Economic Convergence Scoreboard for the Western Balkans 2025

Annex C. Methodology

Background and rationale

The Economic Convergence Scoreboard for the Western Balkans (referred to hereafter as the Scoreboard) provides a comparative assessment of the convergence of the six Western Balkan economies (WB6) relative to the European Union (EU). It aims to assist the WB6 in identifying the main policy areas requiring focused attention to accelerate economic convergence with the OECD and the EU. Building on the pilot Scoreboard, first published in 2023, this second edition further expands the scope and refines the methodology.

GDP per capita is the main indicator used to assess the level of economic convergence, as it provides a snapshot of relative prosperity across regions and countries. However, on its own, it offers limited insights into the underlying factors driving economic growth. The Scoreboard bridges this gap by combining policy-relevant analysis and data to better understand and monitor the key drivers of economic performance.

Drawing primarily on the OECD’s Western Balkans Competitiveness Outlook 2024, the Scoreboard covers five main policy clusters that are key to long-term economic growth:

1. Infrastructure and Connectivity: Infrastructure and connectivity enable the efficient movement of goods, services and people, improving access to markets and boosting economic activities.

2. Skills: As a key component of human capital, skills contribute to workforce productivity and adaptability, enabling economies to adopt and innovate with new technologies.

3. Business Environment: A competitive business environment promotes investment, fosters entrepreneurship and cultivates an ecosystem where businesses can operate efficiently.

4. Digital Transformation: Digital transformation enhances productivity, innovation and access to information, enabling economies to modernise and compete effectively.

5. Greening: Greening economies ensures the sustainability of economic growth, reducing environmental risks and fostering resource efficiency.

The Scoreboard assesses the level of convergence of the Western Balkan economies across these five clusters, utilising a total of 35 indicators. The indicators were selected based on relevance, reliability and availability:

• Relevance: While the Scoreboard does not exhaustively cover all areas relevant to economic growth, it prioritises indicators identified in the OECD’s work and academic literature as having an impact on economic performance. Statistical tests have then been undertaken to explore the causal relationship between the indicators and GDP per capita, informing the final selection of indicators in the Scoreboard.

• Reliability: The Scoreboard mainly draws on comparable data from national statistical offices, leveraging their extensive co-operation with the OECD within the framework of the Western Balkans Competitiveness Outlook and the SME Policy Index for the Western Balkans and Türkiye. It also draws on data from reputable international sources, such as the OECD, Eurostat and the World Bank.

• Availability: The limited statistical coverage in the Western Balkans, compared to OECD and EU members, influenced the selection of indicators. Indicators that lacked data for any economy across all periods, and for which no viable alternatives were available to allow for imputation, were excluded. For indicators with partial time-series coverage, missing data were addressed through imputations. The list of the 35 imputations, estimating a total of 86 data points (out of 9 708 points employed in the Scoreboard, or 0.9%), can be found in the technical note associated with the report.

The entire list of indicators considered for the Scoreboard is shown in Table A ‎C.1.

Table A ‎C.1. List of indicators of the measurement framework

Cluster name	Sub-group	No.	Indicator
Infrastructure and Connectivity	Transport infrastructure	IC.01	Road infrastructure density (km by area of 100 km2)
		IC.02	Rail infrastructure density (km by area of 100 km2)
		IC.03	Rail freight (millions of tonnes of goods transported per km of railway)
	Energy infrastructure	IC.04	Power losses (% of total energy injected into distribution and transmission grids)
		IC.05	Electricity cost (2021 USD in purchase power parity (PPP) per kilowatt-hour)
	Digital infrastructure	IC.06	Mobile cellular penetration (number of subscriptions per capita)
		IC.07	Broadband speed (megabytes per second)
Skills	Putting skills to effective use	SK.01	Labour productivity (2021 USD in PPP)
		SK.02	Employment rate (% of population aged 20-64 years)
	Skills development	SK.03	PISA average score: Mathematics
		SK.04	Youth NEET rate (% of 15-24 years old population)
		SK.05	Labour force with advanced education (% of total working-age population)
		SK.06	Lifelong learning (% of population aged 25-64 years)
	Leveraging skills for innovation	SK.07	R&D expenditures (% of GDP)
Business Environment	Enhancing access to finance and investment	BE.01	Bank non-performing loans (% of total gross loans)
		BE.02	Domestic credit to the private sector (% of GDP)
		BE.03	Private investment (% of GDP)
		BE.04	FDI net inflows (% of GDP)
	Strengthening the level-playing field	BE.05	Control of corruption (composite score)
		BE.06	Estimated informal employment (% of total employment)
	Promoting trade	BE.07	Trade flows (2021 USD per capita)
		BE.08	SME export performance (composite score)
Digital Transformation	Digital society	DG.01	Population with digital skills (% of population aged 16-74 years)
		DG.02	Internet use by individuals (% of total population)
		DG.03	Internet use for interacting with public authorities (% of population aged 16-74 years)
		DG.04	Internet use for purchases (% of population aged 16-74 years)
	Digital businesses	DG.05	Businesses with a website (% of enterprises with 10 employees or more)
		DG.06	Businesses using AI technologies (% of enterprises with 10 employees or more)
	Digital economy	DG.07	ICT services exports (% of GDP)
Greening	Accelerating decarbonisation	GR.01	CO2 emissions intensity (kg per unit of GDP in 2021 USD PPP)
		GR.02	Installed renewable power capacities (% of total power installed capacities)
	Enhancing resource use	GR.03	Energy productivity (GDP in 2021 USD PPP per kg of oil equivalent consumption)
		GR.04	Water productivity (GDP in 2015 USD PPP per cubic meter of total freshwater withdrawal)
		GR.05	Waste intensity (generated municipal waste per unit of GDP in 2021 USD PPP)
		GR.06	Municipal waste in landfills (% of municipal waste)

