kosovo, early‑career teachers may be more receptive to emerging technologies or more frequently targeted by related professional development initiatives.
In most systems, school contexts also appear to shape access to professional learning on digital technologies. In Serbia, teachers working with higher concentrations of disadvantaged students (over 30%) report greater engagement in AI-related training with an 8 percentage-point gap as compared to their colleagues working in schools with fewer disadvantaged students (under 10%). In Albania, the pattern reverses.
Differences by school location are also visible. In Albania, teachers working in urban settings report higher participation in professional learning on the use of AI for teaching and learning by 7 percentage points. The same is true for training on the pedagogical use of digital resources, with gaps of 3 percentage points in Albania and 10 percentage points in Kosovo. In these two systems, professional learning opportunities related to the use of digital and AI technologies may be more available or easily accessible for teachers working in urban contexts.
Note: Education systems are shown in descending order based on the share of teachers reporting that the use of digital resources and tools was included in their professional learning activities in the 12 months prior to the survey (Panel A) and on the share of novice teachers reporting that using AI for teaching and learning was included in their professional learning activities (Panel B).
Source: OECD (2025[1]), Results from TALIS 2024: The State of Teaching, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/90df6235-en.
In Albania, Kosovo and North Macedonia, experienced and older teachers are more likely to report professional learning needs related to AI and the use of digital tools
Relatively small shares of teachers report unmet training needs in implementing digital technologies, including AI, in their teaching. Reports are lowest in Albania and North Macedonia, where around one-in-six teachers identify strengthening pedagogical skills for incorporating digital resources into teaching as a learning need. The share is higher in Kosovo, Montenegro and Serbia, where just over one‑fifth report this learning need. Needs related to technical skills for using digital resources and tools are slightly more widespread at around 15% in Albania and North Macedonia and 20% in the remaining systems. By contrast, learning needs related to using AI for teaching and learning are reported more frequently across all Western Balkan systems, ranging from 19% in North Macedonia to around 27% in Albania and Kosovo. Indeed, this is the most frequently reported learning need in Albania and Kosovo, as it is across the EU.
Teachers’ self‑reported learning needs differ by experience and age in several systems, with experienced and older teachers more frequently identifying needs in digital and AI‑related areas. In Kosovo, experienced teachers are more likely than novices to report needs related to both the pedagogical use of digital tools (by 7 percentage points) and technical skills (by 5 points). Differences by age go in a similar direction: older teachers in Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia more often report needing support with technical digital skills (8, 13 and 9 percentage points, respectively). These patterns mirror those seen across the EU and OECD. For AI‑related topics, the pattern is not so consistent: older and more experienced teachers report higher learning needs in Albania and Kosovo, while in North Macedonia this is observed only by experience.
Professional collaboration
Teacher collaboration is widely recognised as a key component of effective professional learning, supporting both instructional improvement and teachers’ confidence in their own practice (OECD, 2020[29]). TALIS provides detailed information on teachers’ collaborative activities, allowing analysis of how frequently teachers collaborate, what forms this collaboration takes, and whether more collaborative environments are associated with higher levels of self‑efficacy.
Teachers in most Western Balkan systems report relatively high participation in some forms of collaboration, such as discussing student learning and assessment, but collaborative instruction is much less common.
Teachers in the Western Balkans report regular engagement in collaboration although participation varies considerably depending on the nature of the activity. In almost all systems, teachers report spending around three hours per week on teamwork and professional dialogue with colleagues, a level broadly comparable to that of teachers across the EU. In Albania, however, reported time spent on teamwork is notably lower at around two hours per week. Despite this, Albania consistently has the highest share of teachers reporting participation in different collaborative activities among Western Balkan systems, except for collaborative professional learning (see Figure 3.7).
