Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation 2025

7. Canada

Main findings

Support to agriculture

Canada has a differentiated approach to support, providing Market Price Support (MPS) to “supply-managed” commodities (dairy, poultry, and eggs) and budgetary support focussed on business risk management to other commodities. Support has been stable over the last decade and averaged 8.2% of gross farm receipts in 2022-24, less than half the level observed in 2000-02 and below the OECD average (13.2%).

The supply-management system consists of import controls (notably tariff rate quotas), production quotas and pricing mechanisms, which generally result in lifting domestic prices above international levels. Milk received particularly high single commodity transfers in 2022-24, amounting to 28% of commodity gross farm receipts. Average MPS over the past three years was lower than previous years due to higher border reference prices for eggs and poultry meat relative to domestic farm prices because of avian flu in the United States.

Risk-management tools constitute the main part of budgetary support to producers. These include income stabilisation, subsidised savings and crop insurance programmes. The latter primarily focus on grain commodities though they also target other products such as fruits and vegetables and, more recently, beef. Overall, risk management policies have played a prominent role in recent years due to adverse weather conditions.

Canada also uses payments based on unconstrained use of variable inputs, notably fuel. Together with MPS, these potentially most market-distorting support measures represented 42% of aggregated gross producer transfers in 2022-24, or 3.5% of gross farm receipts.

Support to general services (General Service Support Estimate, GSSE) amounted to 3.0% of agricultural production value in 2022-24, below the OECD average (3.5%) and down from 6.1% in 2000‑02. Expenditures on inspection and control systems, and agricultural knowledge and innovation each accounted for about 44% and 35% of GSSE respectively, in recent years. The Total Support Estimate (TSE) represented 0.4% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2022-24.

Key recent policy changes

Several business risk management programmes within the five‑year Sustainable Canadian Agricultural Partnership (Sustainable CAP) were reinforced in 2024. The Advance Payments Program schemes now have more favourable conditions for farmer savings, and the claiming process under the AgriStability programme was simplified to boost participation and make payments more predictable.

In January 2025, the On-Farm Climate Action Fund (OFCAF) was expanded with an additional CAD 300 million (USD 219 million) for 2025-27 to enhance climate resilience of farms, through improved management practices reducing GHG emissions or sequestering carbon. An additional CAD 28 million (USD 20 million) will also foster over the same period technology development through an Accelerator initiative under the Research and Innovation Stream of the Agricultural Clean Technology Program.

A National School Food Program to expand coverage of existing programmes to an additional 400 000 children was launched in 2024 with a budget of CAD 1 billion (USD 730 million) over five years. This programme will operate in collaboration with provincial, territorial, and Indigenous governments, and complement provincial school meal programmes. A National School Food Policy describing the long-term vision for school food programmes across the country was also released in 2024.

Conclusions of negotiations for two bilateral trade agreements were concluded by Canada in 2024, with Indonesia and Ecuador. Both agreements are expected to enter into force in 2025.

Assessment and recommendations

• Canada’s agricultural policies under the new Sustainable CAP, and related strategic initiatives, aim to promote sustainability of agricultural production and thereby contribute to lowering the environmental footprint of Canadian agri-food exports. However, environmental requirements could be strengthened under specific programmes, such as AgriMarketing, under which GHG emission reporting is only voluntary. Furthermore, food imports, which remain large, are not subject to specific sustainability measurement, including within preferential trade agreements, and the impacts of their production could receive closer attention. One exception is biofuel feedstocks, that are required to satisfy some sustainability standards, even in the case of imported products.

• Technological advancements have been developed to limit pressures on resource use, but there remain regional hotspots. Further innovation will be crucial to maintaining sustainable production and trade, especially in the context of a changing climate. While support to general services continues to receive a significant share of total budgetary support (one-third), these spendings are on a declining trend relative to the size of the sector. More investment in innovation and knowledge transfer is needed considering total factor productivity growth is well below the world average.

• Support level in Canada is well below the OECD average. However, producer support remains large in a few sectors – dairy, poultry and eggs – due to market price support generated by tariff-rate quotas, which distorts production and trade and inflates domestic prices. These forms of protection hinder market responsiveness and discourage innovation in those sectors. Reforms should be undertaken, involving larger production quotas and gradual reduction of price support for greater efficiency and diversification into higher value products.

• The measurable targets and performance indicators that were established under the Sustainable CAP will be key to assessing the uptake and impact of current support programmes. A shift towards results-based rather than practice-based support could enhance the effectiveness of policy tools. Improved approaches will require greater investment in data collection, evaluation and reporting.

• Climate action remains a key challenge for Canada’s agriculture. While the funding dedicated to mitigation measures has increased, agriculture remains largely exempt in Canada’s from emission pricing schemes, which limit the broader adoption of climate-friendly farm practices. As the frequency of weather-related adverse events increases, short-term risk management, already well developed, and medium-term support for resilient practices and innovation, need to be complemented with more transformative longer-term strategies. Resources could be directed toward improving the long-term adaptive capacity of farmers and transforming production systems, alongside monitoring implementation progress in adaptation policy.

