Exploring New Frontiers in Citizen Participation in the Policy Cycle

4. Global Citizen Participation: Climate Change as a Test Case

Abstract

Using climate change as a case study, this chapter illustrates how complex global challenges call for robust multilevel governance approaches to citizen participation. It applies a functional model to explore emerging mechanisms for citizen participation in climate policy and highlights the need for capacity building. The chapter underscores the importance of designing inclusive global policy making frameworks that can empower citizens worldwide to help shape and implement effective solutions for the green transition.

The climate crisis matters because it’s the biggest challenge the world is facing today. It also matters because, like many in my generation, I want my granddaughters to have a livable planet, rather than one destroyed by climate change. […] We need to work not only for this generation, but to have a world that is preserved for future generations.

- Antonio Guterres, UN Secretary-General (Guterres, 2024[1])

4.1. Key messages

• Citizens recognise the climate crisis to be an existential threat requiring global action. Yet the 2024 OECD Trust Survey shows that less than half of people think that their country will succeed in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Embedding inclusive citizen participation in global climate policy will ensure transparency, strengthen public support for necessary adaptation and mitigation measures and build trust in government.

• Citizen participation on a global scale will be needed to tackle the climate crisis. Governments must adopt people-centred approaches to the design and implementation of climate policy which strengthen engagement, ownership and agency. Given the unequal costs and distributional impacts of the transition to Net Zero by 2050, a citizen-centred approach is imperative.

• Global citizen participation calls for experimentation with new institutional mechanisms. Existing systems for citizen participation in global climate policy are largely indirect, via citizens’ elected political representatives and via Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) acting as their ‘social representatives’. Piloting new platforms for direct global citizen participation will need to be accompanied by greater investments in global citizenship education and participation skills.

4.2. Scope

This section:

• Applies the functional model to citizen participation in tackling the global policy challenge of climate change that spans multiple boundaries of space and time.

• Identifies two complementary avenues for building global systems for citizen participation: developing new institutions for global citizen participation in climate policy; and strengthening people’s knowledge, skills and behaviours to participate effectively in tackling climate change.

• Calls for multidisciplinary, multisectoral and international collaboration on building effective global systems for citizen participation in climate policy.

4.3. Why choose climate change as a test case for citizen participation?

Successfully addressing climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions is a challenge for democratic governments, which need to demonstrate their ability to handle long-term, complex, interconnected, and systemic challenges, manage difficult trade-offs, and achieve broader well-being outcomes. Governments must balance multiple, and often divergent, perspectives to design effective policies that align environmental and economic goals while ensuring social cohesion, inclusion, and intergenerational equity.

Achieving ambitious climate policy goals through mitigation and adaptation strategies will require the understanding, participation, and support of citizens worldwide – including those most vulnerable to climate risks, such as women facing multiple inequalities (UN Women, 2022[2]), the elderly, children, and those in poor health (European Environment Agency, 2018[3]). This will require greater attention to fostering active citizen participation, facilitating transparent and effective communication, ensuring fit-for-purpose governance mechanisms to achieve climate targets, and supporting the significant behavioural shifts that will be required from everyone.

Citizens see that their national governments are visibly struggling to take appropriate and effective action on intergenerational and global challenges such as tackling the climate crisis. The 2024 OECD Trust Survey (OECD, 2024[4]) shows that among respondents from 30 OECD Member countries:

• Less than half (42%) think that their country will succeed in reducing greenhouse gas emissions (which is nonetheless an improvement on 35.5% which was the share found in 2021);

• Only 37% are confident that government adequately balances the interests of current and future generations;

• More than a third (38%) express doubts about governments’ ability to draw on the best available evidence, research and statistical data when taking decisions.

Findings from the 2024 OECD Trust Survey suggest that today the most powerful drivers for strengthening citizens’ trust in government are related to complex, global and long-term policy issues – as these are the ones where people currently feel they do not have a voice and think that policy decisions are influenced by private interests rather than being based on the best available evidence with the goal of serving the public interest.

