Education in Sweden

1. Overview

Sweden has long been recognised for its strong social model, high levels of trust in public institutions and commitment to inclusive education. Its school system reflects these values, providing free, comprehensive education to all students and granting significant responsibility to local education providers. At the same time, concerns have emerged in recent years regarding growing disparities in learning outcomes, variation in classroom conditions and declining student well-being. These challenges have prompted calls for strengthened national coherence, better support for educators and a clearer understanding of how to promote equity in a decentralised system.

This diagnostic review seeks to support Swedish authorities in these efforts. It examines two interrelated areas that are central to student learning and well-being, and related policy considerations: 1) digital education; and 2) school disciplinary climate and safety. A cross-cutting focus is how governance arrangements and the use of resources shape the conditions under which schools operate and how they can be used to address issues regarding digital education and school disciplinary climate and safety. The analysis draws primarily on an in-depth examination of the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2022 data, complemented by a background questionnaire prepared by the Swedish authorities, stakeholder interviews conducted in May 2025 and extensive desk-based research.

PISA 2022 in context: Performance, equity and learning conditions

Over the decade from 2012 to 2022, Sweden’s PISA results followed a pattern of improvement between 2012 and 2018 followed by a decline in mathematics and reading in 2022, while science performance remained comparatively stable over the decade. Despite this downward shift in the most recent cycle, Sweden continues to perform above the OECD average in all three domains. Sweden also maintains a comparatively large share of students who achieve at higher proficiency levels and a relatively smaller share of low performers than in many OECD countries.

However, average scores obscure important disparities. PISA 2022 reveals that the influence of socio-economic background on performance has grown significantly over the past decade, and that large, persistent gaps exist between students with and without an immigrant background. These differences are among the largest in the OECD, even after taking socio-economic status into account. They suggest that Sweden’s commitment to equity is not reflected equally in outcomes for all student groups and that some learners, particularly those from disadvantaged and immigrant backgrounds, face enduring barriers to success.

PISA also provides insight into learning conditions. Students report high levels of teacher support, encouragement and fairness, particularly in mathematics classrooms, reflecting strong relational foundations in Swedish schools. At the same time, they report frequent disruptions, challenges concentrating and variation in their sense of safety. Around three in ten students state that they cannot work well in most or all lessons, and more than half report not listening to what the teacher says, though interpretation of the latter requires caution because of translation differences in the Swedish version of the PISA questionnaire. Taken together, these contrasting patterns highlight a system where supportive relationships coexist with behavioural and organisational challenges that can limit effective learning time.

It is important to note that PISA reflects the experiences and learning outcomes of 15-year-old students. While these results capture conditions at a specific stage of schooling, achievement at age 15, including observed inequities, is shaped by policies and practices throughout earlier years of education. This diagnostic review therefore interprets PISA findings in combination with qualitative insights to provide a fuller understanding of the challenges and opportunities identified

Digital education: Consolidating access and strengthening pedagogical integration

Sweden is one of the most digitally mature education systems in the OECD. Students benefit from widespread access to digital devices and internet connectivity at home and at school, and school leaders report high satisfaction with digital infrastructure. Socio-economic differences in access to devices are relatively small, reflecting sustained public investment and a long-standing policy emphasis on digital readiness. Over the last decade, the computer-to-student ratio in Swedish schools has increased markedly, and most students report that essential digital resources are available when needed.

However, PISA 2022 highlights that access alone does not guarantee effective digital learning. Students who report moderate and purposeful digital engagement tend, on average, to achieve stronger outcomes than those who report very limited or very frequent use, and this curvilinear pattern is also visible for time spent using digital resources at school. Very intensive use of digital tools in mathematics lessons is associated with lower mathematics performance, even after accounting for socio-economic differences. These findings echo a broader body of research suggesting that the pedagogical quality of digital use, and its alignment with curriculum goals, matters more than the sheer volume of screen time.

Stakeholder interviews suggest considerable variation in practice. Some municipalities and school organisers provide regular training, clear guidance and well-established support structures for teachers, while others face greater uncertainty due to shifting national strategies and publicly contested debates on digitalisation. Educators noted that recent policy signals, particularly regarding a stronger emphasis on printed materials and foundational skills in early education, have been interpreted in diverse ways at local level. This has, in some cases, created ambiguity about the intended role of digital tools, especially in subjects beyond ICT.

The findings suggest that Sweden might benefit from reinforcing guidance on pedagogical approaches to digital learning, strengthening teacher professional development in this area and facilitating the exchange of promising practices across municipalities. The analysis points to the importance of linking national objectives for digital competence to clear expectations for classroom practice, while ensuring that schools have the capacity to manage digital distractions and combine digital and analogue resources in ways that support deep learning. Chapter 5 reflects on these issues by identifying the importance of aligning expectations with implementation capacity and ensuring that digital practices are grounded in clear instructional purposes rather than being driven primarily by technology availability.