Development of support to agriculture

Table 7.1. Canada: Estimates of support to agriculture

Million USD

	1986-88	2000-02	2022-24	2022	2023	2024p
Total value of production (at farm gate)	14 086	20 691	67 744	67 383	68 763	67 086
of which: share of MPS commodities (%)	85.57	81.97	83.00	83.61	83.63	81.75
Total value of consumption (at farm gate)	11 835	15 011	41 895	43 715	41 302	40 668
Producer Support Estimate (PSE)	5 857	3 897	5 886	5 594	5 597	6 467
Support based on commodity output	3 215	1 628	2 029	1 868	1 777	2 442
Market price support¹	2 851	1 608	2 029	1 868	1 777	2 442
Positive market price support	2 998	1 608	2 029	1 868	1 777	2 442
Negative market price support	-146	0	0	0	0	0
Payments based on output	364	20	0	0	0	0
Payments based on input use	1 091	368	860	821	815	946
Based on variable input use	622	242	478	428	442	565
with input constraints	0	0	27	26	28	27
Based on fixed capital formation	448	108	286	273	264	321
with input constraints	0	0	55	49	56	61
Based on on-farm services	20	18	96	120	108	60
with input constraints	0	0	27	26	28	27
Payments based on current A/An/R/I, production required	1 336	1 306	2 720	2 533	2 769	2 858
Based on Receipts / Income	467	585	819	636	631	1 191
Based on Area planted / Animal numbers	869	721	1 901	1 897	2 138	1 667
With input constraints	0	0	126	93	129	158
Payments based on non-current A/An/R/I, production required	0	0	0	0	0	0
Payments based on non-current A/An/R/I, production not required	0	553	251	353	218	183
With variable payment rates	0	0	0	0	0	0
with commodity exceptions	0	0	0	0	0	0
With fixed payment rates	0	553	251	353	218	183
with commodity exceptions	0	0	0	0	0	0
Payments based on non-commodity criteria	8	0	0	0	0	0
Based on long-term resource retirement	8	0	0	0	0	0
Based on a specific non-commodity output	0	0	0	0	0	0
Based on other non-commodity criteria	0	0	0	0	0	0
Miscellaneous payments	206	41	26	19	20	38
Percentage PSE (%)	34.44	16.95	8.23	7.87	7.71	9.09
Producer NPC (coeff.)	1.34	1.09	1.03	1.03	1.03	1.04
Producer NAC (coeff.)	1.53	1.20	1.09	1.09	1.08	1.10
General Services Support Estimate (GSSE)	1 153	1 262	2 005	2 107	2 031	1 879
Agricultural knowledge and innovation system	483	536	706	697	709	713
Inspection and control	283	351	887	962	986	713
Development and maintenance of infrastructure	268	182	212	214	161	261
Marketing and promotion	85	179	134	154	135	113
Cost of public stockholding	0	0	0	0	0	1
Miscellaneous	34	15	65	79	40	77
Percentage GSSE (% of TSE)	16.30	24.48	25.18	27.11	26.36	22.40
Consumer Support Estimate (CSE)	-2 533	-1 719	-2 200	-2 062	-1 951	-2 588
Transfers to producers from consumers	-2 767	-1 602	-1 976	-1 868	-1 744	-2 316
Other transfers from consumers	-31	-117	-287	-266	-283	-312
Transfers to consumers from taxpayers	31	0	62	72	75	40
Excess feed cost	234	0	0	0	0	0
Percentage CSE (%)	-21.54	-11.44	-5.27	-4.72	-4.73	-6.37
Consumer NPC (coeff.)	1.31	1.13	1.06	1.05	1.05	1.07
Consumer NAC (coeff.)	1.27	1.13	1.06	1.05	1.05	1.07
Total Support Estimate (TSE)	7 041	5 159	7 954	7 772	7 704	8 386
Transfers from consumers	2 798	1 719	2 263	2 133	2 026	2 628
Transfers from taxpayers	4 273	3 557	5 978	5 904	5 960	6 070
Budget revenues	-31	-117	-287	-266	-283	-312
Percentage TSE (% of GDP)	1.61	0.69	0.36	0.35	0.35	0.37
Total Budgetary Support Estimate (TBSE)	4 189	3 551	5 925	5 904	5 927	5 944
Percentage TBSE (% of GDP)	0.96	0.48	0.27	0.27	0.27	0.27
GDP deflator (1986-88 = 100)	100	138	233	228	232	238
Exchange rate (national currency per USD)	1.32	1.53	1.34	1.30	1.35	1.37

Note: p: provisional. NPC: Nominal Protection Coefficient. NAC: Nominal Assistance Coefficient. A/An/R/I: Area planted/Animal numbers/Receipts/Income. 1. Market Price Support (MPS) is net of producer levies and excess feed cost. MPS commodities for Canada are: wheat, maize, barley, oats, soybean, rapeseed, flax, potatoes, lentils, dried beans, dried peas, milk, beef and veal, pig meat, poultry and eggs.

Source: OECD (2025), “Producer and Consumer Support Estimates”, OECD Agricultural policy monitoring (database), https://data-explorer.oecd.org/.

Policy landscape

Main policy instruments

Agriculture policy in Canada is a shared jurisdiction between federal, provincial and territorial (FPT) governments who collaborate via an agreed agricultural policy framework. This framework reflects the broad national objectives while providing flexibility for provinces and territories to design and deliver programmes that respond to their regional priorities. FPT governments may also develop and fund their own agricultural programmes outside of this framework. Market interventions are characterised by the separate treatment of supply-managed commodities (dairy, poultry and eggs). These are produced mainly for domestic consumption and are protected by border measures. Other commodities (e.g. field crops, red meat, horticulture), which represent 84% of agricultural market receipts in 2020-24, receive little market support and are generally export-oriented.

The national supply management system provides market price support through customs tariffs (import control) and production quotas tradable within provinces (production control), combined with domestic price-setting according to production costs and consumer price index (pricing mechanism). Supply managed commodities are governed by their own FPT agreements – the national marketing plans – and are administered by provincial agricultural marketing boards operating in co-ordination with the national agencies.

The average applied most-favoured-nation (MFN) tariff on agricultural imports in 2023 was 14.4%, well above the 2.2% applied to non-agricultural products (World Trade Organization, 2024[1]). Some TRQs, regulating in particular the supply managed commodities, are associated to large protection rates, notably for dairy products (avg. 223%) and to a lesser extent live animals and meat (avg. 22%), due to high over quota duties. TRQ volumes granted under the WTO or preferential trade agreements lead in practice to lower applied rates for the volumes of dairy, poultry and eggs entering the Canadian market within the quotas.

Other programmes to support Canada’s agriculture and agro-food sector are mainly provided through co-ordinated policy frameworks, with the most recent being the Sustainable Canadian Agricultural Partnership (Sustainable CAP). This five-year agreement between FPT governments, effective from April 2023 through March 2028, finances business risk management programmes along with strategic initiatives that are either federal programmes or cost-shared activities by FPT governments.

The business risk management (BRM) programmes support producers in managing risks that threaten the viability of their farm or are beyond their capacity to control. The basic design of these programmes under the Sustainable CAP 2023-28 is similar to that of past frameworks and attempts to balance ex ante and ex post measures and limit ad-hoc forms of assistance. FPT governments jointly provide approximately CAD 1.7 billion (USD 1.3 billion) per year to finance programmes under the Farm Income Protection Act:

• AgriStability, a whole-farm income stabilisation programme to support producers in years of large margin declines. Farmers receive a payment if their production margin – difference between revenue and costs – in the current year falls below their historical reference margin by more than 30%.

• AgriInvest, a savings tool to help producers manage small income declines. Each year, producers can deposit up to 100% of their Allowable Net Sales (ANS), i.e. net margin over the allowable commodities, and receive a matching government contribution on 1% of their ANS, with a maximum government contribution of CAD 10 000 (USD 7 300). Funds in these accounts may be used for any purpose.

• AgriInsurance, a federal-provincial-producer cost-shared insurance programme which subsidises 60% of the cost of insurance premiums. This insurance covers major crop and horticulture products, with the possibility for individual provinces to develop insurance coverage for livestock.

• AgriRecovery, a FPT disaster relief framework to help producers recover from natural disasters, supplementing the assistance provided by the other BRM programmes.

