Most children aged 3 to 5 (85%) attend early childhood education (ECE) programmes across the OECD, yet only 29% of those aged 0 to 2 are enrolled in ECE programmes on average.
Participation in ECE has grown over the past decade, with enrolment in ECE programmes increasing by 9 percentage points to 29% among children under 3, and enrolment in ECE programmes for children aged 3 and above rising by 5 percentage points to 85% on average across OECD countries.
Between 2013 and 2023, many countries experienced plateauing or declining numbers of children under 5, and population projections from 2023 to 2033 suggest the number of young children in most OECD countries will continue to decline.
Education at a Glance 2025
OECD Indicators
Context
Education in the early years has a crucial role in children’s development and well-being. An expanding body of scientific research indicates that early childhood education and care (ECEC) substantially improves children’s language, cognitive, social and emotional skills while fostering the self-regulation and confidence they need for a smooth transition into primary school in the short term, particularly for children from low socio-economic backgrounds (Yoshikawa, Weiland and Brooks-Gunn, 2016[1]; Shuey and Kankaraš, 2018[2]; OECD, 2020[3]; OECD, 2021[4]). Furthermore, the progress that children make in their first years can have a lasting impact on their educational attainment, academic performance, well-being and earnings in later life (García et al., 2020[5]; Heckman and Karapakula, 2019[6]).
ECEC services are diverse across countries, reflecting a variety of organisational structures, funding mechanisms and governance models. Provision can occur both inside and outside the formal boundaries of ISCED classifications, depending on national systems. In some countries, ECEC programmes are classified within ISCED 0, while in others, services such as childcare centres or family day care, particularly for children under the age of 3, are not considered part of the education system. The scope and quality assurance mechanisms governing these diverse services can differ significantly, influencing access, enrolment and outcomes (OECD, 2017[7]).
While enrolment rates in ECEC have increased substantially over the past decade in many OECD and partner countries, differences remain, particularly for children under the age of 3. Participation also varies by socio-economic background, with children from disadvantaged families - who stand to benefit the most from participating in early childhood education - being the least likely to attend (OECD, 2025[8]; OECD, 2024[9]). These gaps are often influenced by factors such as availability, affordability, cultural preferences and policy priorities.
Demographic trends among young children also present important challenges for the ECEC sector. In many OECD countries, the declining birth rate has led to a shrinking population of young children, affecting demand for ECEC services (OECD, 2024[10]). While reduced child populations may ease pressures on resources in some contexts, they can also pose financial sustainability challenges for providers and reduce economies of scale. At the same time, demographic change offers opportunities to improve the quality of services by allowing for smaller group sizes and more individualised attention if resources are effectively reallocated.
Note: Some countries have other registered ECEC services that are considered to be an integral part of their ECEC provision but do not comply with all the ISCED11 level 0 criteria to qualify as educational programmes. Panel A shows the countries which either have enrolment data for these other registered ECEC services or where such programmes do not exist. Panel B shows countries where such programmes exist but they only have enrolment data for ISCED 0 programmes.
1. There are no ECEC services that fall outside ISCED classification.
2. Year of reference differs from 2023.
3. Early childhood education excludes early childhood educational development programmes (ISCED 01).
For data, see Table B1.2. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section. .
Other findings
In 24 OECD and partner countries, there are different programmes for children aged 0 to 2 and those aged 3 to 5, while 16 countries have integrated systems providing a single ECEC framework from birth or age 1 to the start of primary education.
Enrolment rates for children aged 0 to 2 vary greatly across OECD countries, with over 60% participation in Korea, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Norway, and less than 5% in Mexico and the Republic of Türkiye, though rates rise notably as children age.
The largest increases in enrolment for children aged 3 to 5 over the past decade occurred in Costa Rica, Croatia, Poland and Türkiye, where rates grew by over 20 percentage points, driven by policies such as expanded compulsory pre-primary education and guaranteed access to ECEC services.
Over the next decade, countries such as Argentina, Greece, Italy, Japan and Korea are expected to see a slowing in the decline in the numbers of young children, while Eastern European countries like Bulgaria, Poland and the Slovak Republic may face declines of over 15% due to low fertility and emigration. In contrast, Israel’s young population is projected to grow by 15%, reflecting high fertility rates.
Note
This chapter only covers formal education and care. Informal care services (generally unregulated care arranged by the child’s parents either in the child’s home or elsewhere, provided by relatives, friends, neighbours, babysitters or nannies) are not covered (see Definitions section for more details). In some countries, children under the age of 3 are also likely to be enrolled in other registered ECEC services which do not meet ISCED 2011 criteria. The enrolment rates of those children should be interpreted with caution, given the limited availability of data for these services. As a result, the analysis of this chapter concentrates on the children at the age of 3 and above at pre-primary level where data are more available and comparable.
Differences in the structure of ECEC systems
In light of the numerous benefits associated with participation in early childhood education and care (ECEC), all OECD countries acknowledge the need to develop high-quality ECEC programmes. Yet, there is notable variation in how ECEC systems are structured, the types of services offered, and the broader parental leave, social and family policies designed to promote participation.
