Digital trade is estimated to account for 3% of exports in 2022, representing a decline of 25% (from 4%) since 2005. This is below OECD (28%) and ASEAN (19%) averages in 2022.
Digitally deliverable services have been the fastest growing segment of Brunei Darussalam’s trade, at 4.2% p.a., but below global averages (7.4%).
Digital Trade Review of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations
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Annex A. Country pages
Copy link to Annex A. Country pagesBrunei Darussalam
Copy link to Brunei DarussalamParticipation in digital trade
Key areas for regulatory reform (2024 unless otherwise specified)
Brunei Darussalam has a score of 0.27 out of 1 in the OECD Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (DSTRI). Restrictions remain in infrastructure, electronic transactions, performance requirements, limitations on downloading/streaming and commercial/local presence requirements.
Brunei Darussalam implemented significant reforms in telecommunication services, leading to a significant easing in competition-related barriers. Despite these reforms, restrictive policies for competition and foreign market entry barriers remain. In computer services, restrictions on the movement of people are still present.
Brunei Darussalam has a score of 15.2 out of 22 in the OECD Trade Facilitation Indicators (TFI). Areas of reform include increasing transparency and predictability, as well as further harmonisation and simplification of trade-related documents.
Tariffs on ICT and related products are zero; further gains would mainly come from regulatory and services reforms rather than tariff cuts.
Brunei Darussalam has made important steps to governing international data transfers, introducing new regulation. However, cross‑border data flows rely on ad‑hoc authorisation, creating uncertainty for businesses handling the data (up to date as of December 2025).
International commitments on digital trade issues
Brunei Darussalam ranks 12th in the OECD Index of Digital Trade Integration and Openness (INDIGO), with a score of 0.15 over 1, above the OECD average.
A shallow DEFA is estimated to increase total trade by 0.7%, a deep one by 0.8% and an extensive one by 1.0% (regional trade would grow by 2.5%, 3.1% and 3.9% respectively).
Brunei Darussalam has expressed support for the WTO Agreement on E-commerce, if it were to come into force it is estimated to increase trade by 0.3% (and 0.4% when covering the entire WTO membership).
Moving forward
Overall, Brunei Darussalam would benefit from continuing its path of domestic regulatory reform targeting issues around data, e-transactions and commercial presence. It would also benefit from also continuing engaging in international co‑operation, such as by supporting the moratorium on customs duties on electronic transmissions at the WTO, and by finalising ambitious regional integration efforts in the form of the DEFA.
Cambodia
Copy link to CambodiaParticipation in digital trade
Digital trade is estimated to account for 16% of exports in 2022, having increased by more than 128% (from 7%) since 2005. This share is below OECD (28%) and ASEAN (19%) averages.
Digitally deliverable services have been growing at 12.4% p.a., above global averages (7.4%). However, goods exports have expanded more rapidly, at 13.7% p.a.
Key areas for regulatory reform (2024 unless otherwise specified)
While Cambodia has undertaken domestic regulatory reforms over the last decade, challenges persist to achieving a more favourable environment for digital trade. Cambodia has a relatively high DSTRI score of 0.41 out of 1, more restrictive than the ASEAN (0.24) and OECD (0.1) averages. Cambodia would benefit from lowering barriers to digital and communication infrastructure, e-transactions, and e-payments.
In telecommunication services, competition-related obstacles create entry barriers for SMEs. In computer services, restrictions on the movement of people are prominent.
Cambodia has a score of 14.9 out of 22 in the OECD TFIs, ranking 8th among AMS. Areas for reform include: harmonisation and simplification of trade-related documents, improving electronic exchange of data, and border agency co-operation.
Reducing tariffs on ICT and related goods (which are currently at around 11%) by joining the WTO ITA and its expansion is estimated to increase imports by 2‑3%.