The Advance Payments Program (APP) is a loan guarantee programme that aims to improve market flexibility and resilience for producers through the provision of working capital. The federal government guarantees cash advances of up to CAD 1 million (USD 730 000) to producers based on the anticipated value of their farm products. For each programme year, the government pays the interest on the first portion of each advance, with preferential interest rates applying to amounts above the interest-free limit. Initially set at CAD 100 000 (USD 73 000) per producer per year, this limit was significantly increased on a temporary basis in the last two years (see section “Recent policy developments”). Producers are required to repay their advances as they sell their products, with most agricultural products having up to 18 months for repayment, and advances on cattle and bison having up to 24 months. Unlike Federal, Provincial and Territorial BRM programmes which are based on the Farm Income Protection Act, the APP is fully federally funded outside the Sustainable CAP budget and has the Agricultural Marketing Programs Act as its legislative base.

The federal-only funded strategic initiatives under the Sustainable CAP 2023-28 provides CAD 1 billion (USD 730 million) for programmes, primarily applying a cost-sharing approach reimbursing expenses on a 50-50 to 75-25 basis between the grant and the applicant. Some also offer technical assistance and extension services. These programmes focus on three pillars:

• Growing trade and expanding markets through:

  • AgriMarketing, a CAD 130 million (USD 95 million) programme which supports industry-led market development activities that help the sector to increase and diversify exports as well as seize domestic market opportunities.

  • AgriCompetitiveness, a CAD 26 million (USD 19 million) programme which supports activities that helps the sector adapt to changing commercial and regulatory environments, share best practices, and provide mentorship opportunities, facilitating knowledge transfer and sector leadership.

• Fostering innovative and sustainable growth of the sector through:

  • AgriScience, a CAD 325 million (USD 237 million) programme which supports innovation by providing funding to pre-commercial science activities and cutting-edge research to benefit the agriculture and agro-food sector.

  • AgriInnovate, a CAD 78 million (USD 57 million) programme which supports projects that accelerate the commercialisation, demonstration, and/or adoption of commercial-ready innovative technologies and processes that increase the sector’s competitiveness and sustainability. It provides contributions to businesses on an interest-free repayable basis.

• Supporting diversity and the dynamic evolution of the sector through:

  • AgriAssurance, a CAD 64 million (USD 47 million) programme that shares costs with the private sector of developing and adopting systems, standards and tools to address market and regulatory requirements related to food safety, plant and animal health surveillance, animal welfare, environmental sustainability, traceability, market attributes and quality standards. It also aims to foster public trust by helping industry make verifiable claims about the health, safety and quality of Canadian agricultural products.

  • AgriDiversity, a CAD 5 million (USD 3.6 million) programme which aims to increase the capacity of youth, women, Indigenous Peoples, persons with disabilities and other underrepresented and marginalised groups to overcome barriers and actively participate in the agricultural sector. It supports skills, leadership, and entrepreneurial development; and facilitates knowledge sharing and best management practices.

The FPT cost-shared strategic initiatives are funded 60% by the federal government and 40% by the provincial/territorial governments, and provide CAD 2.5 billion (USD 1.8 billion) under the Sustainable CAP 2023-28 for activities that focus on the following five priority areas:

• Climate change and environment to help the sector develop and adopt clean technologies that address agri-environmental issues; adopt priority beneficial management practices; develop and implement targeted climate change and environmental strategies; and carry out risk assessments.

• Science, research and innovation to support basic and applied research aligned with the provincial and territorial needs of the sector, knowledge and technology transfer activities, and other research activities related to climate change adaptation and GHG emissions reduction.

• Market development and trade to help the sector prepare for, and respond to, new and emerging market opportunities domestically and abroad as well as to recognise the quality and sustainability of the sector and improve the visibility and competitiveness of Canadian products domestically and in international markets.

• Building sector capacity, growth and competitiveness to help producers and processors enhance production efficiency and profitability through the acquisition of tools and skills and the adoption of improved products, practices and processes that add value and credibility, as well as to support industry-led initiatives that address labour shortages, including support for labour attraction and retention, and labour-saving technologies such as automation.

• Resiliency and public trust to develop and implement strategies that allow to effectively plan, prevent and mitigate production risks and potential supply chain disruptions, as well as to support the development, implementation and continuous improvement of pan-Canadian food safety, biosecurity and traceability systems at the farm and post-farm levels.

Most farm-level environmental programmes are designed and administered by provincial and territorial governments. More recently, a new FPT cost-shared strategic initiative worth CAD 250 million (USD 182 million), the Resilient Agricultural Landscape Program, seeks to support ecological goods and services provided by the agricultural sector, through per-acre payments to farmers and land agreements. Provinces and territories design and deliver the programme based on their local conditions and regional needs, alongside other initiatives aimed at fostering farming practices that leverage the abilities of farmland to address climate change. The programme supports the on-farm adoption of beneficial management practices, which vary by region and may include grassland and habitat management, cropland management, agri-food processing, demonstration tools, manure and confined livestock management, energy use and efficiency, pest management, product storage, and water use and efficiency.

Additionally, climate policies have come to complement agricultural policies in fostering the sector’s contribution to achieving the country’s ambitious climate goals. In its 2021 updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to the Paris Agreement, Canada committed to reducing national net GHG emissions 40-45% below 2005 levels by 2030, to achieving net-zero emissions by 2050 and to reaching a national fertiliser emissions reduction target of 30% below 2020 levels by 2030 (Government of Canada, 2021[2]). Canada also signed the Global Methane Pledge and explicitly committed to reducing its economy-wide methane emissions by 2030. However, agricultural emissions remain largely excluded from Canada’s emissions reduction tool of pricing carbon pollution.

Building on the Pan-Canadian Framework (PCF) on Clean Growth and Climate Change established in 2016, the government of Canada created in 2020 its A Healthy Environment and a Healthy Economy plan (Environment and Climate Change Canada, 2020[3]), which contains agriculture-specific actions including:

• The Agricultural Clean Technology (ACT) initiative supports farmers and agro-food businesses in developing and adopting clean technologies via two funding streams. The Research and Innovation Stream (2021 to 2028) helps develop and disseminate clean technologies in three areas (green energy and energy efficiency, precision agriculture and bioeconomy). Non-repayable contributions of up to 50% of the costs of research, development and demonstration projects are provided, as are repayable contributions where activities involve commercialisation and scale-up. The Adoption Stream (2021 to 2026) helps farmers purchase and install commercially available clean technologies and processes, primarily those reducing GHG emissions and generating other environmental co-benefits.