During the selection process for the Scoreboard indicators, a number of additional indicators were initially considered for inclusion due to their relevance for economic growth. However, many were ultimately excluded for consideration primarily due to limited data availability. Consequently, alternative indicators were selected that could capture comparable aspects of growth dynamics and best explain variations in economic performance. A list of excluded indicators is provided in the technical note associated with this report.

Convergence with the EU for each of the indicators was measured over three sub-periods, 2014-16, 2017‑19 and 2020-23, rather than on an annual basis. Each data point represents the average value of the available years within each sub-period. This approach allowed for 1) integrating the inclusion of indicators not updated annually; 2) smoothing out cyclical variations or shocks; and 3) overcoming data inconsistencies or gaps.

Scoring

The Scoreboard leveraged two methods to calculate scores and rankings:

1. Each individual indicator score represents the ratio of a specific Western Balkan economy's value to the EU average. The sample used to calculate the EU average includes the 27 EU member states (EU 27).

2. Each cluster score was derived from a dedicated composite indicator using a three-step method:

• Outlier treatment: The individual values of the WB6 and EU 27 were considered, leading to a total sample size of 33 individual economies. Outliers were then detected using a skew/kurtosis rule and treated with the Winsorisation method, allowing the adjustment of extreme values to reduce their impact without removing them from the dataset. This step is crucial for ensuring that the aggregation results are not distorted by the extreme values. The list of imputations is provided in the technical note associated with the report.

• Normalisation: This process standardised all data points to a comparable scale, regardless of their original units or ranges. The distance-to-target (DTT) scales data based on the proximity of each value to a predefined target, ensuring that the resulting values reflect how close each observation is to the desired goal. The target values were the EU average values. The DTT score for the indicator $x$, ${DTTscore}_{x,i}$, was calculated as follows:

  ${DTTscore}_{x,i}=\frac{x_i-{MIN}_{x_i}}{{TARGET\_EU}_x-{MIN}_{x_i}}$

  where $x_i$ denotes the indicator value for economy $i$ among Western Balkan and EU economies, ${MIN}_{x_i}$ denotes the minimum value for indicators among Western Balkan and EU economies, and ${TARGET\_EU}_x$ denotes the EU average’s value. It should be noted that for indicators where higher values are desirable, such as IC.04 (power losses), SK.04 (youth NEET), BE.01 (non-performing loans), BE.06 (estimated informal employment), GR.01 (CO2 emissions intensity), GR.05 (waste intensity) and GR.06 (municipal waste in landfills), the inverse value of $x_i$, $\frac{1}{x_i}$ has been considered.

• Weighting and aggregation: Indicators were then aggregated into dimension scores. The average score for each cluster was derived from simple averages, giving each indicator an equal weight. Each DTT score ${DTTscore}_{x,i}$ was assigned to cluster $c$, leading to ${DTTscore}_{x,c,i}$.The cluster $c$ average score for economy $i$ was calculated as the following:

  ${CLUSTERscore}_{c,i}=\frac{\sum _i^{X_c}{DTTscore}_{x,c,i}}{X_c}$

  where $X_c$ denotes the total number of indicators $x$ in cluster $c$.

Limitations

The Scoreboard is a valuable tool for Western Balkan policy makers, helping them identify the bottlenecks that hinder faster economic convergence. Yet, the method has certain limitations, as outlined in Table A ‎C.2.

Table A ‎C.2. Limitations of the Economic Convergence Scoreboard for the Western Balkans 2025

Analytical framework	While the Scoreboard focuses on areas crucial for accelerating the economic convergence of the Western Balkans, it does not cover all relevant areas exhaustively.
	Constraints in data availability and comparability limited the choice of indicators.
	The Scoreboard data cover around a decade, preventing analysis over a longer time frame.
Methodology	Despite the benefits of measuring convergence in three time periods, the Scoreboard does not fully capture the most recent developments and state-of-play.
	The DTT method measures how close an economy is to the target but does not provide insights into the underlying causes of the disparities.
	The DTT method assumes a linear relationship between the distance to the target and the degree of convergence. This assumption fails to account for the possibility of non-linear relationships, where the impact of improvements could vary at different stages.
	Assigning equal weight to indicators in the calculation of cluster scores may not adequately reflect their varying levels of importance in driving economic growth.
	Assigning equal weight to the EU's 27 economies to calculate EU averages may have introduced a bias in the EU's actual performance, over-weighting smaller economies.

