Education at a Glance 2025: United Kingdom
Table of contents
This country note provides an overview of the key characteristics of the education system in the United Kingdom based on data from Education at a Glance 2025. In line with this year’s thematic focus, it emphasises tertiary education while also covering other parts of the education system. The data in this note are provided for the latest available year. Readers interested in the reference years for the data should refer to the corresponding tables in Education at a Glance 2025.
In all OECD countries, parents’ background has a large influence on educational opportunities. In England, 25-34 year-olds who have at least one tertiary educated parent are more than twice as likely to attain a tertiary qualification than young adults whose parents have below upper secondary attainment. Although this is a major disparity, it is smaller than the average for OECD countries, where young adults with at least one tertiary-educated parent are almost three times as likely to attain tertiary qualifications relative to their peers. Yet, young adults in England whose parents have below upper secondary attainment fare better than the average across the OECD, with 37% of them going on to pursue tertiary education versus 26% in the OECD.
The labour market outcomes of young adults without upper secondary attainment in the United Kingdom are weak. On average, 25-34 year-olds with below upper secondary education earn 43% less than those with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment, the largest gap among OECD countries, followed by Latvia (38%) and Colombia (28%). Since 2019, the employment rate for young adults without upper secondary qualifications has also fallen from 68% to 62%, mostly driven by the decrease in employment for young men, which dropped by nine percentage points, going from 78% in 2019 to 69% in 2024. This increase is mirrored in an increase in the share of 18-24 year-olds not in education or training (NEET), which rose more markedly for men, going from 13% to 17%, while staying relatively constant at 14% for women.
Tertiary attainment in the United Kingdom continues to increase strongly. The tertiary attainment rate among 25-34 year-olds increased from 52% in 2019 to 60% in 2024 and now exceeds the OECD average by 12 percentage points. One of the reasons for the high attainment rate is the high share of tertiary students that completes their studies. In the United Kingdom, 67% of new entrants to bachelor’s programmes complete their studies on time compared to just 43% of new entrants on average across the OECD. Three years after the theoretical programme duration, the share of students who complete their studies is even higher at 84% compared to an OECD average of 70%.
Beyond high attainment and completion rates, the education system in England is characterised by high tuition fees and a well-developed financial aid system. Average annual tuition fees for national students in bachelor’s programmes in government-dependent private institutions are among the highest in the OECD with USD 13 135 compared to an average of USD 3 186 in the 29 OECD and partner countries and economies with available data. To cover these costs, 93% of all tertiary students receive income-contingent government-guaranteed student loans, where repayments are delayed until graduates reach a certain income threshold. High tuition and living costs mean that students in England graduate from tertiary education with substantial debt, exceeding USD 68 683 on average.
Total expenditure per student at tertiary level (including research and development) in the United Kingdom, at 35 350 USD, is among the highest in OECD countries and 65% above the OECD average. Meanwhile, government expenditure stands at USD 7 896, 48% below the corresponding average for the OECD. This is because a substantial share of financing for tertiary education comes from private sources through high tuition fees. In contrast, government expenditure at primary to post-secondary non-tertiary levels is almost twice as high, at USD 13 063.
The United Kingdom continues to be one of the most attractive destinations for international students. In 2023, 23% of all tertiary students were international students, which is well above the OECD average of 7% and an increase of six percentage points since 2013. In absolute terms, the United Kingdom hosted almost 749 000 international students in 2023, which is the second highest number behind the United States with almost 957 000 international students.
Educational inequalities persist across generations. In all countries with available data, young adults (25-34 year-olds) are significantly more likely to attain a tertiary qualification if their parents have also done so. In England, 76% of 25-34 year-olds with at least one tertiary-educated parent have also attained a tertiary qualification, compared to only 37% among those whose parents did not complete upper secondary education. This tertiary-attainment gap of 39 percentage points is smaller than the OECD average gap of 44 percentage points (Figure 1).
Survey of Adult Skills, in per cent
Note: The percentage in parentheses represents the share of tertiary-educated parents.
For data, see OECD (2025) Education at a Glance 2025: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/1c0d9c79-en, Table A1.4 (available on line).
The share of young adults (25-34 year-olds) without upper secondary attainment continues to decline across the OECD, reaching an average of 13%. This trend also continues in the United Kingdom, where the share fell from 14% to 12% between 2019 and 2024.