A key distinction at the system level lies in the governance and organisation of ECEC services, specifically, whether they are administered through a split or integrated system. In split systems, separate ECEC services are provided for younger and older children, often dividing the group at the age of 3, prior to primary education. In contrast, integrated systems offer a continuous approach to ECEC across the entire 0-5 or 0-6 age range, under a unified framework leading up to primary school.
Split systems are used by 24 OECD and partner countries, with distinct programmes for 0-2 year-olds and 3-5 year-olds. This distinction is not solely for international reporting purposes, but reflects national ECEC frameworks. For instance, Spain organises early childhood education into two cycles: the first one covers age 0 to 3 and the second, age 3 to 6. In many of these countries, it is common for different ministries or authorities to oversee services for different age groups. Typically, services for the older group fall under the regulations of countries’ ministries of education, while those for younger children are managed by other bodies, such as health or social welfare ministries. In many cases, they are offered in different institutions and the required qualifications for teachers are different.
In contrast, 16 OECD and partner countries have adopted integrated systems, offering a single ECEC framework from birth or the age of 1 to the start of primary education. For instance, in Estonia and Latvia, there is a single ECE programme for children aged from 1.5 to 7, which is offered in centre-based settings, and is also regulated by a single curriculum framework. These systems are generally overseen by a single authority, most often an education ministry, which is responsible for the entire ECEC framework and for ensuring continuity and quality across age groups. In such cases, any categorisation of ECEC by age group (e.g. as ISCED 01 and ISCED 02) is typically made to facilitate international comparison rather than reflecting governance or structural divisions within the national system. Additionally, split and integrated systems coexist in some countries.
Split system: Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, Colombia, Czechia, France, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Korea, Mexico, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, the Slovak Republic, Spain, Switzerland, Türkiye and the United States.
Integrated system: Australia, Canada, Costa Rica, Croatia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, New Zealand, Norway, Slovenia, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
Both: Germany and Japan.
There are differences in several other aspects of ECEC systems, including the age at which children enter ECEC, the number of hours they attend and who is responsible for regulating the services. Differences can also be seen in where services are delivered - whether in dedicated centres, schools or home-based settings - as well as whether the services include structured educational activities (Box B1.1).
Varieties of ECEC provision across countries
Other registered ECEC services (classified as outside ISCED) for children aged below 3
According to ISCED 2011 definitions, an early childhood education (ECE) programme/service must meet specific criteria to be classified as ISCED level 0. These include having an intentional educational component (such as a curriculum or defined learning objectives), being institutionalised (centre or home-based but structured for a group of children), maintaining a minimum level of educational component intensity (at least 2 hours per day and/or 100 days per year), being regulated by an education-oriented authority and being staffed by educators with defined qualifications (UNESCO UIS, 2012[11]). Many childcare services for children under the age of 3 do not fulfil all of these criteria. For instance, a private home-based childminder might provide excellent care but follow no structured curriculum or guidelines. Similarly, a crèche run by a ministry of social affairs might prioritise nutrition and care over learning outcomes. Even if these services are not formally considered “educational”, they inevitably support children’s development: through play, social interaction, and routine, children learn motor skills, language, and social norms. These types of ECEC provisions are considered as “other registered ECEC services” outside ISCED level 0.
In 10 OECD and partner countries and economies, all ECEC services for children below 3 are provided through such services outside of ISCED. For example, France and the French Community of Belgium have split systems: childcare services for younger children (such as crèches, halte-garderies, or accueil familial) are managed by social or family affairs authorities and not considered ISCED 0 services, whereas écoles maternelles (from age 2.5 or 3) are under education authorities and are considered ISCED 0 services. Consequently, even though these countries offer extensive childcare provision, their governance structure and educational content means they are classified differently from similar services in other countries. Likewise, Bulgaria, the Netherlands, Poland and Switzerland primarily provide early childcare for younger children through services that remain outside the ISCED classification (Table B1.3).
In some countries, ECEC programmes outside the ISCED level 0 classification serve functions other than being the main provision for children under the age of 3. For example, in Denmark, New Zealand and Norway, these services often operate on a drop-in basis and are designed to complement the main ECEC system. Their primary role is to support parents, particularly those working or studying, by offering flexible, safe childcare options. As drop-in services, they allow for flexible attendance based on families’ needs, providing a more adaptable form of support for early care (Table B1.3).