• The Agricultural Climate Solutions (ACS) initiative helps develop and implement farming practices to tackle climate change, a multi-stream programme under the Natural Climate Solution Fund. The Living Labs Stream supports research that aims to co-develop, test and monitor beneficial management practices on farms that sequester carbon and mitigate GHG emissions, through regional collaboration hubs that bring together farmers, scientists, and other sector partners. The On-Farm Climate Action Fund (2021-2024) helps farmers adopt climate-friendly practices, including nitrogen management, cover cropping and rotational grazing, providing a combination of training, technical support and financial incentives.

In addition to these programmes, strategic public investments are undertaken in research and development (R&D) to align the sector with the new reality and address emerging challenges. The Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Strategic Plan for Science released in 2022 outlines the vision for the future of R&D. This approach entails a paradigm shift towards sustainable agriculture and has the potential to enable needed cross-sectoral collaboration, although implementation is still underway, and results unclear yet. The strategy is based on four main missions: i) mitigating and adapting to climate change; ii) increasing the resilience of agro-ecosystems; iii) advancing the circular economy by developing value added opportunities; and iv) accelerating the digital transformation of agriculture and agri-food.

Two R&D initiatives launched in 2023 currently support public action on agriculture R&D:

• the Sustainable Agriculture Research Initiative (SARI) supports research to initiate or accelerate the development of transformative solutions that will be required for a sustainable, resilient and profitable agriculture and agri-food sector in a net-zero economy. This initiative provides a budget of CAD 87.5 million (USD 64 million) over four years to multidisciplinary, collaborative networks of researchers, mobilising expertise, technologies, and research in the social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering, and in areas that broaden the traditional network of agriculture research partners.

• the Research Network on Sustainable Agriculture in a Net-Zero Economy supports knowledge mobilisation and partnership research on the social and socio-economic impacts of policy actions in agriculture, on the behavioural and societal influences on agricultural practices, and on the approaches to scale up adoption of practices that support Canada’s environment and climate goals.

Canada also increasingly supports Artificial Intelligence (AI) investments relevant for agriculture. Among a broader plan of CAD 2.4 billion (USD 1.8 billion) announced in 2024 for a five-year period, the country plans to invest CAD 200 million (USD 146 million) in AI start-ups to bring new technologies and accelerate AI adopting in critical sectors, including agriculture. In addition, a budget of CAD 100 million (USD 73 million), within the National Research Council’s AI Assist Program aims to help Canadian small- and medium-sized businesses and innovators develop and deploy new AI solutions to increase productivity across the country.

Policies for trade and sustainability in agro-food markets

Since Canada is a net exporter of agri-food products, domestic programmes within the Sustainable CAP promoting sustainability of agricultural production contribute to lowering the environmental footprint of internationally traded agri-food products. The Agri-Marketing Program, which aims to facilitate the introduction of Canadian products in both domestic and international markets by improving firms’ competitive advantage, also plays an additional role in that regard. National industry associations funded by this programme are indeed required to undertake quantitative and qualitative assessment of their activities through mandatory annual performance reports. These reports can also include voluntary accounting for the reduction in the GHG emissions of their AgriMarketing project activities, an area in which companies are encouraged to take action.1

In addition, Canada encourages the use of life cycle analysis (LCA) tools to monitor the GHG emission footprint of Canadian products. Agriculture and Agri-food Canada maintains in particular the Holos model, a software application that can be used to estimate GHG emissions and changes in soil carbon in Canadian farming systems. The model includes 36 commonly grown annual and perennial crops, 8 types of tree planting and all main livestock system operations and provides regionally applicable default values for these estimates. It is made available to farmers, industry and researchers who want to test, validate or provide sustainability attributes to agricultural production systems in Canada.

In the context of the Clean Fuel Regulation, the ministry of environment (Environment and Climate Change Canada) also maintains the Fuel LCA model that helps calculate the life cycle carbon intensity of fuels and energy sources used or produced in Canada. This second model is used to support the delivery of regulations and programmes related to Canada’s actions to mitigate fossil fuel emissions. In addition to the evaluation of their LCA performance, feedstocks used as biofuel in Canada also need to satisfy some sustainability criteria related to land use and biodiversity, which should be demonstrated through third party certification, a national control system, or the recognition of equivalent jurisdictional laws and regulations.

Since 2001, the Canadian Government undertakes environmental impact assessment of its prospective trade agreements against its environmental sustainability priorities as set out in its Federal Sustainable Development Strategy. This assessment includes a quantitative and qualitative evaluation of the projected market changes associated with the agreement, a review of the trade agreement provisions that can pose sustainability risks, and existing domestic legislation that can mitigate these risks. The assessment can be used to prepare the Trade and Environment chapter of the trade agreements and support the development of additional provisions.

The US-Mexico-Canada (USMCA) free trade agreement signed in 2020 sets up a Commission for Environmental Cooperation with the objective to foster environmental dialogue between countries, as well as cooperative activities. The Comprehensive Economic Trade Agreement (CETA) between Canada and the European Union, signed in 2016, created a special committee on Trade and Sustainable Development to monitor the implementation of the trade and environment chapter, which gave significant attention to the enforcement of responsible business conduct (RBC) provisions. A platform of exchange between governments was set up in the context of the CETA Agriculture Dialogue to discuss best ways to promote sustainability, environmental stewardship and climate action in agriculture.

Recent policy developments

Domestic policy developments in 2024-25

Risk management

In 2024, a temporary change was made to the Advance Payment Programs (APP) to facilitate farmers’ access to credit in response to high input costs and interest rates. This allowed larger portion of advances to be interest-free (i.e. the interest is paid by the government of Canada) under the APP, with an interest-free allowance of CAD 250 000 (USD 182 000) for 2024, instead of CAD 100 000 (USD 73 000) as initially designed.2 While this temporary increase to the interest-free portions was set to end in 2025, the regulations were amended to extend the CAD 250 000 (USD 182 000) interest-free portion for 2025. The programme is also in the process of being reviewed to identify longer term improvements.

Conditions of access of farmers to the AgriStability Program were also simplified in 2024. Producers were allowed to file their requests for payments under this programme using reference margins aligned with a producer’s tax filing method. This new approach is expected to increase participation rate of producers through simplified, more transparent, and predictable methods of support.

In June 2024, a new risk management tool for beef producers, the Maritime Livestock Price Insurance Pilot Program, was introduced through a collaborative investment between the federal and provincial governments. The two-year regional programme is meant to complement existing business risk management programmes available to the livestock industry. It aims to help producers in the Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick provinces to purchase price protection on beef calf and feeder cattle in the form of an insurance policy. The system is funded by purchasers, who pay 100% of the premiums, while both federal and provincial governments cover the investments to administer the pilot programme for producers. In addition, the government of New Brunswick also developed new tools for climate risk management for maple farmers, who are now allowed to join the AgriInsurance programme.