Data

The complete list of indicators, including their definitions and sources, is detailed in Table A ‎C.3. The detailed imputation procedures are provided in the technical note associated with the report.

Table A ‎C.3. Scoreboard indicators: Information and data sources

Indicator	Definition numerator	Definition denominator (if applicable)	Source(s)	Imputation(s)
Connectivity and infrastructure
Road infrastructure density (IC.01)	Road infrastructure km.	Area of 100 km2	(OECD, 2024[1]). Data for Albania sent by INSTAT to the OECD. Data for Kosovo sent by KAS to the OECD. Data for Montenegro sent by MONSTAT to the OECD.	Malta 2016, Finland 2020
Rail infrastructure density (IC.02)	Rail infrastructure km.	Area of 100 km2	(Eurostat, 2024[2]).
Rail freight (IC.03)	Rail freight refers to the total movement of goods using inland transport on the railway infrastructure (millions of tonnes).	Km of railway	(Eurostat, 2024[3]). Data for Albania from (INSTAT, 2025[4]). Data for Kosovo from (KAS, 2024[5]). Data for Montenegro from (MONSTAT, 2024[6]). Data for Serbia from (SORS, 2024[7]).
Power losses (IC.04)	Total energy losses.	Total energy injected into distribution and transmission grids	(CEER, 2017[8]; 2020[9]). Additional data for Albania from (Energy Regulatory Authority, 2023[10]). Data for Kosovo sent by KAS to the OECD.	Bosnia and Herzegovina 2020, Montenegro 2020, North Macedonia 2020, Serbia 2020, Finland 2017 and 2020, Greece 2020, Italy 2020
Electricity cost (IC.05)	Average electricity price (excluding all taxes and levies) for non-household consumers for consumption between 500 MWh and 19999 MWh. 2021 USD per kWh in PPP.		OECD calculations based on (Eurostat, 2024[11]).	Albania 2016
Mobile cellular penetration (IC.06)	Number of mobile cellular subscriptions.	Population	(World Bank, 2025[12]). Additional data for Albania from (ARKEP, 2018[13]; 2021[14]). Additional data for Bosnia and Herzegovina sent by the Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the OECD. Additional data for Kosovo sent by KAS to the OECD.
Broadband speed (IC.07)	Megabytes.	Second	(Cable.co.uk, 2024[15]).	All economies 2016
Skills
Labour Productivity (SK.01)	GDP in 2021 USD in PPP.	Number of hours worked	(ILO, 2024[16]). OECD calculations for Kosovo from (European Commission, 2019[17]), (European Commission, 2020[18]), (European Commission, 2022[19]) and (European Commission, 2023[20]).
Employment rate (SK.02)	Population aged 20 to 64 in employment.	Total population aged 20 to 64	(Eurostat, 2025[21]). Data for Albania from (European Commission, 2024[22]), (INSTAT, 2025[23]) and (European Commission, 2020[24]). Data for Bosnia and Herzegovina from (European Commission, 2020[25]) and (European Commission, 2024[26]). Data for Kosovo from (European Commission, 2020[27]) and (European Commission, 2024[28]). Additional data for Montenegro from (MONSTAT, 2024[29]). Additional data for North Macedonia from (MAKSTAT, 2023[30]) and (MAKSTAT, 2024[31]).
PISA average score: Mathematics (SK.03)	PISA performance score in mathematics.		(OECD, 2024[32]).	Bosnia and Herzegovina 2015 and 2022, Serbia 2015
Youth NEET rate (SK.04)	Population aged 15 to 24 not in employment, education or training.	Total population aged 15 to 24	(Eurostat, 2025[33]) and (ILO, 2024[34]). Additional data for Albania sent by INSTAT to the OECD. Additional data for Montenegro from (MONSTAT, 2024[29]). Additional data for North Macedonia from (MAKSTAT, 2025[35]). Data for Kosovo from (KAS, 2025[36]).
Labour force with advanced education (SK.05)	Population with advanced education (short-cycle tertiary education, a bachelor's degree or equivalent education level, a master's degree or equivalent education level, or doctoral degree or equivalent education level according to the International Standard Classification of Education 2011.)	Working-age population	(ILO, 2024[37]). Additional data for Albania sent by INSTAT to the OECD. Additional data for Montenegro sent by MONSTAT to the OECD.
Lifelong learning (SK.06)	Population aged 25-64 who have taken education or training.	Population aged 25 to 64	(Eurostat, 2024[38]). Data for Albania and Bosnia and Herzegovina from (European Commission, 2024[39]). Additional data for Albania sent by INSTAT to the OECD. Data for Kosovo sent by KAS to the OECD.
R&D expenditure (SK.07)	Gross domestic expenditures on R&D.	GDP	(Eurostat, 2024[40]) and (World Bank, 2024[41]). Additional data for Albania from (Hach and Trenkmann, 2019[42]) and sent by INSTAT to the OECD. Additional data for Bosnia and Herzegovina sent by the Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the OECD. Data for Kosovo from (Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2020[43]; 2022[44]). Data for Montenegro from (European Commission, 2024[39]). Additional data for North Macedonia and Serbia sent by MAKSTAT and SORS to the OECD.
Business Environment
Bank non-performing loans (BE.01)	Value of non-performing loans.	Value of the loan portfolio	(IMF, 2025[45]). Data for Serbia from (National Bank of Serbia, 2024[46]).
Domestic credit to the private sector (BE.02)	Financial resources provided to the private sector by financial corporations that establish a claim for repayment.	GDP	(World Bank, 2024[47]). Data for the European Union from (Eurostat, 2024[48]).
Private investment (BE.03)	Land improvements, plant and machinery equipment purchases by businesses, augmented by purchase and renovation of dwellings made by households.	GDP	(Eurostat, 2024[48]) and (World Bank, 2024[49]). Additional data for Albania sent by INSTAT to the OECD.	Bosnia and Herzegovina (all years), Montenegro (all years), Bulgaria 2020
FDI net inflows (BE.04)	New FDI (foreign direct investment) flows adjusted from disinvestment.	GDP	(World Bank, 2024[50]).