There are also some services outside formal early childhood education that serve as alternatives to standard early childhood care options. While many of these are delivered in a caregiver’s home or other home-like settings as regulated home-based provisions, in several countries such settings are covered by an official curriculum and therefore qualify as ISCED level 0. These programmes are designed to broaden the range of available choices for families. For instance, amas in Portugal function as regulated, home-based childminders who provide essential ECEC services for up to 4 children simultaneously. Their role complements centre-based childcare options, ensuring that families have diverse and adaptable choices to meet their specific needs. In Australia, In Home Care services provide care by approved educators in the child's home. It is restricted to families who cannot access other types of approved care due to non-standard or variable work hours, geographical isolation from other types of care, or complex or challenging needs. Australia also offers an alternative home-based model that provides care in an educator’s home, called Family Day Care. Such home-based models appeal to many families due to their intimate, home-like settings, which often align more closely with the child’s everyday living environment. Compared to larger, centre-based facilities, home-based arrangements typically involve fewer children, enabling caregivers to offer more personalised attention and fostering stronger relationships. These home-based settings are particularly valued for its ability to respond more effectively to the individual needs of each child. Furthermore, mixed-age groupings are common in home-based care, allowing siblings to be looked after together and offering parents more convenient scheduling and logistics (European Commission / EACEA / Eurydice, 2025[12]).
Distinct ECEC provision for specific groups
While mainstream ECEC services aim to serve the general population of young children, many countries have developed specialised provisions to address the needs of groups that may require different forms of support, adaptation or access. These distinct types of ECEC provision reflect broader efforts toward inclusion, equity and responsiveness to diverse family and societal contexts.
In several countries, targeted ECEC programmes have been developed to support children with special educational needs (SEN). In Czechia, children aged 4 to 6 with physical, mental, or sensory disabilities may attend Preparatory Stage of Special Basic School that offers tailored support to prepare children for compulsory education (Eurydice, 2025[13]). The Flemish Community of Belgium offers Special Nursery Education that provides tailored ECEC for children aged 2.5 to 6 years with specific educational needs. This system is designed to support children whose developmental requirements cannot be adequately met within mainstream preschool settings (Eurydice, 2025[14]). In Japan, Kindergarten Departments of Special Needs Education Schools are integral to Japan's special needs education system and deliver individualised education and care for 3-5 year-olds with a range of disabilities (NIC-Japan, 2025[15]).
Targeted ECEC provisions also exist for children from ethnic, linguistic and cultural minority populations. In the Netherlands, Voorschoolse educatie (VE), is designed to support children aged 2.5 to 4 years who are at risk of educational disadvantage, particularly in language development. This programme aims to prepare children for a successful start in primary school by enhancing their language, social and cognitive skills through structured play-based learning (Government of the Netherlands, 2022[16]). In Colombia, for instance, Etnoeducación Preescolar is a specialised early childhood education approach designed to serve indigenous, Afro-Colombian and other ethnic communities. Rooted in the country's commitment to cultural diversity and inclusion, this model integrates ancestral knowledge, native languages and community values into the educational experience of children aged 3 to 5. Similarly, in New Zealand, Kōhanga Reo (meaning "language nest") are ECEC centres that immerse children from birth to school age in te reo Māori (the Māori language) and tikanga Māori (Māori customs) aiming to revitalise the language and culture through intergenerational transmission (Government of New Zealand, 2025[17]).
A number of unique and context-specific ECEC arrangements also exist. Workplace nurseries in Hungary provide flexible childcare options close to parents' places of employment, facilitating work-life balance. Homeschooling is recognised as an early learning arrangement under specific conditions in Luxembourg, allowing families to take a lead role in their child’s early education. Additionally, European Nursery Schools in Belgium and Luxembourg offer multilingual and multicultural ECEC services for children of EU institution employees, aligning with the European Schools’ curriculum and governance (for further information about all of these arrangements see Box B1.1).
An interactive online platform is available to provide complementary contextual information on early childhood education and care (ECEC) programmes. It gives information on the different types of programmes, their duration and starting ages as well as information regarding their governance, curriculum frameworks and monitoring methods.
The platform can be accessed via the Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) Systems Dashboard.
Enrolment of children under 3
Children under the age of 2 had the lowest participation rates in formal early childhood education (ECE) programmes across OECD countries – only 21% on average in 2023. Enrolment rates among the youngest children can be influenced by a range of factors including the number of places available, parental employment and leave, and the cost of ECEC services or their free provision. Some countries, including Israel, Korea and Luxembourg, report notably higher participation by children under the age of 2, with enrolment rates exceeding 45%. For 2-year-olds, the average enrolment across OECD countries rises to 52%, though this figure masks substantial differences. While some countries, such as India, the Netherlands and Switzerland, provide no ECE programmes classified as ISCED for 2-year-olds, enrolment in formal services exceeds 90% in Iceland, Korea, Norway and Sweden (Table B1.1).
Some countries have high levels of enrolment in other registered ECEC services which are an integral part of ECEC provision, but do not comply with the criteria for ECE (ISCED level 0) (e.g. crèches in France and amas in Portugal). In the Netherlands, for example, 88% of 2-year-olds and 65% of children under the age of 2 attend such services. Although such programmes exist in many countries, particularly for children under 3, not all countries are able to report the number of children enrolled in them (Table B1.1).
Even when looking at rates in all ECEC programmes, regardless of whether they meet the ISCED standards or not, enrolment rates for children aged 0 to 2 vary widely across OECD and partner countries. In Korea, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Norway, participation is relatively high, with over 60% of children under 3 enrolled in some form of ECEC. In contrast, enrolment remains below 5% in Mexico and Türkiye for this age group, although it increases significantly as children grow older (Table B1.2 and Figure B1.1).