Collaborative activities focused on the day-to-day work tasks of teachers, such as exchanging teaching materials, discussing the learning development of specific students and standardising assessment approaches, are the most reported forms of collaboration across Western Balkan systems. These activities are typically informal, flexible and episodic. The share of teachers in each system reporting that they discuss student progress with colleagues ranges from 67% in Albania to 54% in Kosovo and Serbia, compared with an EU share of 64% (see Figure 3.7). Meanwhile the share reporting that they exchange teaching materials ranges from 53% in Albania to 30% in Serbia, compared to 45% across the EU. Differences by teaching experience are visible in some systems: in Albania and Kosovo, novice teachers are more likely than their more experienced peers to report never having exchanged teaching materials (by 5 and 6 percentage points, respectively).
Share of teachers reporting that they do the following in their school at least once a month
Note: Items are presented in descending order based on EU total‑22 estimates. Values are displayed in full colour only where the difference from the EU total‑22 estimate is statistically significant.
Source: OECD (2025[4]), TALIS 2024 Statistical Compendium, https://app.powerbi.com/view?r=eyJrIjoiYTA0YzRhYmUtY2M0Ny00MGQxLWJh NTEtZTViNTU4NWRjYzM0IiwidCI6ImFjNDFjN2Q0LTFmNjEtNDYwZC1iMGY0LWZjOTI1YTJiNDcxYyIsImMiOjh9 (accessed on 3 February 2026).
In contrast, collaboration activities more explicitly focused on professional development are less commonly reported, both in the Western Balkans and across the EU and OECD. For example, the share of teachers reporting that they participate in collaborative professional learning at least once a month, ranges from 41% in Albania to 19% in Montenegro, all exceeding the EU share of 15%. Meanwhile, 15% of teachers in Kosovo report never taking part in collaborative learning. Serbia follows a slightly different pattern to its neighbours: at 35%, the share of teachers reporting that they participate in collaborative learning is higher than the share reporting sharing teaching materials.
Peer observation and feedback, which often require coordination across schedules, mutual trust, and direct exposure of teaching practice, represents the most demanding form of collaboration asked about in TALIS but one that can directly contribute to improvements in practice (OECD, 2024[17]). Again, rates in Serbia are higher than those elsewhere with 14% of teachers reporting participation in related activities at least once a month, compared to an EU share of 9%. In other systems the shares range from 10% in Albania to 7% in Kosovo and Montenegro. Moreover, notably large shares of teachers in Kosovo and North Macedonia (44% and 45%) report never having observed other teachers’ classes or provided feedback.
TALIS data indicate that novice teachers are less likely to engage in collaborative activities that explicitly support professional development than their more experienced colleagues. In all Western Balkan systems except North Macedonia, novice teachers are more likely to report never having participated in collaborative learning, with gaps of between 4 and 7 percentage points. This aligns with patterns seen across the EU and OECD. Moreover, in all Western Balkan systems, novice teachers more frequently report never participating in peer observation and feedback, with gaps ranging from 11 percentage points in North Macedonia to 19 points in Albania. Empirical studies indicate the specific value of professional collaboration for teachers in the early stages of their career with evidence that it is a particularly powerful component of induction and mentoring for novice teachers that can both enhance instructional effectiveness and reduce attrition (Maandag et al., 2017[30]).
Teachers with higher instructional self-efficacy report greater engagement in collaboration in both the Western Balkans and the EU and OECD
Across Western Balkan systems, teachers reporting higher instructional self‑efficacy are consistently more likely to report engaging in collaborative activities at least once a month. This pattern is also seen across the EU and OECD. For less intensive forms of collaborative activities, such as exchanging teaching materials or discussing the learning development of specific students, differences between teachers with high and low self-efficacy are particularly large ranging from around 20 to 30 percentage points (see Figure 3.8, Panel A).
For activities directly related to professional development, such as participation in collaborative professional learning, the gaps are smaller but remain substantial, ranging from 13 percentage points in Albania to 23 points in Kosovo. The differences diminishes further when it comes to observing colleagues’ lessons and providing feedback, with gaps ranging from 5 percentage points in Kosovo to 8 in Albania (see Figure 3.8, Panel B). It is not clear from the data whether professional collaboration attracts teachers who already feel more confident in their instructional capacity or supports them to develop their confidence.
