Education at a Glance 2025: Germany
Table of contents
This country note provides an overview of the key characteristics of the education system in Germany based on data from Education at a Glance 2025. In line with this year’s thematic focus, it emphasises tertiary education while also covering other parts of the education system. The data in this note are provided for the latest available year. Readers interested in the reference years for the data should refer to the corresponding tables in Education at a Glance 2025.
Tertiary attainment among young adults aged 25-34 in Germany has increased from 33% in 2019 to 40% in 2024, a faster increase than in most other OECD countries. Nevertheless, at 40% the tertiary attainment rate of young adults in Germany remains below the OECD average of 48%.
Alongside this increase, the share of young adults without a basic qualification has also grown. 15% of 25–34-year-olds in Germany do not hold an upper secondary qualification, up from 13% in 2019. Among the 22 EU member countries in the OECD, only Italy, Portugal, and Spain have higher shares of young adults without an upper secondary qualification.
The widening attainment gap is particularly concerning given the significant skill disparities between individuals with tertiary and without upper secondary qualifications in Germany. In the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC), the skill disparities between 25-34 year-olds with tertiary and without upper secondary qualifications are the largest recorded among all participating OECD countries. In Germany, the difference between the two groups is 100 and 108 score points in literacy and numeracy respectively, compared to an average difference of 73 and 78 respectively across participating OECD countries.
Family background continues to strongly influence educational opportunities. PIAAC results show that in Germany, as in many other OECD countries, young adults whose parents have not completed upper secondary education are significantly less likely to attain a tertiary qualification than those with tertiary-educated parents. While the small sample size means the exact figure is subject to considerable statistical uncertainty, in Germany, approximately 1 in 5 young adults with parents lacking upper secondary education attain a tertiary qualification, compared to about 3 in 5 young adults with at least one tertiary-educated parent.
In Germany, as in many OECD countries, holding a tertiary qualification offers only a small advantage in terms of unemployment protection compared to an upper secondary qualification: unemployment rates are nearly the same, at 2.5% for tertiary-educated 25-64 year-olds and 2.6% for those with upper secondary attainment aged 25-64. The main labour market benefit of tertiary education lies in earnings: 25-64 year-olds with a tertiary qualification earn, on average, 50% more than those with upper secondary education, close to the OECD average of 54%.
Germany’s tertiary education system is increasingly attracting international students. Their share rose significantly from 7.1% in 2013 to 12.7% in 2023, well above the OECD average of 7.4%. With 423 000 international students, Germany hosts the highest number of international students of any non-anglophone OECD country and the fourth-highest number overall behind the United States, the United Kingdom and Australia. Unlike in just over half of the other European countries, students from Asia form the largest group of international students in Germany (44%), while 31% come from other European countries.
Education expenditure per student in Germany, from primary to tertiary levels, averages USD (PPP) 17,960 annually, above the OECD average of USD (PPP) 15,023. However, when measured as a share of GDP, Germany’s investment in education is 4.4%, below the OECD average of 4.7%, and considerably lower than countries like Norway and the UK, which invest over 6% of their GDP in education.
Family background continues to strongly influence educational opportunities. PIAAC results show that in Germany, as in many other OECD countries, young adults whose parents have not completed upper secondary education are significantly less likely to attain a tertiary qualification than those with tertiary-educated parents. While the small sample size means the exact figure is subject to considerable statistical uncertainty, in Germany, approximately 1 in 5 young adults with parents lacking upper secondary education attain a tertiary qualification, compared to about 3 in 5 young adults with at least one tertiary-educated parent (Figure 1).
Survey of Adult Skills, in per cent
Note: The percentage in parentheses represents the share of tertiary-educated parents.
For data, see OECD (2025) Education at a Glance 2025: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/1c0d9c79-en, Table A1.4 (available on line).
The share of young adults (25-34 year-olds) without upper secondary attainment continues to decline across the OECD, reaching an average of 13%. However, this is not the case in Germany, where the share is above average at 15% in 2024.
Individuals with greater educational attainment generally face a lower risk of unemployment and earn higher wages. Completing upper secondary education is particularly important in reducing the risk of unemployment. On average across the OECD, 12.9% of economically active young adults (25-34 year-olds) without an upper secondary qualification are unemployed, compared to 6.9% of those with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment. Those who go on to attain a tertiary qualification see a relatively smaller further reduction in unemployment, with 4.9% of tertiary-educated young adults unemployed on average across the OECD. This pattern is different in Germany: 9.3% of young adults without an upper secondary qualification are unemployed, compared to 3.3% of those with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment and 3.5% of those with tertiary attainment (Figure 2).
In per cent
For data, see OECD (2025) Education at a Glance 2025: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/1c0d9c79-en, Table A3.5.