Control of Corruption (BE.05)	The extent to which public power is exercised for private gain, including petty and grand forms of corruption, and “capture” of the state by elites and private interests. The strength and effectiveness of an economy’s policy and institutional framework to prevent and combat corruption.		(World Bank, 2024[51]).
Estimated informal employment (BE.06)	Estimated population in informal employment.	Population in employment	Data for Albania from (WIIW, 2025[52]) and additional data sent by INSTAT. Data for Bosnia and Herzegovina from (ILO, 2024[53]). Data for Kosovo from (ETF, 2024[54]) and additional data sent by KAS. Montenegro data from (UNDP, 2016[55]). Data for North Macedonia from (MAKSTAT, 2025[35]). Data for Serbia from (SORS, 2025[56]).	Kosovo 2014, 2015, 2016, 2019, 2023. Montenegro 2017, 2023. Denmark 2020. Germany 2016, 2019. Romania 2016, 2019, 2022.
Trade flows (BE.07)	Exports and imports of goods and services in 2021 USD in PPP.	Population	OECD calculations are based on (World Bank, 2024[57]) and (World Bank, 2024[58]).
SME export performance (BE.08)	Share of exports realised by firms with fewer than 250 employees (small and medium-sized enterprises, SMEs) in total exports.	Share of gross value added (GVA) in total GVA	Numerator: (Eurostat, 2025[59]) (OECD, 2022[60]) and (OECD, 2019[61]). Additional data for Albania sent to the OECD by INSTAT. Additional data for Kosovo sent by KAS to the OECD. Additional data for Serbia sent by SORS to the OECD.	Kosovo 2016, Montenegro 2019, 2020.
			Denominator: (Eurostat, 2024[62]). (OECD, 2022[60]) and (OECD, 2019[61]). Additional data for Albania from (INSTAT, 2024[63]). Additional data for Bosnia and Herzegovina from (Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2020[64]; 2023[65]; 2024[66]) and (European Commission, 2024[67]). Additional data for Kosovo from (European Commission, 2024[67]). Additional data for Montenegro from (MONSTAT, 2024[68]), for North Macedonia from (MAKSTAT, 2024[69]). Additional data for Serbia from (SORS, 2024[70]).	Kosovo 2017, 2020.
Digital Transformation
Population with digital skills (DG.01)	Number of individuals with above basic overall digital skills, aged 16 to 74.	Total number of individuals aged 16 to 74	(Eurostat, 2024[71]) and (Eurostat, 2024[72]). Additional data sent to the OECD by KAS for Kosovo and MAKSTAT for North Macedonia.
Internet use by individuals (DG.02)	Population that used the internet. Internet users are individuals who have used the internet (from any location) in the last 3 months.	Total population	(World Bank, 2024[73]). Additional data from (Eurostat, 2024[74]) for Kosovo.
Internet use for interacting with public authorities (DG.03)	Population who interacted with public authorities within the last 12 months before the survey, aged 16 to 74.	Total number of individuals aged 16 to 74	(Eurostat, 2024[75]). Additional data for Serbia sent by SORS to the OECD.
Internet use for purchases (DG.04)	Population who bought or ordered using the internet for private use within the last 12 months before the survey. Manually typed emails excluded.	Total number of individuals aged 16 to 74	(Eurostat, 2024[76]). Additional data for Albania sent by INSTAT to the OECD. Additional data for Kosovo sent from KAS to the OECD.
Businesses with a website (DG.05)	Enterprises with at least 10 persons employed and that have a website.	Enterprises with at least 10 persons	(Eurostat, 2024[77]). Additional data from (INSTAT, 2024[78]) for Albania. Additional data from (KAS, 2023[79]) for Kosovo. Additional data from (MAKSTAT, 2024[80]) for North Macedonia. Additional data from (MONSTAT, 2024[81]) for Montenegro.
Businesses using AI technologies (DG.06)	Enterprises with at least 10 persons employed and that use artificial intelligence (AI) technologies, text mining, speech recognition, natural language generation, image recognition and processing, machine learning, technologies automating different workflows or assisting in decision making, or technologies enabling machines to physically move by observing their surroundings and taking autonomous decision.	Enterprises with at least 10 persons	(Eurostat, 2025[82]). Additional data for Albania sent by INSTAT to the OECD. Additional data from (RCC, 2022[83]) for Kosovo and North Macedonia.
ICT services exports (DG.07)	ICT service exports. These include computer and communications services (telecommunications and postal and courier services) and information services (computer data and news-related service transactions) in current USD.	GDP in current USD	Numerator: (World Bank, 2024[84]).
			Denominator: (World Bank, 2024[85]).
Greening
CO2 emissions intensity (GR.01)	CO2 emissions from fuel combustion in kilogram.	GDP in 2021 USD in PPP	(World Bank, 2025[86]). For Kosovo: OECD calculations based on (IEA, 2024[87]) and (World Bank, 2024[58]).
Installed renewable power capacities (GR.02)	Total renewable power installed capacities.	Total power installed capacities	(IRENA, 2024[88]).
Energy productivity (GR.03)	GDP in 2021 USD in PPP.	Kilogram of oil equivalent consumption	OECD estimates from (Eurostat, 2024[89]).
Water productivity (GR.04)	Cubic metre of abstracted water.	GDP in 2015 USD in PPP	(World Bank, 2025[90]). For Kosovo: OECD calculations based on additional data sent by KAS for Kosovo, (World Bank, 2024[58]) and (EEA, 2024[91]).
Waste intensity (GR.05)	Waste excluding major mineral waste in kilograms.	GDP in 2021 USD in PPP	Numerator: (Eurostat, 2024[92]). Additional data from INSTAT for Albania.
			Denominator: (World Bank, 2024[58]).
Municipal waste in landfills (GR.06)	Municipal waste disposed on landfills.	Total municipal waste	(Eurostat, 2024[92]).