No comprehensive framework for cross‑border data flows is in place, although a draft is understood to include a more ad-hoc approach to cross-border data flows and strict data localisation measures. To fully benefit from the advantages associated with the free flow of data, Cambodia should consider adopting a more open approach (up to date as of December 2025).
International commitments on digital trade issues
Internationally, Cambodia ranks 19th in the OECD Index of Digital Trade Integration and Openness (INDIGO), with a score of 0.13 over 1, slightly below the OECD average. Cambodia undertook important digital trade integration efforts over the past ten years, increasing its score by 166% (from 0.049 in 2014).
A shallow DEFA is estimated to increase total trade by 3.5%, a deep one by 4.2% and an extensive one by 5.6% (regional trade would grow by 18.7%, 22.5% and 29.7% respectively).
Cambodia has not expressed support to the WTO Agreement on E-commerce (AoE) but a widespread implementation by the entire WTO membership, including Cambodia, is estimated to increase its trade by 6.9%.
Moving forward
Cambodia would benefit from domestic regulatory reforms that foster open markets and greater competitiveness, including in the area of data flows. Cambodia would also benefit from joining the ITA and the WTO AoE, supporting the moratorium on customs duties on electronic transmissions at the WTO, and finalising ambitious regional integration efforts in the form of the DEFA.
Indonesia
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Digital trade is estimated to account for 9% of exports in 2022, increasing by around 12% (from 8%) since 2005. This share is below OECD (28%) and ASEAN (19%) averages in 2022.
Digitally deliverable services have been growing at 5.9% p.a., below the global average (7.4%) and at a similar pace as goods exports (6.0%).
Key areas for regulatory reform (2024 unless otherwise specified)
Indonesia has a score of 0.31 out of 1 in the OECD Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (DSTRI) and has become more restrictive recently. Restrictions remain in digital and communication infrastructure, electronic transactions, and e-payments.
Telecoms and computer services remain highly restricted. This includes the presence of state-owned firms, limited independence of regulatory authorities, and the presence of dominant services providers across the telecommunications market. In computer services, restrictions on the movement of people remain.
Indonesia has a score of 16.6 out of 22 in the OECD Trade Facilitation Indicators (TFI).
ICT tariff reductions through participating in the ITA expansion is estimated to increase imports by around 0.7%-1.2%.
Indonesia is working towards a more open and trusted approach to international data transfers. However, important elements still need to be put in place to ensure a trusted environment for cross-border data transfers. Indonesia also has the highest number of data localisation measures within ASEAN (up to date as of December 2025).
International commitments on digital trade issues
Indonesia ranks 10th in the OECD Index of Digital Trade Integration and Openness (INDIGO), with a score of 0.15 over 1, above the OECD average.
A shallow DEFA is estimated to increase total trade by 2.6%, a deep one by 3.1% and an extensive one by 3.9% (regional trade would grow by 11.6%, 13.8% and 17.3% respectively).
Although Indonesia had joined discussions under the WTO e-commerce JSI, it did not support the final text. The implementation of the Agreement on E-commerce (AoE) by the entire WTO membership, including Indonesia, has the potential to increase trade by 5.2% (estimation).
Moving forward
Overall, Indonesia would benefit from continuing domestic regulatory reforms to achieve a more favourable regulatory environment for digital trade, including on data flows. Indonesia would also benefit from continuing to engage in international co‑operation: supporting the WTO AoE and the moratorium on customs duties on electronic transmissions at the WTO, and by finalising ambitious regional integration efforts in the form of the DEFA.
Lao PDR
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Digital trade is estimated to account for 3% of exports in 2022, declining by more than 62% (from 8%) since 2005. This share is below OECD (28%) and ASEAN (19%) averages in 2022.
Digitally deliverable services have been growing at 12.5% p.a., above global averages (7.4%). However, goods exports have expanded more rapidly, at 15.9% p.a.