Progress in engaging citizens in climate change may therefore be expected to lead not only to better policy outcomes (instrumental value) but also to generate additional dividends in terms of greater trust in government and more resilient democracies (intrinsic value). In the words of António Guterres, the Secretary-General of the United Nations: “The key to reinvigorated and reimagined governance lies with truly meaningful participation of people and civil society in the decisions that affect their lives” (Guterres, 2020[5]). Given that the climate crisis will affect people’s lives everywhere on the planet, there is a strong case to be made for strengthening inclusive citizen participation in climate change policy at the global level.

To reduce global greenhouse gas emissions and achieve sustainable levels of natural resource use, an economic and societal transition is required at an unprecedented scale and a rapid pace. To succeed, governments must adopt innovative, people-centred approaches to the design and implementation of policy measures, recognising the interconnected nature of environmental challenges. They must mobilise diverse coalitions and embed citizen participation in decision-making, while ensuring engagement, ownership, and agency. Recognising that the green transition will have unequal costs and distributional impacts both within and across countries makes a citizen-centred approach imperative.

4.4. Applying the functional model to citizen participation in climate change

In the course of their daily lives, citizens take myriads of decisions and actions that have a cumulative impact on the climate over time. For their daily commute to work or school, people may choose to go on foot, by bike, by public transport or by car. Making the connection between timebound, hyperlocal individual mobility choices and their long-term, cumulative and global impacts is not straightforward – so equipping people with greater knowledge and understanding of the implications of their choices and actions for their global footprint is a necessary first step. Yet behavioural insights (BI) research shows that knowledge alone is not enough to overcome deep-rooted behaviours on the scale required to meet the climate crisis. A sense of agency and empowerment is needed, as well as a range of practical alternatives, if people are to consistently adopt climate-friendly options in their daily lives.

Citizen participation offers a powerful avenue to generate the necessary levels of understanding, buy-in and agency – especially through the deep learning opportunities offered by citizens’ assemblies and other deliberative formats. To be effective, such initiatives need to be buttressed by investments in public communication, education and upskilling and behavioural science.

Efforts to embed citizen participation in climate policy need to start from how citizens experience climate-related issues across both space and time:

• Space: Understanding the links between actions taken ‘here’ and their impact on climate ‘over there’ is a key spatial element of climate change. Citizens are more likely to participate in policy processes that have tangible local effects (e.g. park-and-ride services to reduce individual car use). Embedding citizen participation in the policy cycle at the local, national and international levels is a challenge but will be needed to find solutions to the climate crisis that span all spatial levels and are acceptable and understood by citizens who will play a key role in making them happen1.

• Time: Understanding the temporal horizons over which climate change takes place and the cumulative effect of myriad individual actions (or inactions) is also critical. Citizen participation is equally important for long-term strategies for reaching net-zero emissions by 2050. It is important to make clear the links between immediate daily choices (e.g. my daily commute) and how they help meet (or undermine) our long-term climate objectives (i.e. Net‑Zero by 2050).

A compelling and clear connection needs to be made between the hyperlocal and immediate choices made by people in their daily lives as key actors in policy implementation (downstream) and through their active participation in policymaking within multilevel governance systems (upstream). Citizens today have opportunities to participate in the climate policy cycle at multiple levels of governance: in urban planning for local bicycle paths, national climate policy consultations and international climate negotiations run by governments. They are also increasingly solicited by civil society organisations (CSOs) to take the initiative in independently designing and adopting solutions to the climate crisis – which in some cases may be more ambitious than those put forward in government policies. Mapping how all such actions help to achieve long-term global climate targets is an essential element to ensuring transparency and accountability in climate change mitigation and adaptation policies.

Moving from analysis to action will require simultaneous efforts on two main fronts: building new institutions for global citizen participation in climate policy while strengthening people’s knowledge, skills and behaviours in the process.