Individuals with greater educational attainment generally face a lower risk of unemployment and earn higher wages. Completing upper secondary education is particularly important in reducing the risk of unemployment. On average across the OECD, 12.9% of economically active young adults (25-34 year-olds) without an upper secondary qualification are unemployed, compared to 6.9% of those with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment. Those who go on to gain a tertiary qualification see a relatively smaller further reduction in unemployment, with 4.9% of tertiary-educated young adults unemployed on average across the OECD. This pattern is similar in the United Kingdom (albeit at a lower level): 8.7% of young adults without an upper secondary qualification are unemployed, compared to 4.1% of those with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment and 2.9% of those with tertiary attainment (Figure 2). Although the gap in unemployment rates between adults with and without upper-secondary qualifications has decreased between 2014 and 2024, the unemployment rate for individuals without upper-secondary has remained persistently above 5% and has seen higher volatility.
In per cent
For data, see OECD (2025) Education at a Glance 2025: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/1c0d9c79-en, Table A3.5.
On average, individuals with a master’s or equivalent degree have significantly higher employment rates and earnings than those with a bachelor’s or equivalent degree. However, the share of young adults (25-34 year-olds) attaining a master’s or equivalent qualification varies widely across OECD countries, ranging from 1% to 39% in 2024. In the United Kingdom, 17% of 25-34 year-olds hold a master’s or equivalent degree, which is similar to the OECD average of 16%. This represents an increase since 2019, when the share was 14%.
The average wage gap between individuals (25-64 year-olds) with and without upper secondary educational attainment is relatively modest across OECD countries. On average across the OECD, workers without upper secondary qualifications earn on average 17% less than those who have completed upper secondary education, while workers with tertiary attainment earn 54% more than those with upper secondary attainment. In the United Kingdom, the wage gap between workers with and without upper secondary attainment is larger than the OECD average, at 28%. The gap between those with upper secondary and tertiary attainment is smaller than the OECD average, at 38%.
In most OECD countries, a significant share of adults have low levels of literacy proficiency, defined as at or below Level 1 (on a scale of 0-5) in the OECD Survey of Adult Skills, a product of the OECD Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). Individuals at this level can only understand very short texts with minimal distracting information. In England, 18% of 25-64 year-olds have literacy skills at or below Level 1, which is below the OECD average of 27%.
Educational attainment and skills are closely linked, although the strength of this relationship varies across countries. In England, tertiary-educated adults score, on average, 29 points higher in literacy proficiency than those with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment in the Survey of Adult Skills. This gap is smaller than the OECD average difference of 34 points.
Average literacy scores fell between Cycle 1 (2012-15) and Cycle 2 (2023) of the Survey of Adult Skills1. On average across OECD countries, the fall among adults with tertiary attainment was 9 score points, smaller than the average drop of 19 score points among adults without upper secondary qualifications. In England, average literacy scores for adults with tertiary attainment decreased by 4 points (from 295 to 291), while the score for adults without upper secondary attainment decreased by 21 points (from 241 to 220).
In England, as in all OECD countries, adults with better literacy skills are more likely to participate in education and training. In 2023, 74% of adults (25-64 year-olds) with high literacy proficiency (i.e. at or above Level 4) in the Survey of Adult Skills participated in formal and/or non-formal education and training in the last year, compared to just 34% of those with proficiency at or below Level 1.
Education systems must adapt to changes in the number of children by expanding or reducing provision accordingly. In many countries, the population of children aged 0-4 changed significantly between 2013 and 2023 and is projected to change further by 2033. The United Kingdom experienced a decline of 11% in the number 0–4 year-olds, and is projected to see a decline of 2% between 2023 and 2033.
Bachelor’s or equivalent programmes are the main entry point into tertiary education in most OECD countries, with an average of 77% of those starting tertiary education for the first time enrolling in such programmes. In the United Kingdom, the share is similar at 77%.
Women make up the majority of first-time entrants to tertiary education in most OECD countries. In the United Kingdom, they accounted for 56% of first-time entrants in 2023, up from 55% in 2013. Across the OECD, women make up 54% of new entrants on average, the same share as in 2013.
Across the OECD, the two most popular broad fields of study are science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) and business, administration, and law, each accounting for 23% of graduates from bachelor’s or equivalent programmes. They are closely followed by the broad field of arts and humanities, social sciences, journalism and information, at 22% of graduates. In the United Kingdom, 24% of bachelor’s degree students graduate from a STEM field, 21% from business, administration and law, and 32% from arts and humanities, social sciences, journalism and information.
Completion rates reflect the share of new entrants to bachelor’s programmes who successfully obtain a tertiary degree within specified timeframes. These rates remain low in most OECD countries. In the United Kingdom, 67% of new entrants complete their bachelor’s degree within the theoretical duration of the programme. This rises to 80% one year after the expected end date, and to 84% three years after. In comparison, the OECD average completion rate is 43% within the theoretical duration, increasing to 59% after an additional year and 70% after three years.