This annex is further complemented by a technical note that offers further information on the scoring, the selection of indicators and the data imputation procedures. It also provides an assessment of the statistical robustness and relevance of the general analysis. The technical note can be accessed on https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/about/programmes/grc/grc-see/scoreboard-2025/Methodology-Chapter-technical-note-final.pdf.

References

[65] Agency for Statistics for Bosnia and Herzegovina (2023), Structural Business Statistics 2021, https://bhas.gov.ba/data/Publikacije/Bilteni/2023/SBS_00_2021_TB_1_EN.pdf.

[66] Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2024), Structural Business Statistics 2022, https://bhas.gov.ba/data/Publikacije/Bilteni/2024/SBS_00_2022_TB_1_EN.pdf.

[64] Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina (2020), Business Statistics, https://bhas.gov.ba/data/Publikacije/Saopstenja/2020/SBS_00_2019_Y1_0_BS.pdf.

[14] ARKEP (2021), Annual Work Report 2021 [in Albanian], Regulatory Authority of Electronic and Postal Communications, https://www.arkep-rks.org/desk/inc/media/3753DC00-E80D-4297-A425-F5779F9933D6.pdf.

[13] ARKEP (2018), Annual Work Report 2018 [in Albanian], Regulatory Authority of Electronic and Postal Communications, https://www.arkep-rks.org/desk/inc/media/A6F11C95-9ACD-4DB8-A02D-C45625CFC66E.pdf.

[44] Bertelsmann Stiftung (2022), BTI 2022 Country Report – Kosovo, Bertelsmann Stiftung, https://bti-project.org/fileadmin/api/content/en/downloads/reports/country_report_2022_RKS.pdf.

[43] Bertelsmann Stiftung (2020), BTI 2020 Country Report – Kosovo, Bertelsmann Stiftung, https://bti-project.org/fileadmin/api/content/en/downloads/reports/country_report_2020_RKS.pdf.

[15] Cable.co.uk (2024), Worldwide Broadband Speed League 2024, https://www.cable.co.uk/broadband/speed/worldwide-speed-league/ (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[9] CEER (2020), 2nd CEER Report on Power Losses, Council of European Energy Regulators, https://www.ceer.eu/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/C19-EQS-101-03_Report_on_Power_Losses_3.pdf.

[8] CEER (2017), CEER Report on Power Losses, Council of European Energy Regulators, https://www.ceer.eu/publication/ceer-report-on-power-losses/.