Although almost all OECD countries provide free access to at least one year of ECEC before children start primary education (Annex Table X1.3), ECEC services for children under the age of 3 are typically not fully funded by the government. This reflects the fact that within constrained public budgets for ECEC, priority is often given to pre-primary education (OECD, 2017[18]; OECD, 2024[19]). As a consequence, out-of-pocket costs for ECEC can be an important barrier to enrolment in many OECD countries, particularly for lower income households. On the other hand, in the 11 OECD and partner countries where free ECEC services are available to children under the age of 3 (Annex Table X1.3), enrolment rates are notably high for this age group. For instance, in Korea, where the enrolment rate is 95% among 2-year-olds, children are entitled to some free ECEC services from birth (Table B1.1).
Other factors such as women’s labour-market participation, the duration and accessibility of parental leave, and the availability of informal social networks for childcare, are also likely have an impact on enrolment rates among young children. The traditional role of women as principal caregiver can be a determining factor in the use of childcare services. For example, in countries where female labour-force participation remains relatively low, such as Mexico (47%) and Türkiye (36%) respectively, enrolment rates in ECEC are also comparatively low (International Labour Organization, 2025[20]). The length of parental leave is another important determinant. In Hungary and the Slovak Republic, where mothers are entitled to more than three years of paid leave, the enrolment rate for children under the age of 3 stood at 21% in Hungary and 5% in the Slovak Republic in 2023 (OECD, 2025[21]) (Table B1.2). Lastly, in some countries, lower participation in formal ECEC may reflect the widespread reliance on informal childcare arrangements, often provided by extended family, neighbours or friends. Such informal mechanisms can significantly supplement or substitute formal ECEC provision.
Trends in enrolment of children under the age of 3
Enrolment rates for children under the age of 3 in ECE programmes increased by 9 percentage points on average across OECD countries over the past decade, reaching 29% in 2023. The growth has been particularly pronounced in Hungary, Israel, Korea and Lithuania, each recording increases of more than 15 percentage points (Table B1.2). In Korea, the surge is largely the result of substantial increases in public spending on ECEC, which has expanded service availability and reduced the financial burden on families. In addition, the government’s broader policy agenda to address persistently low fertility rates has included enhanced parental support measures, notably through improved childcare services and reduced education-related costs (Yang, Hwang and Pareliussen, 2024[22]). Similarly, in Lithuania, policy initiatives have made ECEC available from birth, underpinned by significant public funding that offsets much of the cost for families. There has also been targeted government action to reduce inequalities between urban and rural areas through the creation of multi-functional centres in rural communities and the provision of dedicated transportation to improve access (OECD, 2017[23]).
1. Early childhood education excludes early childhood educational development programmes (ISCED 01).
2. Year of reference differs from 2013.
3. Year of reference differs from 2023.
For data, see Table B1.2. For a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section.
In many European countries, increases in enrolment may be attributed to the further impetus provided by the European Union (EU) after the original targets set at the Barcelona 2002 meeting. The EU initially aimed for enrolment rates of at least 33% of children under the age of 3 by 2010. These objectives were revised as part of the wider European Care Strategy in 2022 to ensure more enrolment in ECEC, enhance the social and cognitive development of disadvantaged children, and encourage parents' involvement in the labour market. The revised Barcelona targets for 2030 are for a minimum of 45% of children under the age of 3 to be enrolled in formal childcare (European Comission, 2023[24]).
Enrolment of children aged 3 to 5
Although participation in ECE is not compulsory in all OECD countries, enrolment among children aged 3 and over is widespread. On average across OECD countries, 79% of 3-year-olds, 90% of 4-year-olds and 86% of 5-year-olds are enrolled in ECE. The comparatively lower ECE enrolment rate for 5-year-olds reflects national differences in the starting age for primary education. In countries such as Australia, Ireland, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, primary schooling typically begins at age 5 (Box B1.2), which shifts some enrolment from ECE to primary education. When total enrolment of 5-year-olds is considered, regardless of whether children are enrolled in ECE or primary education, the average enrolment rate across OECD countries rises to 97% (Table B1.1).
In more than half of OECD countries with available data, the enrolment of children in ECE between the ages of 3 and 5 is nearly universal, reaching at least 90% (Table B1.2). The highest enrolment rates of 4-year-olds in either ECE or primary education are in Costa Rica, France, Israel and Peru, where they equal or exceed 99%. In contrast, 50% or less are enrolled in education in Switzerland and Türkiye (Table B1.1). In Switzerland, this lower rate may be partly due to differences across cantons, as each canton sets its own starting age for compulsory education. In some cantons, children start formal education later than in others, which affects enrolment figures at national level. In Türkiye, while the enrolment rate for 4-year-olds remains below 50%, it rises to 98% for 5-year-olds (Table B1.1). This notable increase reflects national education policies that prioritize preschool education for 5-year-olds, one year before the start of compulsory education.