In all countries, women starting bachelor’s programmes are more likely than their male peers to successfully complete their tertiary studies within the three years after the theoretical end of their programme. In the United Kingdom, the gender gap is 5 percentage points (86% for women compared to 81% for men), which is smaller than the OECD average of 12 percentage points.
Completion rates vary by field of study. On average across the OECD, only 58% of new entrants to bachelor’s programmes in STEM fields have graduated at that level in the same field within three years after the expected end of their studies. Completion rates in the field of health and welfare are significantly higher, at 74%. In the United Kingdom, STEM completion rates are 70%, lower than those for health and welfare, at 75%.
The 2023 completion rate data refer to students whose programme was expected to end in 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic. Although some countries saw notable increases in completion rates during the pandemic, probably due to policies aimed at facilitating graduation, others experienced moderate declines. In the United Kingdom, completion rates of new entrants to bachelor’s programmes during the pandemic decreased, by 2 percentage points compared to three years earlier (from 69% to 67%).
International student mobility in tertiary education continues to rise across the OECD, with some countries experiencing substantial growth in the share of international students between 2018 and 2023. On average, 7.4% of all tertiary students across the OECD were international or foreign students, compared to 6% in 2018. The United Kingdom saw an increase, with the share rising from 18.3% to 23.4% (Figure 3).
In per cent
For data, see OECD (2025) Education at a Glance 2025: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/1c0d9c79-en, Table B4.3.
There are significant disparities in how much governments spend each year in education across OECD, partner and accession countries. The United Kingdom spends USD 13 063 per student from primary to post-secondary non-tertiary levels, placing it at the middle of the country range, which spans from less than USD 2 000 to more than USD 27 000 (Figure 4).
In equivalent USD converted using PPPs, expenditure on educational institutions
Note: Expenditure at tertiary level includes R&D. Expenditure per student in early childhood education is based on headcounts rather than full-time equivalent students. Expenditure at tertiary level for Luxembourg (USD 54 384) is not shown in the figure.
1. Year of reference differs from 2022.
2. Primary includes pre-primary education.
3. Includes payments by households outside educational institutions.
For data, see OECD (2025) Education at a Glance 2025: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/1c0d9c79-en, Table C1.1 and Table C1.2.
In contrast to most other countries, government expenditure in the United Kingdom is lower at tertiary level, including research and development (R&D), than at primary to post-secondary non-tertiary levels. Government expenditure in the United Kingdom amounts to USD 7 896 per tertiary student compared to the OECD average of USD 15 102.
With an average expenditure per tertiary student at 35 350 USD, total expenditure per student at tertiary level in the United Kingdom (including research and development), is one of the highest among OECD countries, second to Luxembourg (60 979 USD) and the United States (36 274 USD). This is because a substantial share of financing for tertiary education comes from private sources through high tuition fees to national and international students2. Yet government expenditure in the United Kingdom is relatively low at tertiary level, amounting to USD 7 896 per tertiary student compared to the OECD average of USD 15 102. In contrast to most other OECD countries, government expenditure at tertiary level in the United Kingdom is also lower than the average for primary to post-secondary non-tertiary education, which amounts to 13 063 USD.
A large part of the disparity in expenditure per student across OECD, partner and accession countries reflects differences in national income levels. When expenditure is measured as a share of GDP, cross-country differences tend to be smaller, ranging from 2.5% of GDP to 6.9%. In the United Kingdom, education investment in primary to tertiary education stands at 6.1% of GDP, which is above the OECD average of 4.7% by this measure.
Governments are the primary source of education funding in all OECD countries, especially for the levels covered by compulsory education. In the United Kingdom, governments provide 86.4% of total funding for primary, secondary, and post-secondary non-tertiary education (before transfers to the private sector), which is below the OECD average of 90.1%. At the pre-primary and tertiary levels, private funding often plays a larger role. In the United Kingdom, 70.3% of pre-primary education funding (after transfers) and 44% of tertiary education funding (before transfers) come from public sources, compared to OECD averages of 85.6% and 71.9%, respectively.
Although expenditure per student from primary to tertiary levels increased on average across OECD countries between 2015 and 2022 in real terms (from USD 11 955 to USD 13 210), government spending on education declined in relative terms from 10.9% of public budgets to 10.1%. This suggests the relative priority given to education in overall public spending has fallen across the OECD. In the United Kingdom, expenditure per student increased from USD 16 176 to USD 17 658, while the share devoted to education decreased from 12.2% of public budgets to 10.6% over this period.