[91] EEA (2024), Water Abstraction by Source, 2000-2019, European Environment Agency, https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/maps-and-charts/water-abstraction-by-source-2000?activeTab=8a280073-bf94-4717-b3e2-1374b57ca99d (accessed on 7 November 2024).

[10] Energy Regulatory Authority (2023), Annual Report: The Situation of the Power Sector and ERE Activity during 2022, https://ere.gov.al/images/files/2023/07/26/Annual_Report_2022.pdf.

[54] ETF (2024), Key Policy Developments in Education, Training and Employment - Kosovo, European Training Foundation, https://www.etf.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2025-02/Country%20Fiche_Kosovo_2024_EN_web.pdf.

[22] European Commission (2024), Albania Report 2024, https://enlargement.ec.europa.eu/albania-report-2024_en.

[26] European Commission (2024), Bosnia and Herzegovina 2024 Report, https://enlargement.ec.europa.eu/bosnia-and-herzegovina-report-2024_en.

[39] European Commission (2024), European Innovation Scoreboard – Neighbouring Countries Database, https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/document/download/e0f6f806-6f34-4574-a06f-32be59b47a70_en?filename=ec_rtd_eis-2024-neighborhood-database.xlsx (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[28] European Commission (2024), Kosovo 2024 Report, https://enlargement.ec.europa.eu/kosovo-report-2024_en.

[67] European Commission (2024), SME Fact Sheets, https://enlargement.ec.europa.eu/enlargement-policy/policy-highlights/sme-performance-review_en (accessed on 10 November 2024).

[20] European Commission (2023), Economic Reform Programme (ERP) 2023-2025, https://mfpt.rks-gov.net/desk/content/media/131FBDC9-AD9B-48D9-9714-29A7F2F1C5F4.pdf.

[19] European Commission (2022), Economic Reform Programme (ERP) 2022-2024, https://kryeministri.rks-gov.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Economic-Reform-Programme-2022-24.pdf.

[24] European Commission (2020), Albania Report 2020, https://enlargement.ec.europa.eu/albania-report-2020_en.

[25] European Commission (2020), Bosnia and Herzegovina 2020 Report, https://enlargement.ec.europa.eu/bosnia-and-herzegovina-report-2020_en.

[18] European Commission (2020), Economic Reform Programme 2020-2022, https://mfpt.rks-gov.net/desk/content/media/8578F7DC-479A-4C30-BE55-69D44F7988C7.pdf.

[27] European Commission (2020), Kosovo 2020 Report, https://enlargement.ec.europa.eu/kosovo-report-2020_en.

[17] European Commission (2019), Economic Reform Programme (ERP) 2019-2021, https://neighbourhood-enlargement.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2019-04/kosovo_erp_2019-2021.pdf.

[82] Eurostat (2025), Artificial Intelligence by Size Class of Enterprise, https://doi.org/10.2908/ISOC_EB_AI (accessed on 8 January 2025).

[21] Eurostat (2025), Employment and Activity by Sex and Age – Annual Data, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/product/page/LFSI_EMP_A (accessed on 6 March 2025).

[59] Eurostat (2025), Trade by NACE Rev 2 Activity and Enterprise Size Class, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/product/page/ext_tec01__custom_14777946 (accessed on 11 January 2025).

[33] Eurostat (2025), Young People Neither in Employment nor in Education and Training by Sex, Age and Labour Status, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/product/page/EDAT_LFSE_20 (accessed on Day March 2025).

[75] Eurostat (2024), E-government Activities of Individuals via Websites, https://doi.org/10.2908/ISOC_CIEGI_AC (accessed on 7 November 2024).

[11] Eurostat (2024), Electricity Prices for Non-household Consumers – Bi-annual Data (from 2007 onwards), https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/product/page/NRG_PC_205 (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[89] Eurostat (2024), Energy Productivity, https://doi.org/10.2908/SDG_07_30 (accessed on 7 November 2024).

[62] Eurostat (2024), Enterprise Statistics by Size Class and NACE Rev. 2 Activity (from 2021 onwards), https://doi.org/10.2908/SBS_SC_OVW (accessed on 10 November 2024).

[40] Eurostat (2024), GERD by Sector of Performance, https://doi.org/10.2908/RD_E_GERDTOT (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[3] Eurostat (2024), Goods Transported, https://doi.org/10.2908/RAIL_GO_TOTAL (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[74] Eurostat (2024), Individuals – Internet Use, https://doi.org/10.2908/ISOC_CI_IFP_IU (accessed on 7 November 2024).

[72] Eurostat (2024), Individuals’ Level of Digital Skills (from 2021 Onwards), https://doi.org/10.2908/ISOC_SK_DSKL_I21 (accessed on 7 November 2024).

[71] Eurostat (2024), Individuals’ Level of Digital Skills (until 2019), https://doi.org/10.2908/ISOC_SK_DSKL_I (accessed on 7 November 2024).

[76] Eurostat (2024), Internet Purchases by Individuals (2020 onwards), https://doi.org/10.2908/ISOC_EC_IB20 (accessed on 7 November 2024).