4.5. Emerging institutions for global citizen participation: the case of climate change

Governments are increasingly recognising the importance of actively engaging citizens and stakeholders in designing and implementing the urgent and often complex reforms needed to ensure a just and efficient green transition. Indeed, the 2015 Paris Agreement calls upon countries to take measures to “enhance […] public awareness, public participation and public access to information, recognising the importance of these steps with respect to enhancing actions under the agreement” (art. 12).

As demonstrated by the OECD Deliberative Democracy Database, the environment is the single most popular topic for citizen assemblies representing 17% (124) of the 733 examples gathered to date. Balancing hard trade-offs between short-term costs and long-term gains presents a major dilemma for elected politicians hoping for another term in office. Citizen assemblies can help reduce this risk by formulating options and generating wider public support for action by considering longer-term perspectives and intergenerational equity.

Box 4.1. The power of deliberation: representative citizens’ assemblies

As part of their efforts to engage citizens in the green transition, governments have increasingly turned to representative deliberative processes, such as Citizens' Assemblies.

These processes convene groups of people representing a wide cross-section of society for at least one full day – and often much longer – to learn, deliberate, and develop collective recommendations that consider the complexities and compromises need to address multifaceted challenges such as climate change.

The valuable insights and recommendations generated by deliberative processes have led several jurisdictions to consider ways to embed and institutionalise them as part of their policy-making mechanisms.

Source: (OECD, 2020[6])

Increasingly, governments are turning to citizen participation as part of their preparations for international climate negotiations – including through consultations with civil society organisations ahead of international summits. In Brazil, the Federal Government’s digital participation platform Brasil Participativo, with over 1.5 million participants, aims to systematically engage with citizens on specific policies and long-term planning – such as the Climate Action Plan (Federal Government of Brazil, n.d.[7]). As host country for the 2025 UN Conference of the Parties (COP 30), Brazil plans to place a strong emphasis on citizen participation in the run up to this global summit on climate and environmental policy.

Indirect opportunities for citizens to make their voices heard at the global level via their ‘social representatives’ in the form of Civil Society Organisations (CSOs) are well established. CSOs are members of consultative bodies of international organisations (e.g. UN Economic and Social Council) and may be embedded in national delegations to international meetings or negotiations. A recent initiative seeking to establish a Global Citizens’ Assembly (see Box 4.2) takes this a step further by providing ordinary citizens with a direct path to participation in a global deliberation, via a sortition process reflecting the world’s population.

Box 4.2. Towards a permanent Global Citizens’ Assembly: global citizen participation in climate change

The Global Assembly on the Climate and Ecological Crisis was the first Global Citizens’ Assembly (GCA) designed to give everyone on the planet a voice on how to tackle the climate crisis. The GCA was organised ahead of the 2021 UN Climate Change Conference in Glasgow (UK) and consisted of two components:

• Core Assembly: a panel of 100 members was selected through a multistage civic lottery that mirrored the global population to address the question of “how can humanity address the climate and ecological crisis in a fair and effective way?”. Over a period of 11 weeks, panel members spent 68 hours together listening to expert evidence and exchanging views in facilitated small group deliberations and plenary sessions. Together they developed the People’s Declaration for the Sustainable Future of Planet Earth which was first disseminated at COP26.

• Community Assemblies: which anyone could organize by registering on the official website. They were run simultaneously, with their proposals being fed into the final report and public declaration.

The Core Assembly of the GCA was the subject of an independent evaluation (Curato, N. et al. (2023)) which identified several areas for improvement for future iterations, including: ensuring diversity; encouraging deliberation; clarifying governance rules for the GCA; recognising and mitigating structural constraints to inclusive participation at the global level; and establishing effective interfaces with international institutions. The evaluation report underscored that the GCA, “was an unprecedented democratic innovation in global governance” which “set an institutional precedent for bringing the voices of a randomly selected group of ordinary citizens to multilateral negotiations, a space where they are largely absent”.