Trends in enrolment of children aged 3 to 5
Between 2013 and 2023, enrolment rates for children aged 3 to 5 in early childhood education rose by 5 percentage points, reaching 85% across OECD countries. The most notable increases were in Costa Rica, Croatia, Poland and Türkiye where enrolment grew by more than 20 percentage points. A major factor behind the gain in Costa Rica has been the 2018 policy extending compulsory education to include two years of pre-primary education for children aged 4 to 6. Consequently, the enrolment rate of 3-5 year-olds in early childhood education increased from 50% to 71% over the last decade (Table B1.2). The largest gains occurred among children aged 4 and older, with enrolment exceeding 95%, effectively achieving universal coverage. However, participation among 3-year-olds remains comparatively low at 6% in 2023 (Table B1.1). This illustrates how compulsory education reforms in pre-primary education can successfully accelerate enrolment growth, ensuring that more children benefit from critical early learning opportunities during their foundational years. In Poland, the increase in enrolment of 3-5 year-olds from 71% in 2013 to 94% in 2023 has been due to the gradual extension of the legal entitlement to age 3 starting from 2014, combined with capped fees for additional hours beyond the standard free provision and expansions in preschool infrastructure (Polish Eurydice Unit, 2014[25]; UNHCR, 2025[26]; Eurydice, 2025[27]).
All OECD countries have established pre-primary education programmes to support the development, well-being and early learning of young children. A key objective of these programmes is to facilitate a smooth and confident transition from early childhood education into primary education. While this goal is inherent to most pre-primary settings, some countries offer a specific (mostly one-year) preparatory programme immediately before primary school entry. These programmes, often referred to as “reception,” “bridging year,” or simply the final year of kindergarten, are designed to build essential foundational skills. They focus on socialisation, early literacy and numeracy, language acquisition, and classroom behaviours such as following routines and participating in structured activities. The aim is to ensure that children are well prepared and experience a positive start to their formal educational journey.
In Australia, the foundation year serves as the formal entry point into primary education for children aged approximately 5. While attendance is optional in several states and territories, children typically start school around the age of 5, with compulsory schooling beginning by age 6. The foundation year aims to establish essential skills in literacy, numeracy and socialisation through structured yet child-centred activities. This model positions the preparatory stage firmly within the primary education framework (Australian Curriculum, 2025[28]) .
Denmark’s kindergarten class, also known as preschool class (Børnehaveklasse), caters to 6-year-olds and has acted as a mandatory bridge between early childhood education and primary school since 2009. Denmark distinguishes itself with its strong emphasis on play-based learning, promoting social and emotional development alongside early academic exposure (Blomgren, 2022[29]).
Romania’s preparatory grade (Clasa Pregătitoare), introduced in 2012 for 6-year-olds, formalises what was previously an informal transition phase. Romania’s model aligns closely with school-readiness objectives, focusing on bridging the gap between kindergarten and formal school through basic literacy, numeracy and behavioural norms (Eurydice, 2025[30]).
In contrast, Ireland implements a two-stage preparatory system within its primary education cycle: Junior and Senior Infants programmes, spanning ages 4 to 6. This model stands out for introducing children to formal schooling at an earlier age than most OECD peers, blending play with structured learning to cultivate both cognitive and social skills (Government of Ireland, 2025[31]).
Similarly, in England and Wales (United Kingdom), the Early Years of Foundation Stage within primary education spans two years and serves as a transition from play-based nursery to formal schooling. Its second year is also known as the reception year. It promotes holistic development across personal, social, emotional and academic domains, balancing structured learning with child-initiated exploration (UK Government, 2025[32]).
Policy approaches to increasing enrolment in ECEC
The benefits of ECEC for children’s development, well-being and the transition to primary education have led many policy makers to introduce targeted measures to increase participation. These measures include lowering the starting age of compulsory education, establishing legal entitlements to ECEC services, offering free hours, or providing substantial financial support for childcare services. Countries may adopt different policies or combinations of policies, tailored to specific age groups and target populations. Additional strategies that complement these measures include ECEC network planning, data and monitoring mechanisms for needs identification, flexibility of ECEC provision, information services and administrative accessibility, and efforts to foster family and community engagement and trust (OECD, 2025[8]).
Expansion of compulsory education to include pre-primary
Establishing a legal obligation to attend ECEC by lowering the starting age of compulsory education to cover some pre-primary education has become a common strategy to increase enrolment rates with several countries adopting this approach in the past decade. Costa Rica and Hungary lowered the compulsory starting age by two years, from 6 to 4, while eight other OECD and partner countries have lowered it by one year. Countries with already high enrolment rates at the national level may implement such policies in order to strategically target disadvantaged subpopulations. For instance, Belgium aims to increase regular attendance among migrant children with low-educated parents in large cities through the inclusion of one year of pre-primary education in compulsory education (European Commission, 2019[33]). Similarly, starting from the 2019/2020 school year, France lowered the starting age of compulsory education, making early childhood education compulsory for children aged 3 to 5 to ensure access for all. This measure, combined with smaller class sizes in pre-primary education, aims to strengthen foundational learning and reduce inequalities in Priority Education Network schools (REP and REP+) (OECD, 2020[34]). Lithuania has also adopted a targeted approach, mandating compulsory pre-school education for children under the age of 5 living in households at socio-economic risk (Eurydice, 2023[35]).