[48] Eurostat (2024), Investment Share of GDP by Institutional Sectors (Business Investment and Households Investment), https://doi.org/10.2908/NASA_10_KI (accessed on 18 November 2024).

[92] Eurostat (2024), Municipal Waste by Waste Management Operations, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/SDG_12_50/default/table (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[38] Eurostat (2024), Participation Rate in Education and Training (last 4 weeks) by Sex and Age, https://doi.org/10.2908/TRNG_LFSE_01 (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[2] Eurostat (2024), Total Length of Railway Lines, https://doi.org/10.2908/RAIL_IF_LINE_TR (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[77] Eurostat (2024), Websites and Functionalities by Size Class of Enterprise, https://doi.org/10.2908/ISOC_CIWEB (accessed on 7 November 2024).

[42] Hach, K. and E. Trenkmann (2019), Entrepreneurial Ecosystem in Albania with Focus on Tirana, Challenge Fund, https://challengefund.euforinnovation.al/entrepreneurial-ecosystem-in-albania-with-focus-on-tirana/.

[87] IEA (2024), Countries, International Energy Agency, https://www.iea.org/countries (accessed on 7 November 2024).

[37] ILO (2024), Labor Force with Advanced Education (% of Total Working-Age Population with Advanced Education), International Labour Organization/World Bank, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.ADVN.ZS (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[16] ILO (2024), SDG indicator 8.2.1 - Annual Growth Rate of Output per Worker (GDP Constant 2017 international $ at PPP) (%), International Labour Organization, https://ilostat.ilo.org/data/# (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[34] ILO (2024), SDG indicator 8.6.1 - Proportion of Youth (aged 15-24 years) not in Education, Employment or Training, International Labour Organization, https://ilostat.ilo.org/data/# (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[53] ILO (2024), Statistics on the Informal Economy, International Labour Organization, https://ilostat.ilo.org/topics/informality/ (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[45] IMF (2025), Financial Soundness Indicators, International Monetary Fund, https://data.imf.org/?sk=51B096FA-2CD2-40C2-8D09-0699CC1764DA (accessed on 10 March 2025).

[23] INSTAT (2025), Publications: Labour Market Books, Institute of Statistics, https://www.instat.gov.al/en/publications/books/ (accessed on 6 March 2025).

[4] INSTAT (2025), Transport, Accidents and Characteristics of Road Vehicles, Institute of Statistics, https://www.instat.gov.al/en/themes/industry-trade-and-services/transport-accidents-and-characteristics-of-road-vehicles/#tab3 (accessed on 27 April 2025).

[78] INSTAT (2024), Information and Communication Technologies, Institute of Statistics, https://www.instat.gov.al/en/themes/science-technology-and-innovation/information-and-communication-technologies/ (accessed on 7 November 2024).

[63] INSTAT (2024), Structural Business Statistics, Institute of Statistics, https://www.instat.gov.al/en/themes/industry-trade-and-services/structural-business-statistics/#tab3 (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[88] IRENA (2024), Renewable Energy Statistics 2024, International Renewable Energy Agency, https://www.irena.org/Publications/2024/Jul/Renewable-energy-statistics-2024.

[36] KAS (2025), Labour Force Survey, Kosovo Agency of Statistics, https://askdata.rks-gov.net/pxweb/en/ASKdata/ASKdata__Labour%20market__Anketa%20e%20Fuqis%C3%AB%20Pun%C3%ABtore__Annual%20labour%20market/ (accessed on 7 March 2025).

[5] KAS (2024), Transportation Statistics 2023, Kosovo Agency of Statistics, https://askapi.rks-gov.net/Custom/793bd5c5-fa63-4f00-a914-2a234bfb4885.pdf.

[79] KAS (2023), Usage of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Enterprises, 2022, Kosovo Agency of Statistics, https://ask.rks-gov.net/Releases/Details/7646 (accessed on 7 November 2024).

[35] MAKSTAT (2025), Labour Market Survey - Revision, State Statistical Office, https://makstat.stat.gov.mk/PXWeb/pxweb/en/MakStat/MakStat__PazarNaTrud__PazarTrudRevizija/ (accessed on 7 March 2025).

[80] MAKSTAT (2024), Anoucement: Use of Information and Communication Technologies in Business Entities [in Macedonian], State Statistical Office, https://www.stat.gov.mk/PrethodniSoopstenijaOblast.aspx?id=76&rbrObl=27 (accessed on 7 November 2024).

[69] MAKSTAT (2024), Basic Structural Business Indicators, by Activity Sector, by NKD REV 2, State Statistical Office, https://makstat.stat.gov.mk/PXWeb/pxweb/en/MakStat/MakStat__StrukturniStat__TekovniPodatoci/450_StrDel_Mk_03novaosndej_ml.px/?rxid=46ee0f64-2992-4b45-a2d9-cb4e5f7ec5ef (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[31] MAKSTAT (2024), Working Age Population by Economic Activity, Age groups and Gender, State Statistical Office, https://www.stat.gov.mk/pdf/2024/2.1.24.05_mk.pdf.