School disciplinary climate and safety: Relational strengths and behavioural challenges

Swedish schools excel in fostering strong teacher-student relationships. Students report high levels of support and fairness, and stakeholder interviews confirm that relational capacity is widely viewed as a core strength of the system. These foundations are essential for student well-being and engagement and are reflected in positive scores on indices of teacher support, student-teacher relationships and sense of belonging, which are at or above OECD averages.

At the same time, Sweden faces persistent challenges related to disciplinary climate. PISA 2022 shows that Sweden performs below the OECD average on the disciplinary climate index, with students reporting frequent disruptions, off-task behaviour and lessons that start late. Around 30% of students report being unable to work well in most or all lessons. More than half state that they do not listen to what the teacher says in most or all mathematics lessons, though this particular item must be interpreted with caution due to translation differences in the Swedish questionnaire. Trend data indicate that, over time, the share of students reporting difficulties concentrating and starting to work promptly has increased, even as some indicators such as noise and disorder have shown modest improvement.

School leaders also identify substantial behavioural challenges, including truancy and disorder, which are consistent with concerns raised in national investigations and policy debates. Such issues can reduce effective learning time, place pressure on teachers and school leaders, and may contribute to declining achievement and widening gaps if they are more prevalent in particular schools or student groups. PISA data further suggest that the benefits of better disciplinary climate, in terms of association with performance, are not equally distributed across all students.

Perceptions of safety add another layer to this picture. Girls, socio-economically disadvantaged students and students with an immigrant background tend to feel less safe at school than their peers, even though disadvantaged students report slightly fewer specific safety risks than advantaged students. Differences in feelings of safety appear across locations within the school (for example, classrooms, corridors and outdoor areas) and relate to experiences such as bullying, threats or physical fights. These patterns highlight the importance of understanding how different student groups experience school climate and of ensuring that measures to improve order and safety are inclusive and sensitive to diverse needs.

Some stakeholders expressed concern that public debates and legislative changes have emphasised stricter disciplinary measures and staff authority, potentially overshadowing preventive, relational and capacity-oriented strategies. Chapter 5 notes the importance of balancing clear behavioural expectations with approaches that promote well-being, belonging and early intervention. PISA findings show that more positive school climates, including better disciplinary conditions, stronger belonging and higher perceived safety, are associated with stronger learning outcomes, even after accounting for socio-economic background. Although these results do not imply causation, they suggest that strengthening the quality of the learning environment could support both performance and equity.

Policy considerations in relation to resources and governance: Balancing autonomy with coherence and implementation capacity

Sweden’s multi-level governance model gives municipalities and independent school organisers substantial responsibility for funding, staffing and organising education. This arrangement enables local responsiveness and innovation, but it also contributes to variation in learning conditions, capacity and support structures across the country. These differences shape how effectively schools can address the challenges identified in digital education and in school disciplinary climate and safety.

Stakeholders identified four interconnected resource and governance challenges that may affect educational quality and equity, as well as the ability of schools to implement national priorities in the two thematic areas:

• Funding arrangements vary across municipalities, affecting their capacity to support students with higher needs, ensure equitable access to digital tools, invest in modern infrastructure and sustain conditions that promote positive learning environments.

• Human resource disparities, especially in rural and remote municipalities, limit the availability of qualified teachers and affect leadership recruitment. These differences can influence the quality of digital instruction and the consistency of approaches to managing classroom climate and safety.

• Infrastructure pressures, including ageing school buildings and demographic shifts, create financial burdens and may affect schools’ ability to provide inclusive, well-equipped and safe learning environments, including the conditions needed for effective digital integration.

• Variation in local implementation capacity affects how national regulations and guidance are enacted at school level. This can lead to inconsistent support for teachers in managing behavioural challenges and for integrating digital tools purposefully into pedagogy.

These challenges connect directly to the eight policy considerations presented in Chapter 5. The considerations emphasise the importance of strengthening coherence across levels of administration, reinforcing municipal and school-level capacity, ensuring fair and transparent resource allocation and supporting more consistent implementation of national priorities. Taken together, they highlight how governance and resources shape the conditions under which Sweden’s schools can address the issues identified in digital education and school disciplinary climate and safety, and they frame areas where Swedish authorities and stakeholders may wish to deepen ongoing policy dialogue.

A system at a crossroads

Sweden’s education system has many strengths: strong digital infrastructure, committed educators, positive relationships between students and teachers, and deeply rooted values of equity and inclusion. However, persistent inequities, variation in implementation capacity and challenges related to digital use and disciplinary climate suggest that these strengths are not always translated into consistent learning opportunities and outcomes for all students.

This review provides a comparative diagnosis of key features of the Swedish system and identifies areas that may deserve further reflection. Strengthening coherence across levels of governance, supporting teachers in managing behavioural challenges and integrating digital tools pedagogically, and reinforcing municipalities’ capacity to meet national expectations are central themes that emerge from the analysis. At the same time, the review underscores the importance of preserving Sweden’s relational strengths and its long-standing commitment to inclusive, evidence-informed policy making.

By examining these issues through the lens of PISA 2022 data and stakeholder perspectives, the review aims to support Swedish authorities in their continuing efforts to create safe, inclusive and high-quality learning environments for all students.