Based on this successful initial experience, plans are now being made to create a permanent Global Citizens’ Assembly that by 2030 will have over 10 million people participating annually. The goal is to build a new institutional arena for citizen participation at the global level as a powerful avenue for tackling common challenges, such as climate change, AI and global public health crises.

Source: (Curato, 2023[8]) (Folly et al., 2024[9])

The example of the Global Citizens’ Assembly highlights the importance of promoting broad and diverse representation to foster meaningful citizen participation and amplify the voices of marginalised and climate-vulnerable groups, with a focus on intersectionality. For example, gender-diverse representation in international climate fora and negotiations alone does not guarantee substantive participation. Barriers such as race, nationality and English language proficiency can still hinder inclusion, emphasising the need to fully embrace intersectional approaches (Strumskyte, Ramos Magaña and Bendig, 2022[10]).

4.6. Building skills for global citizen participation on climate change

Responding to the climate crisis will require people to have a basic understanding of the science underpinning climate change; to recognise the high degree of interdependence that characterises our interconnected and multicultural world; and to have the skills, interest and agency to address the global scale of the problems it raises. Building the portfolio of skills, aptitudes and values needed by ‘global citizens’ will not happen overnight, yet the first steps in this direction are already being taken.

Box 4.3. Insights from PISA: mismatch between students’ awareness of climate change and sense of agency

The OECD’s Programme of International Student Assessment (PISA) is the first international assessment to examine what students know about the environment and their sense of agency. The results from PISA 2006 (OECD, 2007[11]) were analysed in a thematic report “Green at Fifteen” which showed that close to two-thirds of 15-year-olds in OECD countries had at least a fair understanding of the science underpinning environmental issues (OECD, 2009[12]).

The PISA 2018 assessment added an important new element to the picture, that of student agency – which is the capacity to set goals, reflect and act responsibly to effect change (OECD, 2020[13]). The concept of agency is rooted in the belief that students need to develop the ability and the will to positively influence their own lives and the world around them. PISA 2018 gathered data on 15-year-old students’:

• Knowledge: 79% of students across 37 OECD countries said they knew about the topic of climate change;

• Curriculum: 88% of school principals reported that climate change was part of the school curriculum;

• Motivation: 78% of students in OECD countries agreed or strongly agreed with the statement that “looking after the global environment is important to me”;

• Agency: when students were asked whether they could do something about global problems like climate change, the figure dropped to an average of 57%.

Empowering children and young people with the skills and competences to analyse, understand and develop appropriate responses to global challenges such as climate change should be among the prime objectives for teachers, families, communities and policy makers.

4.6.1. Global citizenship education and citizen participation

While the notion of a ‘global citizen’ does not currently carry any legal weight, the concept has had a powerful impact on both curricula and pedagogy in many countries. For UNESCO, “A global citizen understands how the world works, values differences in people, and works with others to find solutions to challenges too big for any one nation” (UNESCO, 2024[14])

The UN Sustainable Development Goal for Education (SDG 4) is to “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”. It sets out clear objectives for 2030, including that “all learners should acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship, and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development” (UNESCO, 2015[15]).

In 2023 UNESCO Member States adopted a recommendation which included reference to Global Citizenship Education (GCED). The recommendation sets out the implications for teaching and learning in terms of: adjusting curricula and lesson content to provide knowledge about the world and the interconnected nature of contemporary challenges and threats; nurturing cognitive as well as social and emotional skills to put knowledge in practice; instilling values such as respect for diversity, empathy, open-mindedness, justice, and fairness for everyone. It also calls on educators to encourage learners in “participating actively in society to solve global, national and local challenges and strive for the collective good” (UNESCO, 2023[16]).