At pre-primary level, government expenditure in the United Kingdom decreased by 14.6% between 2015 and 2022. This has been accompanied with a decrease of 13.8% in the number of children enrolled. As a result, government expenditure per child has stayed roughly unchanged, by 0.9%, compared to an average increase of 24% across the OECD since 2015.
Many countries are experiencing teacher shortages, reflected not just in the number of unfilled teaching positions, but also in other indicators such as the share of non-fully qualified teachers in the teaching workforce. In the 14 countries and economies with data available, 1.6% of teaching positions are unfilled on average, and 4.9% of teachers are not fully qualified. In England, the share of unfilled teaching positions is 0.3%, and the share of non-fully qualified teachers is 2.3%. However, cross-country comparisons of these data should be made with even greater caution than in other areas, as teacher recruitment processes vary significantly, ranging from centralised systems with competitive national exams to fully decentralised hiring at the school level, making comparisons of vacancy levels difficult.
High teacher turnover can place additional pressure on recruitment, while very low turnover may limit the renewal of the teaching workforce. In most countries with available data, between 1% and 3% of teachers retire each year. However, the share of teachers leaving the profession for reasons other than retirement varies more widely, ranging from almost none in some countries to nearly 10% in others. England is among the countries with high turnover, with 0.8% of teachers retiring and 8.7% resigning each year (Figure 5).
In per cent, full-time and part-time, public institutions
1. Academic year 2021/22 for Denmark, England (UK), France and New Zealand.
2. Only primary education in Argentina. Excluding pre-primary education in Greece and Ireland. Excluding upper secondary education in Denmark and Israel. Excluding upper secondary vocational education in the Netherlands.
3. Includes non-fully qualified teachers.
4. Includes teachers who left the profession because they were appointed to other positions in the education sector.
For data, see OECD (2025) Education at a Glance 2025: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/1c0d9c79-en, Table D8.4.
Attracting second-career teachers can help alleviate teacher shortages while bringing individuals with a broader range of experience into the profession. To support this, 16 out of 28 countries with available data offer dedicated alternative pathways into teaching for individuals changing careers. In contrast, England does not offer dedicated pathways for second career teachers.
Between 2015 and 2024, actual average salaries of primary teachers have increased in real terms by 14.6% on average across the OECD. In the United Kingdom, they decreased by 3.6% in England and increased by 10% in Scotland.
School holidays in primary education last respectively 12.8 and 12.2 weeks per year in England and Scotland (all breaks combined), compared to 13.5 weeks across the OECD.
Across the OECD, the average class size at primary level has not changed since 2013, at 20.6 students. In the United Kingdom, the average class size in primary education in 2023 was 26 students, up by 0.6 since 2013.
At tertiary level, the average ratio of students to academic staff varies across different types of institutions. In many countries, institutions with a strong research focus, defined as those with more than three doctoral graduates per 100 graduates, tend to have lower student staff ratios than those with a smaller share of doctoral graduates. This is also the case in the United Kingdom, where institutions with greater research focus have an average of 8 students per academic staff member, compared to 17 students per academic staff member at institutions with a smaller share of doctoral graduates.
In most countries, academic staff salaries vary significantly by seniority. Staff in junior academic positions often earn well below the average salary for tertiary-educated, full-time, full year workers, while staff in senior positions — such as full professors — typically earn well above this average. In England, junior academic staff earn 16% less than workers with at least a bachelor’s or equivalent degree, while senior academic staff earn 80% more.
For more information on Education at a Glance 2025 and to access the full set of indicators, see: https://doi.org/10.1787/1c0d9c79-en.
For more information on the methodology used during the data collection for each indicator, the references to the sources and the specific notes for each country, see Education at a Glance 2025: Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes, https://doi.org/10.1787/fcfaf2d1-en.
For general information on the methodology, please refer to the OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparative Education Statistics 2018, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264304444-en.
Updated data can be found on line at http://data-explorer.oecd.org/ and by following the StatLinks in the publication.
Explore, compare and visualise more data and analysis using the Education GPS: https://gpseducation.oecd.org/.
Questions can be directed to the Education at a Glance team at the OECD Directorate for Education and Skills: EDU.EAG@oecd.org.
This work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of the Member countries of the OECD.
This document, as well as any data and map included herein, are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area.
The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.
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← 1. Does not include adults who in Cycle 2 were only administered the doorstep interview due to a language barrier.
← 2. In England, national students pursuing bachelor’s degrees in government-dependent private institutions face the highest tuition fees in the OECD, averaging 13 135 USD PPP, followed by the United States (9 596 USD PPP) and Poland (7 497 USD PPP). In addition, the United Kingdom sets no standardised tuition fees for overseas students, who may be charged substantially larger sums than national students. International students make up almost one fourth (23%) of all tertiary students in the United Kingdom.