In January 2025, the Ontario Government increased the annual funding limit for its Risk Management Program (RMP) from CAD 150 million (USD 109 million) to CAD 250 million (USD 182 million) to enhance support for participating farmers. The CAD 100 million increase will be phased in over a three-year period, starting with a CAD 30 million increase for the 2025 programme year, leading to an annual total of CAD 250 million by the 2027 programme year. Producer premiums will remain at 35% of government funding, and the current phase-in of this will continue.

Climate change and the environment

The Accelerator was launched in 2024 as a pilot initiative under the Agricultural Clean Technology Program: Research and Innovation Stream. The initiative, with a budget of CAD 28 million (USD 20 million) over three years, aims to foster technology development across various stages of pre-market readiness, emphasising early-stage innovation and late-stage technology demonstration. The development of a variety of technologies is to be targeted, including technologies that reduce methane emissions, low carbon energy or fuel systems, emissions quantification tools, technologies that lower emissions from fertiliser use, and those that provide other environmental benefits.

In January 2025, the On-Farm Climate Action Fund (OFCAF) was expanded with an additional CAD 300 million (USD 219 million) provided to 13 recipient organisations to continue to help farmers to enhance climate resilience over the next three years, and to adopt improved management practices.

Since 1 January 2025, eligibility conditions to receive support through the AgriInvest programme were more closely tied to environmental management. Farms with average Allowable Net Sales (ANS) larger than CAD 1 million (USD 730 000) over the previous three years will now need to hold a valid Agri-Environmental Risk Assessment in order to receive matching government contributions. The risk assessments should identify agri-environmental risks from farming operations and include sustainability tools supporting deployment of mitigating measures by producers.

In June 2024, the government of Canada released its 2030 Nature Strategy, outlining a path for Canadian governments, citizens and productive sectors in alignment with the 23 global targets of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF), aimed to halt and begin to reverse biodiversity loss by 2030. The KMGBF targets, as well as the related federal implementation plans within the Nature Strategy, include direct links to the agriculture and agri-food sector, with objectives focusing in particular on pollution risks from excess nutrients and pesticides (target 7), sustainable management of all areas under agriculture, aquaculture, fisheries and forestry (target 10), and reducing incentives and subsidies harmful to biodiversity (target 18). The Nature Strategy is supported mostly by initiatives already in place that support the sector’s contribution to the KMGBF’s targets.

At provincial level, the government of British Columbia invested in 2024 an additional CAD 80 million (USD 58 million) in funding through the Agricultural Water Infrastructure Program to make irrigation more efficient and build infrastructure to improve water availability and storage. The investments are aimed to help agricultural communities to adapt to climate change effects, notably in case of droughts, through new and improved water storage and water-supply infrastructure. The province also budgeted CAD 70 million (USD 51 million) over five years to promote the adoption of climate-resilient, high-value fruit varieties by the fruit and wine industries. The programme supports producers in replacing damaged, diseased and low-producing vines, plants and trees with climate-resilient varieties that produce premium fruit matching market demand.

Through the Sustainable CAP, the Ontario Agricultural Sustainability Initiative received an extra CAD 9 million (USD 6.6 million) for the adoption of new technologies and best farm management practices to support soil health, water quality, and energy efficiency, and CAD 3.5 million (USD 2.6 million) for investment in applied research, pilot and demonstration, and knowledge translation and transfer. In the Prince Edward Island province, CAD 1.3 million (USD 0.9 million) over four years were also invested in the Agriculture Resiliency Program supporting adaptation to climate change, infrastructure development for preparedness to extreme events, and producer wellness. On the climate mitigation side, the province launched in February 2024 its Agriculture Energy Systems Pilot Program with over CAD 1 million (USD 0.7 million) over three years dedicated to on-farm investments in energy efficiency, renewable energy generation, GHG emissions reduction, and resilience against high energy costs.

Sectoral support

In November 2024, a Canadian Industrial Hemp Promotion-Research Agency (PRA) was established, to promote the production and marketing of industrial hemp products for the purposes of interprovincial and export trade and to conduct promotion and research activities for industrial hemp products. Funded through levies, the Agency aims to help industrial hemp producers expand their markets and increase sales, while providing consumers with better access to information on industrial hemp products.

In March 2024, an extension was granted to the Wine Sector Support Program. This programme, launched in 2022 for a period of two years, provides grants to licensed Canadian wineries, based on their production of the previous year, to help them adapt to challenges impacting their financial resilience and competitiveness, with a budget initially set to up to CAD 166 million (USD 121 million). The budget was extended in 2024 with up to an additional CAD 177 million (USD 129 million) over a three-year period (2024-25 to 2026-27).

At provincial level, the government of Ontario launched several federally co-funded programmes: a Dairy Processing Modernization Initiative with a budget of CAD 8 million (USD 5.8 million) to create or increase processing efficiencies and enhance food safety in the province’s dairy processing, and a Food Safety and Growth Initiative with a budget of CAD 5 million (USD 3.6 million) to help food processors, producers and service providers to adopt new food safety and traceability equipment, technologies and standards and provide training to employees. The Grow Ontario Market Initiative from 2023 was also extended with an extra CAD 6 million (USD 4.8 million, similar to the previous year’s budget) to help agri-food businesses and industries expand their markets.

Food systems

In April 2024, the government of Canada launched its National School Food Program (NSFP), allocating CAD 1 billion (USD 730 million) over five years, to extend meal provision from preexisting programmes to up to 400 000 more children every year and save participating families with two children in school an estimated CAD 800 (USD 580) per year on groceries. Bilateral NSFP agreements have been signed with all 13 provinces and territories to expand and enhance school food programmes in alignment with the principles and objectives of the National School Food Policy while respecting provincial and territorial jurisdiction. The Canadian Government also released in June 2024 a National School Food Policy describing the long-term vision for school food programmes across the country, as well as the guiding principles and objectives accompanying this vision. The policy aims to provide to all children in the country access to nutritious school meals and help them learn and follow Canada’s nutrition guidelines.

In September 2024, the government of Canada also committed CAD 62.9 million (USD 46 million) over three years, to renew and expand the Local Food Infrastructure Fund. The renewed Fund will support projects that strengthen community food security and increase the availability and accessibility of local, nutritious, and culturally appropriate food through food production-focused activities for specific population groups, particularly Indigenous and Black communities. From this fund, CAD 20.2 million (USD 14.7 million) is allocated to the School Food Infrastructure Fund, which targets not-for-profit organisations investing in infrastructure and equipment to support school food programmes across Canada.