Living in interconnected and multicultural societies requires a portfolio of “participation skills”, including reasoning, communication in intercultural contexts, perspective taking, conflict resolution and adaptability (OECD, 2023[17]). The PISA 2018 survey included a module on Global Competence (OECD, 2020[18]) which defines globally competent individuals as those who can:

• examine issues and situations of local, global and cultural significance (e.g. poverty, economic interdependence, migration, inequality, environmental risks, conflicts, cultural differences and stereotypes);

• understand and appreciate different perspectives and worldviews;

• establish positive interactions with people of different national, ethnic, religious, social or cultural backgrounds or gender;

• take constructive action towards sustainable development and collective well-being.

Among the new frontiers for citizen participation in the policy cycle, will be efforts to support children, young people and adults to develop the skills, aptitudes and motivation to participate actively in tackling climate change as global citizens.

4.6.2. Global citizen participation as immersive learning

The evaluation of citizen participation processes has to date largely focused on their inputs, processes, outputs and impacts on the policy cycle which are clearly important for cost-benefit analysis. Given the significant investments of public funds, citizens’ time and experts’ knowledge, this approach is well-founded. More recently, some practitioners and observers have also begun to recognize the intrinsic value of active participation itself – independently of the instrumental impact achieved. Indeed, feedback from participants in citizen assemblies and juries, shows that they often report high levels of satisfaction and indicate a strong willingness to participate in future processes, despite the clear upfront ‘costs’ of their investments of time, attention and effort. These findings suggest that citizen participation generates additional value streams, which deserve closer attention and analysis.

Citizen participation processes, especially those with a strong deliberative component, may be usefully regarded as highly immersive learning experiences. This aspect is particularly pronounced in representative deliberation processes where diverse participants meet to exchange views and explore points of convergence and divergence on highly salient – and often controversial and divisive – policy issues. Effective citizen participation in such processes is predicated upon but also helps strengthen and expand participants’ civic skills portfolio of active listening, critical thinking, collaboration, problem-solving, constructive engagement with diversity, creative thinking and digital skills. Making participatory practices more accessible and widespread may be expected to contribute to more resilient democracies characterized by reasoned argumentation, critical inquiry and lively debate, based on the best available evidence. It will provide opportunities for informal learning which can strengthen people’s skills and ability to navigate diversity without succumbing to division and conflict.

In addition to collecting participants’ self-reports (e,g, through exit interviews or questionnaires), their social and emotional skills could be measured before and after their participation in deliberative instances (e.g. through tailored psychometric assessments). If independently certified, these skills could even lead to the award of micro-credentials (Sanchez, 2024[19]). Introducing such an approach would offer twin benefits:

• organisers would gain a valuable metric to enrich their evaluation of design and delivery;

• participants would earn a micro credential which could become a useful asset in their workplaces or further studies.

Going forward, the design of citizen participation processes in climate policy at the global level should include a strong focus on enhancing their potential for skills acquisition – in particular when engaging with children and young people.

Box 4.4. Engaging youth in policies to tackle climate change

Children and young people are among the most vulnerable to the effects of climate change today and will be living with the consequences of the climate crisis for many decades to come. Yet they tend to have disproportionately little say in shaping policy responses to such global challenges given their lack of participation and representation in traditional democratic processes. Greater efforts to engage children and youth in participatory processes when developing global agreements and policies to respond to climate change are needed, and can be justified on these grounds alone.

Governments have multiple mechanisms at their disposal for engaging children and young people in climate policy, including: public consultations and innovative deliberative processes targeting youth; affiliating advisory youth councils to government or specific ministries (as occurs in 53% of OECD countries), or by setting up youth councils at the national (in 78% of OECD countries) and subnational levels (in 88% of OECD countries) (OECD, 2020[20]). The forthcoming OECD Youth Policy Toolkit includes a focus on enhancing young people’s trust in government and engagement with public institutions (OECD, 2024[21]).

Part of the new frontier for citizen participation at the global level will be to explore the learning potential of global citizen participation processes and to develop metrics of participants’ skills acquisition.