As a result, pre-primary education is now compulsory for one or more years in 24 OECD and partner countries. The age at which compulsory education begins varies. In 11 countries, it starts just one year before entry into primary education, while in others it starts earlier – at 3 in France, Hungary, Israel and Mexico; at 4 in Argentina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Costa Rica, Greece and Luxembourg; and between the ages 4 and 5 in Switzerland (Table B1.2).
Legal entitlement to guaranteed ECEC places
Participation in ECEC is not compulsory for children under the age of 3 in any OECD country. However, some countries offer a legal entitlement to an ECEC place, obligating public authorities to guarantee access to services for any child within the relevant age range, upon parental request (Eurydice, 2023[36]). For example, Czechia and Poland have gradually extended the entitlement to start from the age of 3 (fully implemented in Poland from 2017 and in Czechia from 2018), despite only mandating one year of pre-primary education before primary education (European Commission / EACEA / Eurydice, 2025[12]). Other countries, including Brazil, Canada, Hungary, Korea, Mexico and New Zealand, offer this legal entitlement from birth. This approach allows families to choose early education options that suit their needs while promoting widespread participation (Annex Table X1.3.).
Enhanced capacity for more places in ECEC services
Countries are also making widespread efforts to expand capacity in order to increase enrolment rates for children aged 3 and below. For example, Spain is using the funds from the European Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF) to create over 60 000 places by 2025. This initiative is intended to meet all demands for early education for children under the age of 3 and to reduce regional disparities in participation (Government of Spain, 2024[37]).
Free ECEC hours
Affordability plays a critical role in ensuring that ECEC services are accessible to as many children as possible. In recent years, many countries, particularly in Europe, have introduced free or partially subsidised ECEC services, often targeting disadvantaged groups. For example, children aged 1 to 4 in Luxembourg are entitled to 20 hours of free ECEC per week, with parents paying for any additional hours. In Lithuania, children from birth to primary education receive 20 free hours per week, with any additional costs covered by government and municipal funds. Romania offers free ECEC for all children from birth, both for the full-day programme (10 hours) and the short programme (5 hours). In 2022, Bulgaria abolished fees for ECEC for all children from the age of 3 (European Commission / EACEA / Eurydice, 2025[12]). Sweden obliges municipalities to provide ECEC places to children regardless of the duration of their stay in the country or whether parents have formally requested enrolment. In Croatia, Roma parents are exempt from kindergarten fees (Eurydice, 2023[36]).
Financial support mechanisms to enhance affordability
In countries with integrated ECEC systems, additional measures have been taken to enhance affordability and accessibility through substantial financial support and subsidies for parents. In Denmark, for instance, although ECEC services are not fully free before age 6, parental fees are capped at no more than 25% of the setting’s estimated gross operating costs. Financial allowances are also available for low-income families, which can cover part or all of the parental payment (økonomisk fripladstilskud). In Iceland, decisions on parental fees are made by individual municipalities but cannot be higher than the total cost of the services provided. However, in the largest municipalities it is common for parents to pay 10-20% of the cost of ECEC services. Finland introduced a maximum monthly fee of EUR 311 as of August 2024, with over half of families exempt from any charges. In Sweden, the majority of ECEC funding for children aged 1 to 6 comes from municipal budgets. Parents pay a small income-dependent contribution, which is further capped based on the number of children per household (European Commission / EACEA / Eurydice, 2025[12]).
Since 2006, Japan introduced centres for early childhood education and care (Nintei Kodomo-en). These centres combine the advantages of both kindergartens and day care centres, performing functions such as: to provide pre-school children education and care, regardless of whether their guardians are working or not, and to support parenting in the community through services such as parenting consultations and places where parents and children gather (Imoto, 2007[38]). This reform has been implemented in light of diversifying needs in ECEC.
Demographic trends among young children
From 2013 to 2023, many countries have seen the number of children aged 0 to 4 plateauing or even declining. In particular, several countries in Asia (e.g. China, Korea and Japan) and Southern Europe (e.g. Greece, Italy and Spain) experienced substantial decreases in this age group, ranging from 22% to 40% (Figure B1.3). While some of these changes are driven by country-specific factors such as emigration, they largely mirror global trends in declining birth rates. On average across OECD countries, fertility rates fell from about 1.7 in the early 2010s to around 1.5 by 2022 (OECD, 2024[39]). A few countries have experienced growing populations of young children between 2013 and 2023, often due to higher fertility or immigration. For instance, Israel maintained a fertility rate close to 3, leading to an increase in its under-5 population (OECD, 2024[39]). In Austria, Germany, Luxembourg and Switzerland, despite persistently low fertility rates, the number of young children has risen, primarily as a result of immigration (Figure B1.3). Austria, Luxembourg and Switzerland report some of the highest shares of non-national children among those under 5, at 21% of 0-4 year-olds in Austria, 28% in Luxembourg and 47%, in Switzerland (Eurostat, 2025[40]).