Key areas for regulatory reform (2024 unless otherwise specified)
Lao PDR has a score of 0.54 out of 1 in the OECD Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (DSTRI), it is the most restrictive AMS, including restrictions in digital infrastructure, electronic transactions, payments, and the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights.
Lao PDR is one of the ASEAN Member States with the highest barriers in telecoms and computer services. In particular, the presence of state-owned firms, limited independence of regulatory authorities, and the presence of dominant services providers across the telecommunications market. In computer services, restrictions on the movement of people remain.
Lao PDR has a score of 11.8 out of 22 in the OECD Trade Facilitation Indicators (TFI), the lowest within ASEAN. Areas of reform would include increasing transparency and predictability, further automation and streamlining of trade documents and procedures as well as cross-border and domestic border agency co‑operation.
Lao PDR joined the WTO Information Technology Agreement and its expansion in 2022.
Lao PDR has no specific data protection law in place. This absence of legislation might affect the willingness of firms in other countries to send data to Lao PDR (up to date as of December 2025).
International commitments on digital trade issues
Lao PDR ranks 11th in the OECD Index of Digital Trade Integration and Openness (INDIGO), with a score of 0.15 over 1, above the OECD average.
A shallow DEFA is estimated to increase total trade by 4.9%, a deep one by 5.8% and an extensive one by 7.3% (regional trade would grow by 9.9%, 11.7% and 14.7% respectively).
Lao PRD has expressed support for the WTO Agreement on E-commerce, if it were to come into force it is estimated to increase trade by 2.5% (and 3.6% when covering the entire WTO membership).
Moving forward
Overall, Lao PDR would benefit from reducing domestic regulatory barriers to digital trade, which are the highest within ASEAN (including on data flows). It would benefit from engaging in international co‑operation: supporting the moratorium on customs duties on electronic transmissions at the WTO, and by finalising ambitious regional integration efforts in the form of the DEFA.
Malaysia
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Digital trade is estimated to account for 11% of exports in 2022, representing an increase by more than 22% (from 9%) since 2005. This share is below the OECD average (28%) and the ASEAN average (19%) in 2022.
Digitally deliverable services have been the fastest growing segment of Malaysia’s trade, at 7% p.a., around global averages (7.4%).
Key areas for regulatory reform (2024 unless otherwise specified)
Malaysia has a score of 0.09 out of 1 in the OECD Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (DSTRI) and is among the least restrictive in ASEAN although some restrictions remain in electronic transactions, and the protection and enforcement of intellectual property rights.
Malaysia has ASEAN’s second-lowest restrictions in both the telecommunications and computer services sectors. In telecommunications, foreign entry restrictions and competition barriers remain. In computer services, market entry constraints are present.
Malaysia has a score of 17.8 out of 22 in the OECD Trade Facilitation Indicators (TFI).
Malaysia is party to both the WTO Information Technology Agreement and its expansion. Tariffs on ICT and related products are already low. Furthermore, it has only few non-tariff measures in place on the largest part of its ICT imports.
Malaysia has recently made significant progress in its cross-border data flow regime, relying on open safeguards since 2025 (up to date as of December 2025).
International commitments on digital trade issues
Malaysia ranks 14th in the OECD Index of Digital Trade Integration and Openness (INDIGO), with a score of 0.14 over 1, above the OECD average.
A shallow DEFA is estimated to increase total trade by 3.1%, a deep one by 3.8% and an extensive one by 4.6% (regional trade would grow by 13.4%, 16.5% and 20.1% respectively).
Malaysia has expressed support for the WTO Agreement on E-commerce, if it were to come into force it is estimated to increase trade by 2.9% (and 5.3% when covering the entire WTO membership).
Moving forward
Overall, Malaysia has significantly embraced the digital transformation for its trade, but challenges persist. Malaysia would benefit from continuing to engage in international co‑operation by: supporting the moratorium on customs duties on electronic transmissions at the WTO, and by finalising ambitious regional integration efforts in the form of the DEFA.