4.7. OECD as a multidisciplinary hub for building global systems for citizen participation in climate change

Climate change is an existential threat to humanity and a test case for our ability to solve global collective action problems, avoid the ultimate tragedy of the commons and strengthen the resilience of our systems of democratic governance. A key component of these efforts will be to design global systems for meaningful and inclusive citizen participation at all levels of governance, as part of the new frontier.

International organisations such as the OECD have a key role to play in developing indicators, targets and milestones while standardising data collection and monitoring progress to benchmark the effectiveness of country-level policy responses to global challenges. Among its various workstreams in support of countries’ efforts to achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is the OECD’s work on ensuring Policy Coherence for Sustainable Development (PCSD) which monitors countries’ progress in implementing the relevant Council Recommendation (OECD, 2023[22]). In the field of climate change, the OECD International Programme for Action on Climate (IPAC), supports country progress towards net-zero greenhouse gas (GHG) through regular monitoring, policy evaluation and feedback on results and good practices. The Inclusive Forum on Carbon Mitigation Approaches (IFCMA) is the OECD’s flagship initiative gathering 59 countries with the aim of optimising the global impact of emissions reduction efforts around the world through better data and information sharing, evidence-based mutual learning and inclusive multilateral dialogue (OECD, 2024[23]). The inaugural OECD Forum on Gender Equality held in June 2024 called for decisive policy action to advance gender equality amid major global transitions, including the green transition, with a key focus on enhancing women’s ability to participate meaningfully in decision-making processes during these transformations (OECD, 2024[24]).

In addition to making progress at the global level through intergovernmental dialogue, governments must also foster domestic efforts towards a fair and equitable transition to Net Zero. To do so they must ensure that all citizens are equipped to play an active role in global climate change policy and the green transition. Here too, countries will benefit from robust comparative indicators of meaningful citizen participation and a common approach to monitoring and evaluation that helps track and benchmark their progress. The OECD is seeking to fill this important gap with work now underway to develop a Citizen Participation Barometer (see Box 4.5).

Box 4.5. Towards global metrics for meaningful citizen participation: the OECD Citizen Participation Barometer (CPB)

For governments, having robust measurement tools is vital for improving citizen participation processes. Without relevant and reliable metrics, it is challenging to assess the effectiveness of current practices and to make data-driven improvements.

As part of the OECD Reinforcing Democracy Initiative (RDI) work is currently underway to develop a Citizen Participation Barometer (CPB) to provide a systematic approach to assessing citizen participation. Using administrative data, the Barometer aims to measure meaningful citizen participation through three main approaches.

First, it focuses directly on practices, rather than the governance systems that enable them. For example, by assessing online availability of certain information categories, but not whether there is a related legal obligation to disclose.

Second, it evaluates the quality of participation processes, recognizing that effective participation needs to be accessible and accountable to strengthen trust between the public and government.

Third, it includes the entire ecosystem necessary for meaningful participation including access to relevant, high-quality information and the protection and promotion of civic space

Drawing upon its wealth of comparative data, international policy networks and global outlook, the OECD is well-equipped to convene diverse, multidisciplinary expert teams to devise innovative approaches to tackling global policy challenges – including that of fostering citizen participation and empowerment on a global scale to accelerate the green transition and address the climate crisis.

Urgent action is needed by governments to engage citizens more extensively and effectively in tackling climate change and the green transition. The OECD is committed to being at the vanguard of this global effort by helping countries craft holistic policy responses, by developing comparative indicators and by fostering a systems approach to global citizen participation to tackle climate change. One that reaches across the OECD – and far beyond.

References

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[3] European Environment Agency (2018), Unequal exposure and unequal impacts: social vulnerability to air pollution, noise and extreme temperatures in Europe, https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/unequal-exposure-and-unequal-impacts.

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Note

← 1.  See also Chapter 2 “Identifying systemic challenges for citizen participation in the policy cycle” for a discussion of citizen participation and multilevel governance.