[30] MAKSTAT (2023), Active Population in the Republic of North Macedonia: Results from the Labour Force Survey, State Statistical Office, https://www.stat.gov.mk/pdf/2023/2.1.23.05_mk.pdf.

[6] MONSTAT (2024), Annual Statistics of Transport, Storage and Communications, Statistical Office of Montenegro, https://www.monstat.org/eng/page.php?id=1856&pageid=36 (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[81] MONSTAT (2024), ICT Usage in Enterprises - Releases, Statistical Office of Montenegro, https://www.monstat.org/eng/page.php?id=1667&pageid=1663 (accessed on 7 November 2024).

[29] MONSTAT (2024), Statistical Yearbook 2024, Statistical Office of Montenegro, https://monstat.org/eng/novosti.php?id=4064.

[68] MONSTAT (2024), Structural Business Statistics - Releases, Statistical Office of Montenegro, https://monstat.org/eng/page.php?id=265&pageid=67 (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[46] National Bank of Serbia (2024), Annual Financial Stability Report, https://nbs.rs/en/drugi-nivo-navigacije/publikacije-i-istrazivanja/GISFS/ (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[1] OECD (2024), Annual Length of Inland Transport Infrastructure, OECD, Paris, https://data-explorer.oecd.org/?pg=0&fc=Topic (accessed on 2025 April 26).

[32] OECD (2024), PISA PUF Users Data Collection, OECD, Paris, https://survey.oecd.org/index.php?r=survey/index&sid=197663&lang=en (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[60] OECD (2022), SME Policy Index: Western Balkans and Turkey 2022: Assessing the Implementation of the Small Business Act for Europe, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b47d15f0-en.

[61] OECD (2019), SME Policy Index: Western Balkans and Turkey 2019: Assessing the Implementation of the Small Business Act for Europe, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/g2g9fa9a-en.

[83] RCC (2022), Western Balkans Digital Economy Society Index, Regional Cooperation Council, https://www.rcc.int/files/user/docs/43a521a624cf08523a2268a67a7be2ff.pdf.

[56] SORS (2025), Decent Work and Economic Growth, Goal 8, Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, https://sdg.indikatori.rs/en-US/area/decent-work-and-economic-growth/?subarea=SDGUN080301&indicator=080301IND02 (accessed on 7 March 2025).

[70] SORS (2024), Structural Business Statistics, Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, https://www.stat.gov.rs/en-us/oblasti/strukturne-poslovne-statistike/ (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[7] SORS (2024), Transport of Passengers and Goods, Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, https://www.stat.gov.rs/en-us/oblasti/saobracaj-i-telekomunikacije/prevoz-putnika-i-robe/ (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[55] UNDP (2016), National Human Development Report “Informal Work: From Challenges to Solutions”, United Nations Development Programme, https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/me/Montenegro_National-Human-Development-Report-2016_Informal-Work_Summary.pdf.

[52] WIIW (2025), SEE Jobs Getaway Database, Western Balkans Labor Market Brief Publications, Vienna Institute for International Economic Studies, https://wiiw.ac.at/see-jobs-gateway-database-ds-5.html (accessed on 7 March 2025).

[86] World Bank (2025), Carbon Intensity of GDP, https://donnees.banquemondiale.org/indicateur/EN.GHG.CO2.RT.GDP.PP.KD (accessed on 31 January 2025).

[12] World Bank (2025), Mobile Cellular Subscriptions (per 100 people), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.CEL.SETS.P2 (accessed on 8 January 2025).

[90] World Bank (2025), Water Productivity, https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators/Series/ER.GDP.FWTL.M3.KD (accessed on 31 January 2025).

[47] World Bank (2024), Domestic Credit to the Private Sector, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/FS.AST.PRVT.GD.ZS (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[50] World Bank (2024), Foreign Direct Investment, Net Inflows (% of GDP), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.KLT.DINV.WD.GD.ZS (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[85] World Bank (2024), GDP (Current USD), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD (accessed on 7 November 2024).

[58] World Bank (2024), GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2021 international $), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.KD (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[49] World Bank (2024), Gross Fixed Capital Formation, Private Sector (% of GDP), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.GDI.FPRV.ZS (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[84] World Bank (2024), ICT Service Exports (BoP, Current USD), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.GSR.CCIS.CD (accessed on 7 November 2024).

[73] World Bank (2024), Individuals Using The Internet (% of Population), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.NET.USER.ZS (accessed on 7 November 2024).

[41] World Bank (2024), Research and Development Expenditure (% of GDP), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[57] World Bank (2024), Trade (% of GDP), https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.TRD.GNFS.ZS (accessed on 5 November 2024).

[51] World Bank (2024), Worldwide Governance Indicators, https://databank.worldbank.org/source/worldwide-governance-indicators (accessed on 5 November 2024).