Myanmar
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Digital trade is estimated to account for 12% of exports in 2022, representing an increase by 140% (from 5%) since 2005. However, this share is below the OECD average (28%) and the ASEAN average (19%) in 2022.
Digitally deliverable services have been the fastest growing segment of Myanmar’s trade, at 13.2% p.a., above global averages (7.4%).
Key areas for regulatory reform (2024 unless otherwise specified)
Myanmar will be covered in the 2025 vintage of the OECD Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (DSTRI) that will be released in February 2026.
Despite reforms in recent years, Myanmar is among the most restrictive ASEAN Member States when it comes to barriers in telecommunications and computer services, covered by the OECD Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (STRI). These include competition-related obstacles such as the presence of state-owned firms, limited independence of regulatory authorities, and the presence of dominant services providers across the telecommunications market. In computer services, restrictions on the movement of people are prominent.
Myanmar has a score of 12.6 out of 22 in the OECD Trade Facilitation Indicators (TFI). Areas of reform include: increasing transparency and predictability, harmonisation and simplification of trade-related documents, electronic exchange of data, streamlining border controls, and internal and external border agency co-operation.
Myanmar has not joined the WTO Information Technology Agreement (ITA). Reducing tariffs on ICT and related goods by joining the ITA and its expansion is estimated to increase imports by 3‑4.8%.
Myanmar has not yet implemented a framework for data protection in data transfers. This can impede the willingness of firms in other countries to send data to Myanmar (up to date as of December 2025).
International commitments on digital trade issues
Myanmar ranks 57th in the OECD Index of Digital Trade Integration and Openness (INDIGO), with a score of 0.10 over 1, below the OECD average.
A shallow DEFA is estimated to increase total trade by 3.7%, a deep one by 4.5% and an extensive one by 5.9% (regional trade would grow by 17.0%, 20.4% and 26.9% respectively).
Myanmar has expressed support for the WTO Agreement on E-commerce, if it were to come into force it is estimated to increase trade by 6.5% (and 8.9% when covering the entire WTO membership).
Moving forward
Overall, Myanmar would benefit from adapting its regulatory environment to make it more conducive for digital trade, including on issues related to data flows. It would also benefit from continued engagement in international co‑operation by: supporting the moratorium on customs duties on electronic transmissions at the WTO, and by finalising ambitious regional integration efforts in the form of the DEFA.
The Philippines
Copy link to The PhilippinesParticipation in digital trade
Digital trade is estimated to account for 33% of exports in 2022, representing an increase by more than 57% (from 21%) since 2005. This share is above both the OECD average (28%) and the ASEAN average (19%) in 2022.
Digitally deliverable services have been the fastest growing segment of the Philippines’s trade, at 10.5% p.a., above global averages (7.4%).
Key areas for regulatory reform (2024 unless otherwise specified)
The Philippines has a score of 0.04 out of 1 in the OECD Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (DSTRI), the lowest in the region. It is significantly less restrictive than the ASEAN (DSTRI score of 0.24) and OECD averages (0.1). Remaining cross-cutting restrictions to digital trade take the form of commercial presence requirements for firms to provide cross-border services and local presence obligations.
Owing to reforms in recent years, the Philippines is also among the ASEAN Member States with the lowest barriers in telecommunications and computer services. Remaining barriers in telecommunications primarily concern measures restricting foreign entry and competition. In computer services, foreign entry restrictions and movement of people constraints remain.
The Philippines has a score of 15.9 out of 22 in the OECD Trade Facilitation Indicators (TFI). Areas of reform would include increasing transparency and predictability.
The Philippines is participating in both the WTO Information Technology Agreement and its expansion. Tariffs on ICT and related goods are low.
The Philippines relies on open safeguards when transferring data abroad. It has one measure in draft stage that would fall in the strictest category of data localisation (up to date as of December 2025).