Share of teachers reporting that they engage in the following types of collaboration at least once a month
Note: Education systems are listed in ascending order of the share of teachers with low self‑efficacy reporting engaging in discussions about student learning (Panel A) and peer observation and feedback (Panel B) at least once a month.
Source: OECD (2025[1]), Results from TALIS 2024: The State of Teaching, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/90df6235-en.
This section examines how teachers in the Western Balkans are appraised throughout their teaching careers, focusing on who conducts appraisals, the methods used, and how feedback is provided and perceived. The analysis places particular emphasis on formative appraisal, given its role in supporting reflection, professional learning and improvements in instructional practice (Santiago and Benavides, 2009[31]; OECD, 2013[32]; OECD, 2013[33]; Santiago and Benavides, 2009[31]) but data also offer insight into more summative processes too which can be an important mechanism for career progression.
Formal teacher appraisal
TALIS collects information on formal teacher appraisal with a focus on who appraises teachers and the methods used, including classroom observations, assessment of teachers’ content knowledge, the use of student results, student surveys related to teaching, and teacher self-assessment. It also asks how appraisal outcomes are followed up, for example, whether identified weaknesses in teaching are discussed with teachers, whether an individual development or training plan is established, and whether a mentor is appointed to support teachers to improve their practice.
According to principals’ reports, formal teacher appraisal in the Western Balkans typically involves input from multiple sources
According to principals’ reports, formal teacher appraisal is a well-established feature of school systems across the Western Balkans. On average across the region, 98% of teachers work in schools where they are formally appraised at least once a year by their principal – around 15 percentage points above the EU share. The share ranges from 99% in Albania, Kosovo and Montenegro to 96% in North Macedonia. Nevertheless, the specific structures and processes in place for formal appraisal differ slightly across systems (see Box 3.3).
In most systems, appraisal responsibilities also extend beyond the principal and frequently involve other members of school management teams or designated mentors with 83% of teachers reporting this source of appraisal at least once a year compared to EU shares of 50% and 67%, respectively. The shares are notably lower in Kosovo, where less than two-thirds of teachers work in schools whose principal report this. Appraisal by fellow teachers varies by system. For example, fewer than half of teachers in Albania and Kosovo work in schools whose principal reports this source of appraisal taking place at least once a year at 38% and 44%, respectively, compared to more than two-thirds in North Macedonia and Serbia, and over three-quarters in Montenegro.
Across all systems in the region, appraisal by external actors - such as school inspectors or subnational administrations - is widespread, with around four-fifths of teachers (85%) working in schools whose principals report that this type of appraisal occurs at least once a year. Shares are similar across the region, ranging from 89% in North Macedonia to 82% in Albania. The high presence of both internal and external appraisal indicates that both formative and summative processes are commonplace in the region.
Across Western Balkan education systems, teacher appraisal is formally established as part of broader frameworks governing teacher certification, licensing or career progression. However, the design and intended function of appraisal processes vary across systems, particularly in terms of how they are linked to professional development and instructional improvement.
In Albania, appraisal forms part of a series of mandatory processes that apply at key transition points in teachers’ careers, including initial certification, promotion and access to rewards. Alongside these more summative, higher-stakes forms of appraisal, regular annual appraisal is embedded within the national evaluation framework meaning there are also provisions for more developmental processes.
In Kosovo, appraisal is closely tied to the licensing system. Teachers are required to undergo performance appraisal to renew their seven‑year teaching license, with outcomes feeding into both license renewal and career advancement decisions.
Appraisal in Montenegro combines internal and external review. School leaders and management teams conduct in‑school appraisal as part of school evaluation while education inspectors, quality assurance advisers and professional bodies may also contribute to external evaluation processes intended to support improvements in teaching practice.