On average, individuals with a master’s or equivalent degree have significantly higher employment rates and earnings than those with a bachelor’s or equivalent degree. However, the share of young adults (25-34 year-olds) attaining a master’s or equivalent qualification varies widely across OECD countries, ranging from 1% to 39% in 2024. In Germany, 15% of 25-34 year-olds hold a master’s or equivalent degree, which is similar to the OECD average of 16%. This represents a small increase since 2019, when the share was 14%.
The average wage gap between individuals (25-64 year-olds) with and without upper secondary educational attainment is relatively modest across OECD countries. In 2023, on average across the OECD, workers without upper secondary qualifications earn 17% less than those who have completed upper secondary education, while workers with tertiary attainment earn 54% more than those with upper secondary attainment. In Germany, the wage gap between workers with and without upper secondary attainment is larger than the OECD average, at 27%. The gap between those with upper secondary and tertiary attainment is smaller than the OECD average, at 50%.
Earnings prospects are particularly good for workers with a tertiary STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) qualification. In Germany, they earn on average 10% more than tertiary-educated workers with a qualification in another field of study. This earnings advantage is comparable to the average across countries with available data.
In most OECD countries, a significant share of adults have low levels of literacy proficiency, defined as at or below Level 1 (on a scale of 0-5) in the OECD Survey of Adult Skills, a product of the OECD Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC). Individuals at this level can only understand very short texts with minimal distracting information. In Germany, 23% of 25–64 year-olds have literacy skills at or below Level 1, which is below the OECD average of 27%.
Educational attainment and skills are closely linked, although the strength of this relationship varies across countries. In Germany, tertiary-educated adults score, on average, 37 points higher in literacy proficiency than those with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment in the Survey of Adult Skills. This gap is wider than the OECD average difference of 34 points.
Average literacy scores fell between Cycle 1 (2012-15) and Cycle 2 (2023) of the Survey of Adult Skills1. On average across OECD countries, the fall among adults with tertiary attainment was 9 score points, smaller than the average drop of 19 score points among adults without upper secondary qualifications. In Germany, average literacy scores for adults with tertiary attainment increased by 3 points (from 293 to 296), while the score for adults without upper secondary attainment decreased by 19 points (from 222 to 203).
In Germany, as in all OECD countries, adults with better literacy skills are more likely to participate in education and training. In 2023, 74% of adults (25–64 year-olds) with high literacy proficiency (i.e. at or above Level 4) in the Survey of Adult Skills participated in formal and/or non-formal education and training in the last year, compared to just 23% of those with proficiency at or below Level 1.
Education systems must adapt to changes in the number of children by expanding or reducing provision accordingly. In many countries, the population of children aged 0-4 changed significantly between 2013 and 2023 and is projected to change further by 2033. Germany experienced an increase of 13% in the number 0–4 year-olds, and is projected to see a decline of 5% between 2023 and 2033.
Most vocational students in OECD countries are enrolled in programmes providing direct access to tertiary education. In 2023, 77% of upper secondary vocational students were enrolled in such programmes on average across the OECD. In Germany, the corresponding share is at 90%, well above the OECD average.
Bachelor’s or equivalent programmes are the main entry point into tertiary education in most OECD countries, with an average of 78% of those starting tertiary education for the first time enrolling in such programmes. In Germany, the share is even higher at 82%.
In Germany, 35% of all graduates from bachelor’s or equivalent programmes graduate in a STEM field (science, technology, engineering and mathematics). This is the highest share across all OECD countries and well above the OECD average of 23%.
Women make up the majority of first-time entrants to tertiary education in most OECD countries. In Germany, they accounted for 51% of first-time entrants in 2023, up from 50% in 2013. Across the OECD, women make up 54% of new entrants on average, the same share as in 2013.
International student mobility in tertiary education continues to rise across the OECD, with some countries experiencing substantial growth in the share of international students between 2018 and 2023. On average, 7.4% of all tertiary students across the OECD were international or foreign students, compared to 6% in 2018. Germany saw an increase, with the share rising from 10% to 12.7% (Figure 3).
In per cent
For data, see OECD (2025) Education at a Glance 2025: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/1c0d9c79-en, Table B4.3.
There are significant disparities in how much governments spend each year in education across OECD, partner and accession countries. Germany spends USD 14 503 per student from primary to post-secondary non-tertiary levels, placing it at the middle of the country range, which spans from less than USD 2 000 to more than USD 27 000 (Figure 4).
In equivalent USD converted using PPPs, expenditure on educational institutions
Note: Expenditure at tertiary level includes R&D. Expenditure per student in early childhood education is based on headcounts rather than full-time equivalent students. Expenditure at tertiary level for Luxembourg (USD 54 384) is not shown in the figure.
1. Year of reference differs from 2022.
2. Primary includes pre-primary education.
3. Includes payments by households outside educational institutions.
For data, see OECD (2025) Education at a Glance 2025: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/1c0d9c79-en, Table C1.1 and Table C1.2.