International commitments on digital trade issues
The Philippines ranks 21st in the OECD Index of Digital Trade Integration and Openness (INDIGO), with a score of 0.13 over 1, below the OECD average.
A shallow DEFA is estimated to increase total trade by 1.9%, a deep one by 2.3% and an extensive one by 2.9% (regional trade would grow by 13.4%, 15.9% and 20.0% respectively).
A more widespread implementation of the AoE by the entire WTO membership, including the Philippines, has the estimated potential to increase trade by 7.0% (the Philippines’ announcement of support to the WTO AoE was done after the modelling had been undertaken).
Moving forward
Overall, the Philippines has embraced the digital transformation and has one of the most open regulatory environments in the region. Looking outwards, improving its engagement on digital trade would help Philippines’ exporters better tackle digital fragmentation and access global opportunities, e.g. by supporting the moratorium on customs duties on electronic transmissions at the WTO, and by finalising ambitious regional integration efforts in the form of the DEFA.
Singapore
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Digital trade is estimated to account for 45% of exports in 2022, representing an increase by 80% (from 25%) since 2005. This share is well above the OECD average (28%) and the ASEAN average (19%) in 2022.
Digitally deliverable services have been the fastest growing segment of Singapore’s trade, at 12.5% p.a., above global averages (7.4%).
Key areas for regulatory reform (2024 unless otherwise specified)
Singapore has a score of 0.18 out of 1 in the OECD Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (DSTRI). Restrictions remain on digital infrastructure and payments.
Singapore has ASEAN’s least restrictive regulatory environment in telecommunication services, although barriers to competition and restrictions on foreign entry are present. However, barriers have risen in recent years in computer services and restrictions on foreign entry and on the movement of people remain.
Singapore has a score of 20.8 out of 22 in the OECD Trade Facilitation Indicators (TFI), the highest within ASEAN.
Singapore is participating in both the WTO Information Technology Agreement and its expansion. Tariffs on ICT and related goods are zero, and Singapore applies only few non-tariff measures to most of its ICT imports.
Singapore relies on open safeguards when transferring data abroad. Singapore has implemented one data localisation measure, which falls under the least restrictive category. Singapore is also the most active ASEAN Member State with regard to RTAs containing a cross-border data flow provision (up to date as of December 2025).
International commitments on digital trade issues
Singapore ranks 1st in the OECD Index of Digital Trade Integration and Openness (INDIGO), with a score of 0.18 over 1, above the OECD average.
A shallow DEFA is estimated to increase total trade by 2.5%, a deep one by 3.1% and an extensive one by 3.8% (regional trade would grow by 13.4%, 16.3% and 20.1% respectively).
Singapore, as a co-convenor of the discussions, has expressed support for the WTO Agreement on E-commerce, if it were to come into force it is estimated to increase trade by 3.4% (and 5.6% when covering the entire WTO membership).
Moving forward
Overall, Singapore has embraced the digital transformation, but some barriers remain, including in payments and computer services. Singapore continues to provide strong leadership on digital trade, and would benefit from supporting the moratorium on customs duties on electronic transmissions at the WTO, and finalising ambitious regional integration efforts in the form of the DEFA.
Thailand
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Digital trade is estimated to account for 9% of exports in 2022, increasing by more than 28% (from 7%) since 2005. This share is below the OECD (28%) and ASEAN (19%) average.
Digitally deliverable services have been the fastest growing segment of Thailand’s trade, at 7.4% p.a., in line with global averages (7.4%).
Key areas for regulatory reform (2024 unless otherwise specified)
Thailand has undertaken ambitious reforms during the last decade and has a score of 0.08 out of 1 in the OECD Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (DSTRI). Since 2014, Thailand has succeeded in reducing digital trade barriers by around half (from a score of 0.16). However, barriers remain on digital infrastructure and electronic transactions.
In telecoms services, measures on foreign market entry and on competition can create impediments for foreign firms. In computer services, restrictions on foreign entry and the movement of people remain.