In North Macedonia, appraisal requirements are defined through several formal processes involving both in‑school and external evaluation. Although regular appraisal is formally required, there is no single national framework specifying consistent appraisal standards or systematic links to professional development. Appraisal processes are also not consistently anchored in nationally defined teaching standards, nor are they formally connected to performance‑based progression in salary or professional status.
In Serbia, regular in‑school appraisal is undertaken by school principals and pedagogical staff using standards and indicators established in the national evaluation framework. In addition, when the focus of compulsory school self-evaluation is on teaching and learning, the process requires peer lesson observation among teachers. External evaluators conduct school evaluations at least once every six years, observing the lessons of at least 40% of teachers. Finally, an external appraisal mechanism, conducted by the Regional School Authority, exists for those teachers applying for merit‑based promotion.
Sources: European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice (2021[34]), 2021. Teachers in Europe: Careers, Development and Well-being. Eurydice report. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/chapter _4_appraisal_1 07_126.pdf (accessed on 3 March 2026); Maghnouj et al., (2020[22]), OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education: Albania, OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/d267dc93-en; Maghnouj, S. et al. (2020[21]), OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education: Serbia, OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/225350d9-en; Ministry of Education, Science, Technology and Innovation (2024[35]), Teachers’ performance evaluation, Internal evaluation for continuation/renewal of career license, https://masht.rks-gov.net/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/2.Anglisht.Udhezues-VPM-i-brendshem-15.04.2024-version-perfundimtar-ob-anglisht.pdf (accessed on 3 March 2026); OECD (2019[18]), OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education: North Macedonia, OECD Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/079fe34c-en.
Teacher appraisal in the Western Balkans typically draws on a wide range of methods, with the extent of external involvement varying across systems and school contexts
According to principals’ reports, the methods used to appraise teachers in the Western Balkans are comprehensive. In all systems except Montenegro, principals report drawing on six different approaches, compared with an average of five across EU and OECD systems. Classroom observation is universal, with all teachers working in schools whose principal reports this method in each of the Western Balkan systems. Nearly all other methods asked about in the survey – including student survey responses, use of students’ academic results, school‑ and classroom‑based outcomes, and teacher self‑assessment – are used in over 90% of schools in all systems. The only method that is marginally less reported in the region is assessment of teachers’ content knowledge. Nevertheless, in comparison to EU and OECD systems, TALIS data for the region indicates that there is a greater role for more quantitative measures of teachers’ work, such as assessment of their content knowledge, students’ results on external tests and student survey responses.
Earlier OECD work has shown that while structures for appraisal are well-established in the region, the way in which these processes are carried out in practice can limit developmental value. In some systems, appraisal relies heavily on administrative documentation or written examinations, with more limited use of qualitative evidence of teaching practice. This may constrain the contribution appraisal can make to continuous professional learning (Maghnouj et al., 2020[22]; Maghnouj et al., 2020[21]; OECD, 2019[18]). For example, in Albania, appraisal procedures place substantial emphasis on the number of papers teachers present, while in North Macedonia teacher portfolios exist but typically lack systematic assessment of their quality (Maghnouj et al., 2020[22]; OECD, 2019[18]).
Principals in the region report that appraisal is often followed by developmental support, though intensive forms of instructional support appear less common
According to principals’ reports in TALIS 2024, teacher appraisal in the Western Balkans is frequently accompanied by some form of follow-up aimed at supporting teachers’ professional development (see Figure 3.9). Based on principals’ reports, 88% of teachers in the region work in schools where appraisal results are “most of the time” or “always” discussed with teachers and are followed by measures intended to address identified areas for improvement. In addition, appraisal leads to the development of an individual training or development plan for around two-thirds of teachers in Kosovo and Serbia, and for a higher share - up to 85% - in the remaining systems. In both cases, the reported frequency of these methods is notably higher than among EU systems where 62% and 44% of teachers work in schools whose principals report implementing the same methods.