As part of its policy to strengthen and diversify economic activity in the north of Canada, the Northern Isolated Community Initiatives Fund received in 2024 a new budget of CAD 14.9 million (USD 10.9 million) for three years to support food security, local and indigenous food production systems and innovative food businesses in all the northern territories of Inuit Nunangat. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) also received CAD 25.1 million (USD 18.3 million) for 2024-25 to expand the Canadian Shellfish Sanitation Program to assist Indigenous communities by increasing the number of safe shellfish harvest sites available for food, social, and ceremonial purposes.

In Spring 2024, the Food Waste Reduction Challenge rewarded for a total prize of CAD 5 million (USD 3.6 million) four winners for demonstrating how to grow and scale up leading-edge food waste reduction solutions, notably by extending the shelf life of food or creating new products from food or by-products that would otherwise go to waste. The Challenge, launched in 2020 with an investment of CAD 20 million (USD 14.6 million), attracted nearly 600 applications with novel business models and technologies, such as artificial intelligence, mobile applications, upcycling to new foods or high value products, and new packaging and food treatment technologies to extend the shelf life of food.

At provincial level, Quebec announced in March 2024 a new version of its Programme de transformation alimentaire, with a budget of CAD 40 million (USD 29 million), to improve the productivity, competitiveness and environmental performance of the food processing sector.

In November 2024, British Columbia also announced its new Indigenous Food Pathways Program, which provides through the Sustainable CAP strategic capacity-building funding to create new projects, enhance existing programmes, or improve group operations for Indigenous-led food systems and food security initiatives that act as disruptors to known systemic barriers. The projects aim to support Indigenous Peoples’ self-determination over their food systems, and their participation in the food and agriculture sectors.

Labour policy

The Temporary Foreign Worker (TFW) Program was amended several times in the course of 2024 to ensure it remains responsive to labour market needs while also protecting workers from fraud and abuse. While the number of Temporary Foreign Workers in Canada has been limited and access to the TFW Program has been tightened in 2024, the agriculture and agri-food sector has been exempted from most of the measures due to its importance to the economy and its persistent vacancy rates, especially for seasonal positions. Notably, while the Government announced that Canada’s 2025 to 2027 Immigration Levels Plan would reduce Permanent Resident (PR) immigration targets and introduce Temporary Resident (TR) targets, seasonal TRs such as those coming to Canada through the Seasonal Agricultural Worker Program (SAWP) are not planned to be counted in those targets.

At provincial level, Ontario funded in 2024 several labour-related initiatives for a total budget of CAD 7 million (USD 5.1 million): the Labour Force Management Strategies Initiative to attract and retain agri-food workers, the Agricultural Workforce Equity and Diversity Initiative to help minority groups start and build businesses in the agri-food sector, and the International Agri-Food Workers (IAW) Welcoming Communities Initiative to create a more welcoming environment for international agri-food workers through various services (translation services, transportation services, cultural and recreational activities).

Animal health and biosecurity

In 2024, the government of Canada published modernised Feeds Regulations replacing the 1983 version. The 2024 regulations include a range of new, and updated requirements to improve the safety of livestock feed and the food production continuum, to reflect international best practices, and to support innovation within the animal feed sector. The updated regulations introduce a more transparent process for the approval and registration of feed ingredients and feed products, aligning more closely with the oversight systems of major trading partners such as the European Union and the United States. Some regulatory requirements took effect upon registration, while others come into force after 12 months (e.g. preventative controls), and 18 months (e.g. licencing requirements) to allow stakeholders time to adjust to the new regulatory requirements.

Following the severe outbreak of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza in Canada in 2024, the Compensation for Destroyed Animals and Things Regulations were amended in December 2024. The changes make it easier to qualify for compensation and provide better coverage for labour costs related to the destruction of animals or things due to disease risks, as well as expenses for disposing of animal food, non-commercial freezers and refrigerators, cages, crates and nest boxes, as well as feed troughs.

In parallel, the CFIA received for 2024-25 a funding of CAD 27.9 million (USD 20.4 million) to support early detection, active prevention and rapid response measures to protect human and animal health from the highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1. The CFIA also received CAD 49 million (USD 35.6 million) over two years to continue surveillance and research, inspection and enforcement, risk assessment and risk management activities as well as import and export control activities to monitor and manage risks related to BSE and other closely related transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSEs). To help contain, control, and prevent the spread of potato wart in Prince Edward Island, the CFIA received in 2024 an allocation of CAD 12 million (USD 8.8 million) for a period of two years.

Trade policy developments in 2024-25

In December 2024, Canada and Indonesia announced the conclusion of negotiations for a Canada-Indonesia Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) and committed to sign this trade agreement in 2025. The CEPA is expected to boost bilateral trade, including for agricultural goods, through the elimination of tariffs and reduction of non-tariff barriers, as well as enhanced partnerships and cooperation between the two countries.

In February 2025, Canada also concluded negotiations for a Canada-Ecuador Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA). This agreement with Ecuador is expected to benefit Canada’s agriculture and agri-food sector, with the elimination of tariffs on a large number of agricultural products, and strong Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) and Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) provisions.

Policy context

Key economic and agricultural statistics

Canada is a large, wealthy country with a small population relative to its land area and has relatively abundant land and water available to the agricultural sector. Primary agriculture accounts for 1.7% of GDP and 1.5% of employment but contributes to a larger share of economic output in some of the country’s regions (Table 7.2). Crop production, concentrated in the western prairies – where the typical farm is twice as large as the national average – is highly productive and largely oriented to export. Most milk production is located in eastern Canada, which has relatively smaller farms and a larger variety of crops. Red meat industries are present across Canada, with beef cattle production being especially prominent in western Canada, and hog production concentrated in Quebec, Ontario and Manitoba.

Table 7.2. Canada: Contextual indicators

	Canada		International comparison
	2000*	2023*	2000*	2023*
Economic context			Share in total of all countries
GDP (billion USD in PPPs)	901	2 580	2.2%	1.7%
Population (million)	31	40	0.7%	0.8%
Land area (thousand km2)	8 966	8 789	11.0%	10.7%
Agricultural area (AA) (thousand ha)	61 287	57 077	2.0%	2.0%
			All countries1
Population density (inhabitants/km2)	3	4	52	64
GDP per capita (USD in PPPs)	29 362	64 333	9 368	29 013
Trade as % of GDP	33.2	24.8	12.3	14.9
Agriculture in the economy			All countries1
Agriculture in GDP (%)	2.3	1.7	2.9	3.5
Agriculture share in employment (%)	3.3	1.5	-	-
Agro-food exports (% of total exports)	6.0	12.9	6.4	8.1
Agro-food imports (% of total imports)	5.0	8.6	5.8	7.3
Characteristics of the agricultural sector			All countries1
Crop in total agricultural production (%)	43.0	59.7	-	-
Livestock in total agricultural production (%)	57.0	40.3	-	-
Share of arable land in AA (%)	66.9	67.2	31.8	33.3

Note: *or closest available year.