Looking ahead to the period from 2023 to 2033, population projections suggest these trends will continue, with most OECD countries expected to see further declines in their populations of young children. However, the extent of these declines will vary across countries. In Greece, Italy, Japan and Korea, the rate of decrease is expected to slow relative to the previous decade. In contrast, several Eastern European countries, including Bulgaria, Poland and the Slovak Republic, are projected to see sharper drops of over 15%, driven by persistent low fertility and ongoing emigration. Similarly, Latin American countries like Argentina, Brazil, Colombia and Costa Rica are expected to experience declines in their young child populations of over 9%, largely due to falling birth rates. Meanwhile, Israel’s young population is projected to keep growing by 15% due to its high fertility rate. In addition, several Northern European countries (e.g. Denmark, Iceland, the Netherlands and Norway), along with Australia might offset low fertility rates with immigration, stabilising and even increasing the number of children under 5 (Figure B1.3).
Declines in the numbers of young children can pose some challenges in ECEC systems. In areas where child populations fall below sustainable levels, ECEC centres, particularly private providers reliant on fee income, may struggle to remain operational, potentially leading to unequal access to high-quality early education (European Commission / EACEA / Eurydice, 2025[12]).
Despite declining enrolment in pre-primary education in many countries, recent trends indicate that public expenditure per child in ECEC has increased (see Figure C2.3 in Chapter C2). This presents an opportunity to optimise education systems by reallocating resources more efficiently, focusing on quality over quantity (OECD, 2024[10]). Smaller group sizes may enable lower child-to-teacher ratios, more manageable workloads, reduced staff stress and improved learning environments (see Chapter D2). Therefore, the demographic shift may be reflected in a stronger policy emphasis on improving quality.
Another consideration is the geographical distribution of demographic change. Even if the number of young children declines at national level, certain cities (often capitals or economically strong regions) may still experience increases due to internal migration or differing fertility patterns, while other regions see big falls. This regional disparity underscores the need for targeted policy responses to address the unique demographic challenges across different areas. For example, in Germany, some eastern Länder have faced consistent population declines among children, whereas major cities such as Munich and Berlin have experienced baby booms in certain years, leading to uneven demand for ECEC services (Pastuszka, 2023[41]).
For data, see OECD Society Statistics – Demography Indicators at OECD Data Explorer (OECD, 2025[42]).
Early childhood education (ECE): ECEC services in adherence with the criteria defined in the ISCED 2011 classification (see ISCED 01 and 02 definitions) are considered early childhood education programmes and are therefore referred to as ECE in this chapter. Others registered ECEC services are considered an integral part of countries’ ECEC provision but are not in adherence with all the ISCED criteria. Therefore, the term of ECE excludes the programmes that do not meet the ISCED 2011 criteria.
ISCED 01 refers to early childhood educational development services which mostly serve children aged 0 to 2 and ISCED 02 refers to pre-primary education which mostly serves children aged 3 to 5.
ECEC services: The types of ECEC services available to children and parents differ greatly. Despite those differences, most ECEC settings typically fall into one of the following categories (for more information see Education at a Glance 2025 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/fcfaf2d1-en)).
1. Regular centre-based ECEC: More formalised ECEC centres typically belong to one of these three subcategories:
a. Centre-based ECEC for children under age 3: Often called “crèches”, these settings may have an educational function, but they are typically attached to the social or welfare sector and associated with an emphasis on care. Many of them are part-time and provided in schools, but they can also be provided in designated ECEC centres.
b. Centre-based ECEC for children from the age of 3: Often called kindergarten or pre-school, these settings tend to be more formalised and are often linked to the education system.
c. Age-integrated centre-based ECEC for children from birth or age 1 up to the beginning of primary school: These settings offer a holistic pedagogical provision of education and care (often full-day).
2. Family childcare ECEC: Licensed home-based ECEC, which is most prevalent for children under age 3. These settings may or may not have an educational function and be part of the regular ECEC system.
3. Licensed or formalised drop-in ECEC centres: Often receiving children across the entire ECEC age bracket and even beyond, these drop-in centres allow parents to complement home-based care by family members or family childcare with more institutionalised services on an ad hoc basis (without having to apply for a place).
Informal care services: Generally unregulated care arranged by the child’s parent either in the child’s home or elsewhere, provided by relatives, friends, neighbours, babysitters or nannies; these services are not covered in this chapter.
Enrolment rates
Net enrolment rates are calculated by dividing the number of children of a particular age / age group enrolled in ECEC by the size of the population of that age / age group. While enrolment and population figures refer to the same period in most cases, mismatches may occur due to data availability and different sources used in some countries. Therefore, population data is adjusted in the calculation of enrolment rates by age. This adjustment method ensures that if the cumulative enrolment data across all ISCED levels exceeds the population data for a particular age, the population data for that age is adjusted to match the total enrolment for the corresponding age.