Share of teachers working in schools where the following occurs "most of the time" or "always" as a consequence of formal teacher appraisal, based on principals’ reports
Note: Items are presented in descending order based on EU total‑22 estimates. Values are displayed in full colour only where the difference from the EU total‑22 estimate is statistically significant.
Source: OECD (2025[4]), TALIS 2024 Statistical Compendium, https://app.powerbi.com/view?r=eyJrIjoiYTA0YzRhYmUtY2M0Ny00MGQxLWJh NTEtZTViNTU4NWRjYzM0IiwidCI6ImFjNDFjN2Q0LTFmNjEtNDYwZC1iMGY0LWZjOTI1YTJiNDcxYyIsImMiOjh9 (accessed on 3 February 2026).
When it comes to appointing a mentor following appraisal, North Macedonia stands out as a clear outlier. Nearly two-thirds (64%) of teachers in North Macedonia work in schools whose principals report this type of follow-up action. This is well above the share of 20% across the EU and far exceeds rates in neighbouring contexts which range from 33% in Serbia to just 17% in Albania. These findings align with the almost universal availability of mentoring in schools in North Macedonia although, as in neighbouring systems, actual participation in mentoring remains low. As seen in EU and OECD systems, following up with sanctions or rewards is not commonplace either.
National frameworks across the region generally position teacher appraisal as a tool for professional development as well as career progression. In Montenegro and North Macedonia, appraisal findings are formally intended to inform teachers’ continuing professional development. For example, Montenegro explicitly links appraisal to the identification of teachers’ development needs, while in North Macedonia appraisal outcomes are expected to shape individual development plans and can trigger targeted support (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2023[36]).
Teacher feedback
Teacher feedback supports teachers’ professional development by encouraging reflection and contributing to improvements in teaching practice that benefit student learning (OECD, 2019[37]). TALIS 2024 collects information on the feedback teachers receive about their teaching, focusing on who provides it, how it is generated and how teachers useful perceive it to be. TALIS captures key feedback methods, including classroom observations, analysis of students’ external assessment results, student survey responses, teacher self‑assessment and assessments of teachers’ content knowledge.
While nearly all teachers report receiving some form of feedback in the Western Balkans, older and more experienced teachers typically report greater exposure
While almost all teachers across Western Balkan systems report receiving some form of feedback on their teaching practice, the sources of feedback vary by teacher experience in several contexts. The most pronounced differences are observed for feedback based on students’ external assessment results. In all Western Balkan systems, the share of experienced teachers reporting that they receive feedback based on this method exceeds that of novice teachers, with gaps ranging from 11 percentage points in Albania to 22 percentage points in Kosovo (see Figure 3.10, Panel A). Smaller gaps, in the same direction, are observed for feedback based on school- or classroom-level results. This is interesting given that being held responsible for student achievement is reported as the primary driver of stress among teachers across the region, and is felt particularly strongly by older and more experienced teachers in Montenegro and Serbia (see Chapter 1).
By contrast, teachers with different levels of experience report receiving feedback based on classroom observation at a similar rate in all Western Balkan systems (see Figure 3.10, Panel B). Kosovo is an exception where the share of experienced teachers reporting this method of feedback exceeds that of novice teachers by eight percentage points. Overall, the results indicate that experience-related gaps are more pronounced for feedback linked to aggregated student outcomes or other more quantitative evidence.
Share of teachers who report having received feedback based on the following methods
Note: Education systems are listed in ascending order of the share of novice teachers reporting that they receive feedback based on external results (Panel A) and classroom observation (Panel B).
Source: OECD (2025[1]), Results from TALIS 2024: The State of Teaching, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/90df6235-en.