1. Average of all countries covered in this report.

Sources: OECD statistical databases; International Labour Organisation (ILO); UN Comtrade; World Bank, WDI; FAO database and national data.

For the first two decades of the century, with the exception of 2009 with the financial crisis, Canada enjoyed a stable macroeconomic environment characterised by relatively low inflation rates, fluctuating around its 2% target, and positive economic growth. However, the economy has been heavily affected by the COVID-19 pandemic and related restrictions, which caused a recession in 2020. After a significant recovery in 2021, Canada’s GDP growth declined, falling below pre-pandemic growth rates with 1.5% in 2023-24. Besides, the unemployment rate, which had declined from its 2020 peak in 2021, stabilised at 5.9% in 2024. Inflation, which had been rising since 2021, fell to 2.4% in 2024 (Figure 7.4).

Canada’s economy is well integrated in international markets – as measured by the ratio of trade to GDP at 25% in 2023 (Table 7.2). Agro-food products represent 12.9% of total Canadian exports and 8.6% of imports. Canada is a large net exporter of agro-food products, with nearly USD 20 billion of trade surplus, and access to export markets is highly important for the sector. More than half of Canada’s agro-food exports are destinated to the United States. Most of Canada’s agro-food exports are either processed products intended for direct consumption (37%), or primary products for processing (33%). Canadian households’ final consumption absorbs 71% of agriculture and food imports, of which more than two-thirds are processed goods (Figure 7.5).

At 1.1%, Canada’s agricultural annual output growth over the decade 2013-22 was below the global average of 1.8%. It was driven by the further intensification in the use of intermediate inputs (+1.5%), combined with the growth in Canada’s agricultural productivity (+0.3%), as measured by total factor productivity (TFP), which were sufficient to more than offset the impact of reduced primary factor input use (-0.7%), including labour, land, livestock and machinery, on agricultural output (Figure 7.6).

The agricultural output growth over the past decade has been achieved without a clear relationship being established with the level of pressure exerted on natural resources, as shown by various environmental indicators (Table 7.3). Average nutrient surplus intensity has been increasing by 23% since 2000 for nitrogen and decreasing by 9% for phosphorous. While agriculture’s share of total energy use (3.8%) has been rising since 2000 and is well above the OECD average (2.0%), its share of GHG emissions (8.1%), although increasing, remains below the OECD average (10.1%). The pressure on water resources is also very low, ten times lower than the OECD average.

Table 7.3. Canada: Productivity and environmental indicators

	Canada		International comparison
	1991-2000	2013-2022	1991-2000	2013-2022
			World
TFP annual growth rate (%)	2.4%	0.3%	1.7%	0.8%
			OECD average
Environmental indicators	2000*	2023*	2000*	2023*
Nitrogen balance, kg/ha	23.8	29.2	32.0	29.7
Phosphorus balance, kg/ha	1.5	1.4	3.3	2.5
Agriculture share of total energy use (%)	2.3	3.8	1.7	2.0
Agriculture share of GHG emissions (%)	7.1	8.1	8.7	10.1
Share of irrigated land in AA (%)	1.2	1.3	-	-
Share of agriculture in water abstractions (%)	9.7	8.6	47.0	49.5
Water stress indicator	..	0.9	8.7	..

Note: * or closest available year.

Sources: USDA Economic Research Service, Agricultural Productivity database; OECD statistical databases; FAO database and national data.

Historical trends in agricultural policies

Prior to the mid-1980s, Canada heavily supported the agricultural sector through measures such as import tariffs, export and production subsidies, and price and production controls. The dominant features of agricultural policy were supply management measures in the dairy and poultry sectors, collective marketing in grains and oilseeds (notably by the Canadian Wheat Board, or CWB), and income stabilisation programmes (Barichello, 1995[4]). Support varied between eastern and western provinces, partly due to Canada’s decentralised political system, and the independence of provincial governments in policies such as marketing legislation (Anderson, 2009[5]).

In the mid-1980s, Canada began agricultural policy reform, particularly in the grain sector. In 1990, the Western Grains Stabilization Program, which was intended to stabilise net margins for major grains and oilseeds from western Canada, was terminated (Anderson, 2009[5]). This was replaced by the National Tripartite Stabilization Program (NTSP), which established federal-provincial cost-sharing of programmes (Antón, Kimura and Martini, 2011[6]). The Farm Income Protection Act of 1991 changed Canada’s approach to supporting producers by moving from commodity-specific policies towards programmes supporting farm incomes. The Act established two safety-net programmes: (1) the Gross Revenue Insurance Plan (GRIP, 1991-1996/2002) to protect against reductions in revenues and yields; and (2) the Net Income Stabilization Account (NISA, 1991-2009) to subsidise savings accounts for individual producers (Anderson, 2009[5]; Klein and Storey, 1998[7]). Furthermore, compliance with the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and free trade agreements of the early 1990s (NAFTA) accelerated the reform process, eliminating most commodity-based policies (e.g. NTSP) except those targeting supply-managed commodities (Antón, Kimura and Martini, 2011[6]). In 1995, transport subsidies to grains (the Western Grain Transport Assistance and the Feed Freight Assistance) were abolished (Anderson, 2009[5]), ending the period of high market price support3 to these commodities (Figure 7.7).

The Agricultural Income Disaster Assistance (AIDA) programme introduced in 1998 was the first to comply with criteria for income insurance and safety-net programmes under the World Trade Organization Agreement on Agriculture. AIDA was established to serve as a core income stabilisation policy, reducing the need for ad hoc programmes. The “disaster” component was integrated into subsequent programmes: the Canadian Farm Income Program (CFIP, 2001-03); the Canadian Agricultural Income Stabilization (CAIS, 2004-08); and AgriStability (Anderson, 2009[5]; Statistics Canada, 2021[8]; Antón, Kimura and Martini, 2011[6]).