Data refer to the reference year 2023 (school year 2022/23) and are based on the UNESCO-UIS/OECD/Eurostat data collection on education statistics administered by the OECD in 2025. For more information, see Education at a Glance 2025 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/fcfaf2d1-en)
Data from Argentina, the People’s Republic of China, India, Indonesia, Saudi Arabia and South Africa are from the UNESCO Institute of Statistics (UIS).
Data on historical and projected changes in the population of 0-4 year-olds are available in the OECD Society Statistics (OECD, 2025[42]).
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[1] Yoshikawa, H., C. Weiland and J. Brooks-Gunn (2016), “When does preschool matter?”, The Future of Children, Vol. 26/2, pp. 21-35, https://doi.org/10.1353/foc.2016.0010.
To download the data for the figures and tables in this chapter, click StatLink above.
To access further data and/or other education indicators, please visit the OECD Data Explorer: https://data-explorer.oecd.org/.
Data cut-off for the print publication 13 June 2025. Please note that the Data Explorer contains the most recent data.
Table B1.1. Enrolment rates in early childhood education (ISCED 0), other ECEC services (outside ISCED) and primary education, by age (2023)
Note: Early childhood education (ECE) = ISCED 0, other registered ECEC services = ECEC services outside the scope of ISCED 0, because they are not in adherence with all ISCED criteria. To be classified in ISCED 0, ECEC services should: 1) have adequate intentional educational properties; 2) be institutionalised (usually school-based or otherwise institutionalised for a group of children); 3) have an intensity of at least 2 hours per day of educational activities and a duration of at least 100 days a year; 4) have a regulatory framework recognised by the relevant national authorities (e.g. curriculum); and 5) have trained or accredited staff (e.g. requirement of pedagogical qualifications for educators).
1. In other registered ECEC services, 2-year-olds includes children under the age of 2, and 3-year-olds includes children aged 3 to 5.
2. Early childhood education excludes early childhood educational development programmes (ISCED 01).
3. Early childhood education includes only early childhood educational development programmes (ISCED 01) for the ages 2 and below.
4. Enrolment of 2 year-olds covers only children started to compulsory pre-primary education earlier than theoretical starting age.
5. Year of reference differs from 2023: 2022 for Saudi Arabia.
Table B1.2. Trends in enrolment rates of children in early childhood education and care and pre-primary education, by age group (2013 and 2023)
Note: Early childhood education (ECE) = ISCED 0, other registered ECEC services = ECEC services outside the scope of ISCED 0, because they are not in adherence with all ISCED criteria. To be classified in ISCED 0, ECEC services should: 1) have adequate intentional educational properties; 2) be institutionalised (usually school-based or otherwise institutionalised for a group of children); 3) have an intensity of at least 2 hours per day of educational activities and a duration of at least 100 days a year; 4) have a regulatory framework recognised by the relevant national authorities (e.g. curriculum); and 5) have trained or accredited staff (e.g. requirement of pedagogical qualifications for educators).
1. The legal age at which school becomes compulsory is 6, but children are allowed in legislation to attend school from age 5, and most do.
2. Year of reference differs from 2013: 2014 for Croatia, Estonia, Japan and Türkiye; 2015 for Colombia, Hungary and Romania; and 2017 for Ireland.
3. Enrolment of 2 year-olds covers only children started to compulsory pre-primary education earlier than theoretical starting age.
4. Year of reference differs from 2023: 2022 for Saudi Arabia.
Table B1.3. Characteristics of early childhood education and care programmes not classified as ISCED programmes (other ECEC services) (2023)
Note: Table excludes programmes outside ISCED that are designed to serve before/after school and during school holidays. More data on outside ISCED programmes available at the Dashboard on Early Education and Care (ECEC) Systems. A regulatory framework for ISCED level 0 programmes is defined as legislation, guidelines, standards or instructions issued or recognised by whichever relevant authority governs the provision of educational programmes to very young children (e.g. a ministry of education, other relevant ministry or affiliated institution). Educational activities are activities that are designed and organised to achieve pre-determined learning objectives or to accomplish a specific set of educational tasks over a sustained period. They are deliberate activities intended to bring about learning. They are planned in a pattern or sequence with explicit or implicit aims, involving a providing agency (person/body) that facilitates a learning environment, and a method of instruction.
1. There is, however, a national charter that must be applied to all childcare plans. This charter sets out the principles applicable to the care of young children, whatever the type of care, in application of article L. 214-1-1 of the French Code de l'action sociale et des familles.
a – category not applicable; b – break in series; d – contains data from another column; m – missing data; x – contained in another column (indicated in brackets). For further control codes, see the Reader’s Guide.
For further methodological information, see Education at a Glance 2025: Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (https://doi.org/10.1787/fcfaf2d1-en)
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above.
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above.
Note: For notes on this table and a link to download the data, see Tables and Notes section above.