Novice teachers more often report receiving feedback from external actors and peers, while more experienced teachers report typically receive feedback from principals
Beyond differences in overall exposure, the source of teacher feedback in the region varies by experience level. This suggests that feedback may be organised differently and for varying purposes across different stages of the teaching career. Novice teachers more frequently report feedback coming from external actors (e.g. inspectors or regional bodies) and, in some systems, from peers. By contrast, more experienced teachers more often report receiving feedback from principals or school management teams for some methods.
For feedback based on students’ external assessment results, the reported source differs by experience. While teachers with more than 10 years of experience are more likely to report higher exposure to this feedback method in general, novice teachers are more likely to report receiving it from external actors (e.g. inspectors or regional bodies) in all Western Balkan systems, typically by around 10 to 15 percentage points. This indicates that external, results-linked feedback may be more strongly connected to formal appraisal or supervision processes early in the teaching career. In Kosovo and Montenegro, novice teachers also more often report receiving feedback on external results from colleagues within their school, suggesting that assessment results are discussed as part of school-based induction or support for new teachers.
Novice teachers in Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia are also more likely to report receiving feedback based on school- and classroom-level results from external bodies, by about five percentage points. By contrast, more experienced teachers report that this type of feedback is school-embedded: teachers with more than 10 years of experience more frequently report that principals or school management teams provide feedback based on internal assessment results with gaps of 4 to 11 percentage points.
For classroom observation, experience differences are generally smaller and more system specific. Novice teachers more often report observation-based feedback from external actors in several systems, with the largest gaps in Montenegro and Serbia (22 and 15 percentage points, respectively), and smaller differences in Kosovo and North Macedonia. In Albania and Montenegro, novices also more often report observation-based feedback from peers (8 and 12 percentage points, respectively). Meanwhile, in Kosovo, more experienced teachers are more likely to report never having received observation-based feedback (by 8 percentage points). This indicates that feedback that engages directly with instructional practice becomes less common across a teaching career in several systems.
Most teachers in the region, particularly novices, report that feedback is associated with positive changes in teaching practice
In the Western Balkans, most teachers report that the feedback they have received is associated with positive changes in several aspects of their teaching. Reported shares are consistently above the EU and OECD averages (see Figure 3.11), indicating that teachers in the region more often perceive feedback as supporting improvements in key areas of their practice.
Share of teachers reporting that the feedback they received in the 12 months prior to the survey led to a positive change in the following aspects of their teaching
Note: Items are presented in descending order based on EU total‑22 estimates. Values are displayed in full colour only where the difference from the EU total‑22 estimate is statistically significant.
Source: OECD (2025[1]), Results from TALIS 2024: The State of Teaching, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/90df6235-en.
Reported positive change is highest for core practices that sit at the centre of everyday instruction – particularly subject teaching and using student assessments to improve learning. In Albania, reported shares exceed 90% in these two areas, while in the remaining systems they are around 80% (see Figure 3.11). By contrast, reported positive change tends to be lower for areas where translating feedback into practice may depend more strongly on additional enabling conditions, such as specialised knowledge, resources, or sustained follow-up support. For teaching students with special education needs (SEN) and teaching with digital resources and tools, for example, perceived impact is around 70% in most systems and about 85% in Albania. The lowest reported impact concerns methods for teaching in multicultural or multilingual settings, where shares range from 42% in Serbia to 73% in Albania.
Across systems, novice teachers more often report positive changes following feedback than their experienced colleagues, but the extent of this difference varies across areas of practice. Differences are clearest for core instructional routines: in all systems, novice teachers are more likely than experienced teachers to report that feedback was associated with positive changes in subject teaching. The largest gaps are evident in Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia, ranging from 9 to 15 percentage points.
By contrast, experience-related differences are observed in fewer systems for more specialised domains. For example, statistically significant differences in the share of teachers reporting that feedback resulted in positive changes to the use of digital resources for instruction appear in Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia. There are similar differences in North Macedonia and Serbia when it comes to the impact of feedback on multicultural or multilingual teaching and for supporting students with SEN in North Macedonia.
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