Thailand has a score of 17.7 out of 22 in the OECD Trade Facilitation Indicators (TFI). Areas of reform would include cross-border and domestic border agency co‑operation.
Thailand has already joined both the WTO Information Technology Agreement and its expansion, resulting in tariffs on ICT and related products to be low.
Thailand’s domestic regulation foresees the use of pre-authorised safeguards when transferring data abroad. Thailand has a strict data localisation measure in draft stage (up to date as of December 2025).
International commitments on digital trade issues
Thailand is among the three most integrated ASEAN Member States, ranking 9th in the OECD Index of Digital Trade Integration and Openness (INDIGO), with a score of 0.15 over 1, above the OECD average.
A shallow DEFA is estimated to increase total trade by 3.3%, a deep one by 3.9% and an extensive one by 4.9% (regional trade would grow by 16.3%, 19.4% and 24.4% respectively).
Thailand has not expressed support to the WTO Agreement on E-commerce (AoE). The implementation of the AoE by the entire WTO membership, including Thailand, has the potential to increase trade by 6.2% (estimated).
Moving forward
Overall, Thailand has embraced the digital transformation and would benefit from continued regulatory reform and international co‑operation. This includes supporting initiatives like the moratorium on customs duties on electronic transmissions, engaging more readily in discussions on the Agreement on e-commerce at the WTO, as well as finalising ambitious regional integration efforts in the form of the DEFA.
Viet Nam
Copy link to Viet NamParticipation in digital trade
Digital trade is estimated to account for 3% of exports in 2022, falling by 50% (from 6%) since 2005. This share is below the OECD (28%) and ASEAN (19%) averages in 2022.
Digitally deliverable services have been growing at 11.5% p.a., above global averages (7.4%). However, goods exports have expanded more rapidly, at 14.8% p.a.
Key areas for regulatory reform (2024 unless otherwise specified)
Viet Nam has a score of 0.23 out of 1 in the OECD Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index (DSTRI), more than twice as high as in 2014. It remains restrictive in digital infrastructure, payments, performance requirements, limitations on downloading/streaming and commercial/local presence requirements.
Viet Nam has ASEAN’s most restrictive regulatory environment in telecommunications services, with competition-based barriers being most pronounced. This includes the presence of state-owned firms, limited independence of regulatory authorities, and dominant services providers across the telecommunications market. In computer services, restrictions on foreign entry and the movement of people remain.
Viet Nam has a score of 17.0 out of 22 in the OECD Trade Facilitation Indicators (TFI).
ICT tariff reductions via ITA expansion are estimated to marginally raise imports (~0.1% - 0.25%).
Data flows are subject to ad‑hoc authorisation, while lacking clarity on the criteria and types of data concerned. Viet Nam is also a frequent user of strict data localisation requirements (up to date as of December 2025).
International commitments on digital trade issues
Viet Nam ranks 5th in the OECD Index of Digital Trade Integration and Openness (INDIGO), with a score of 0.16 over 1, above the OECD average, and is the 2nd most integrated ASEAN Member State.
A shallow DEFA is estimated to increase total trade by 1.4%, a deep one by 1.7% and an extensive one by 2.1% (regional trade would grow by 17.1%, 20.7% and 25.7% respectively).
Viet Nam has not expressed support to the WTO Agreement on E‑commerce (AoE). However, a more widespread implementation of the AoE by the entire WTO membership, including Viet Nam, has the potential to increase trade by 6.1% (estimated).
Moving forward
Overall, Viet Nam would benefit from embarking on wider domestic regulatory reform to reduce barriers to digital trade, including on issues related to data flows and data localisation. In terms of international co‑operation, Viet Nam would benefit from supporting the moratorium on customs duties on electronic transmissions and the AoE at the WTO, and seek to finalise ambitious regional integration efforts in the form of the DEFA.