Since 2003, agricultural policy objectives and approaches are set out in longer-term agricultural policy frameworks developed through co-operation by federal, provincial and territorial governments. The first framework covered five areas: (1) business risk management, (2) food safety and quality, (3) environment, (4) science and innovation, and (5) renewal (skills and training) (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 2005[9]). Initially, the federal government delivered programmes directly. This evolved with the Growing Forward framework (2008-13) which transferred programme implementation to the provinces and territories, allowing for more flexibility and better adaptability to local needs (OECD, 2015[10]). During this time, the AgriStability and AgriInvest programmes replaced CAIS and NISA, respectively, continuing to provide farmers with income stabilisation products and subsidised saving accounts. The Growing Forward 2 framework (2013-18) strengthened the role of these programmes and incorporated additional initiatives, such as AgriInsurance (previously referred to as the Crop Insurance) and the AgriRecovery disaster framework (Anderson, 2009[5]; Statistics Canada, 2021[8]; Antón, Kimura and Martini, 2011[6]). Risk-management programmes have continued to evolve under the Canadian Agricultural Partnership (2018-23) and the Sustainable Canadian Agriculture Partnership (2023-28) (see previous sections).

Table 7.4. Canada: Agricultural policy trends

Period	Framework	Changes in agricultural policies
Prior to 1985	Import barriers for competing imported products and support for traded products Domestic market control	Agricultural tariffs for competing imported products Import quotas/tariff-rate quotas Export subsidies for agricultural products Transportation subsidies for agricultural products Supply management for dairy and poultry products Grains policy featured by a one-desk selling marketing board and significant transportation subsidy Price controls for agricultural products using marketing boards such as the collective marketing of wheat and barley (CWB)
1985-2000	Gradual reforms and trade liberalisation Increasing emphasis on income and revenue support	Reduction of agricultural tariffs and quotas Diminishing reliance on marketing boards, supply management, price controls GATT, free trade agreements Dismantling of Western Grains Stabilization Program Termination of Western Grains Transportation Assistance and Feed Freight Assistance Gradual dismantling of payments coupled to production Introduction of “whole farm” income stabilisation programmes Introduction of insurance subsidies
2000-2020	Income stabilisation emphasis implemented through federal, provincial and territorial (FPT) co-operation	Continued supply management of the dairy, poultry and eggs sectors: price-setting mechanisms, production quotas and tariffs Privatisation of the CWB Agricultural policy frameworks developed through the cooperation of FPT governments Subsidies for farm income stabilisation Subsidies for farm savings Insurance subsidies Disaster relief framework
2020-present	Climate ambition and emphasis on sustainability	Fertiliser emissions reduction target of 30% below 2020 levels by 2030 Support to agricultural clean technologies and climate solutions Sustainable Canadian Agriculture Partnership (2023-2028)

Support to agricultural producers in Canada decreased over the last three decades, with government support declining from over 35% of farmers’ revenues in the mid-1980s to around 8-11% in recent years (Figure 7.7). This resulted from the discontinuation of market price support to grains and oilseeds in the mid-1990s, and the reduction or phase-out of several programmes offering payments based on output (e.g. support to dairy farmers under the Agriculture Stabilization Act) and input use (e.g. Federal Fuel Tax Rebates) between the late 1980s and the early 2000s. Market price support for supply-managed commodities, particularly in the dairy sector, accounted for the largest share of transfers to producers up to 2020. Payments based on current production, including multiple risk-management programmes (e.g. AgriInsurance), were the second largest contributor. Over the past four years, this trend has been reversed. In 2021, the share of payments based on current production was particularly high due to a larger budget devoted to cope with the impacts of adverse weather conditions. Since 2022, the share of market price support was lower than previously observed due to high reference prices for certain supply-managed commodities, particularly egg prices – and to some extent poultry meat prices – in the United States, as a result of avian flu. Other categories of payments play a relatively minor role in Canadian farm revenues.

References

[9] Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (2005), Agricultural Policy Framework: Federal–Provincial–Territorial Programs, http://publications.gc.ca/pub?id=9.687269&sl=1.

[5] Anderson, K. (2009), Distortions to Agricultural Incentives: A Global Perspective, 1955-2007, World Bank and Palgrave Macmillan, Washington, DC, https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/9436.

[6] Antón, J., S. Kimura and R. Martini (2011), “Risk Management in Agriculture in Canada”, OECD Food, Agriculture and Fisheries Papers, No. 40, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5kgj0d6189wg-en.

[4] Barichello, R. (1995), “Overview Of Canadian Agricultural Policy Systems”, Proceedings of the 1st Agricultural and Food Policy Systems Information Workshop, 1995: Understanding Canada\United States Grain Disputes, https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.16747.

[11] Doan, D., B. Paddock and J. Dyer (2003), Grain Transportation Policy and Transformation in Western Canadian Agriculture, Agriculture and Agri-food Canada, Wye, https://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/15748/files/cp03do01.pdf.

[3] Environment and Climate Change Canada (2020), A Healthy Environment And A Healthy Economy: Canada’s strengthened climate plan to create jobs and support people, communities and the planet, https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/eccc/documents/pdf/climate-change/climate-plan/healthy_environment_healthy_economy_plan.pdf.

[2] Government of Canada (2021), Canada’s 2021 Nationally Determined Contribution under the Paris Agreement, https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/NDC/2022-06/Canada%27s%20Enhanced%20NDC%20Submission1_FINAL%20EN.pdf (accessed on 16 March 2023).

[7] Klein, K. and G. Storey (1998), “Structural Developments In The Canadian Grains And Oilseeds Sector”, Proceedings of the 4th Agricultural and Food Policy Systems Information Workshop 1998: Economic Harmonization in the CanadianU.S.Mexican Grain-Livestock Subsector, https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.16758.

[10] OECD (2015), Innovation, Agricultural Productivity and Sustainability in Canada, OECD Food and Agricultural Reviews, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264238541-en.

[8] Statistics Canada (2021), Data quality, concepts and methodology: Explanatory notes on direct program payments to agriculture producers, https://www.statcan.gc.ca/eng/statistical-programs/document/5229_D1_V4 (accessed on 15 January 2021).

[1] World Trade Organization (2024), World Tariff Profiles 2024, WTO, https://doi.org/10.30875/9789287076519.

Notes

← 1.  Industries are notably encouraged to purchase carbon offset credits to reduce the carbon footprint from domestic and international travel related to export promotion and market development activities. In addition, all recipients are encouraged to consider options for digital and virtual engagement to offset the need for excessive or recurrent travel abroad. Since the COVID-19 pandemic, recipients have adapted their marketing materials to adopt new digital formats thereby reducing unnecessary waste from high-volume printing, shipping and recycling of promotional brochures, exhibit displays and advertising campaign signage.

← 2.  Previous years had also been amended with interest-free portions of CAD 250 000 (USD 182 000) in 2022 and CAD 350 000 (USD 255 000) in 2023.

← 3.  Market price support to grains and oilseeds, which existed until the mid-1990s, resulted from the assistance provided to grain transportation which lower shipping costs for producers and consequently raised farm-gate grain prices. In 1989-90, the transportation subsidies covered about 70% of total freight costs with producers paying the remaining (Doan, Paddock and Dyer, 2003[11]).