As in most other countries, government expenditure in Germany is higher at tertiary level, including research and development (R&D), than at primary to post-secondary non-tertiary levels. Government expenditure in Germany amounts to USD 19 500 per tertiary student compared to the OECD average of USD 15 102.
A large part of the disparity in expenditure per student across OECD, partner and accession countries reflects differences in national income levels. When expenditure is measured as a share of GDP, cross-country differences tend to be smaller, ranging from 2.5% of GDP to 6.9%. In Germany, education investment in primary to tertiary education stands at 4.4% of GDP, which is below the OECD average of 4.7% by this measure.
Governments are the primary source of education funding in all OECD countries, especially for the levels covered by compulsory education. In Germany, governments provide 88.3% of total funding for primary, secondary, and post-secondary non-tertiary education (after transfers to the private sector), which is below the OECD average of 90.4%. At the pre-primary and tertiary levels, private funding often plays a larger role. In Germany, 91.3% of pre-primary education funding (after transfers) and 83.8% of tertiary education funding (after transfers) come from public sources, compared to OECD averages of 85.6% and 67.4%, respectively.
Although government expenditure on educational institutions increased by 13.1% between 2015 and 2022 on average across the OECD, government spending on education declined in relative terms from 10.9% of public budgets to 10.1%. This suggests the relative priority given to education in overall public spending has fallen across the OECD. In Germany, government expenditure on educational institutions increased by 15.2%, while the share of public budgets devoted to education decreased from 9% of public budgets to 8.4% over this period.
At pre-primary level, government expenditure in Germany increased substantially by 54.3% between 2015 and 2022. This is partly due to an increase of 15.6% in the number of children enrolled. As a result, government expenditure per child has increased, by 33.5%, compared to an average increase of 24% across the OECD since 2015.
Competitive salaries can make the teaching profession more attractive, particularly since teachers in many countries earn less than other tertiary-educated workers. In Germany, the actual salaries of primary teachers are 12% lower than those of tertiary-educated, full-time, full year workers, compared to an average of 17% lower across the OECD. However, increasing teacher salaries can be financially challenging, as staff costs make up the largest share of education expenditure (Figure 5).
Ratio of salaries to the earnings of full-time, full-year workers aged 25-64
Note: Data refer to the ratio of annual average salaries (including bonuses and allowances) of teachers and school heads in public institutions relative to the earnings of workers with similar educational attainment (weighted average) and to the earnings of full-time, full-year workers with tertiary education. Earnings of workers with similar educational attainment to teachers are weighted by the distribution of teachers (or school heads) by qualification level (see Tables X2.10 and X2.11). As values close to one may be difficult to identify in the figure, please refer to the source table.
1. Data on earnings for full-time, full-year workers with tertiary education refer to the whole country.
2. Year of reference for salaries of teachers differs from 2024.
For data, see OECD (2025) Education at a Glance 2025: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/1c0d9c79-en, Table D3.2.
School holidays in primary education last 12.6 weeks per year in Germany (all breaks combined), compared to 13.5 weeks across the OECD.
In Germany, 48% of instruction time in primary education is allocated to mathematics and reading, writing and literature, falling to 27% in lower secondary education. In comparison, the OECD average is for 41% of instruction time in primary education and 27% in lower secondary education to be devoted to these core subjects.
Across the OECD, the average class size at primary level has not changed since 2013, at 20.6 students. In Germany, the average class size in primary education in 2023 was 21 students, up by 0.2 since 2013.
Countries use a range of admission systems to tertiary public education institutions. These vary as to whether admission is open or selective, and whether applications are submitted directly to institutions or to a central body. In Germany, admission is open if the number of applicants is below the number of available places and selective if the number of applicants is greater than the number of available places. Applicants submit their applications directly to institutions or to a central body, depending on the programme.
In most countries, academic staff salaries vary significantly by seniority. Staff in junior academic positions often earn well below the average salary for tertiary-educated, full-time, full year workers, while staff in senior positions — such as full professors — typically earn well above this average. In Germany, junior academic staff (including employed doctoral candidates) earn 26% less than workers with at least a bachelor’s or equivalent degree, while senior academic staff earn 59% more. Average actual salaries of senior academic staff in Germany are well above those of all other OECD countries with available data.
For more information on Education at a Glance 2025 and to access the full set of indicators, see: https://doi.org/10.1787/1c0d9c79-en.
For more information on the methodology used during the data collection for each indicator, the references to the sources and the specific notes for each country, see Education at a Glance 2025: Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes, https://doi.org/10.1787/fcfaf2d1-en.
For general information on the methodology, please refer to the OECD Handbook for Internationally Comparative Education Statistics 2018, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264304444-en.
Updated data can be found on line at http://data-explorer.oecd.org/ and by following the StatLinks in the publication.
Explore, compare and visualise more data and analysis using the Education GPS: https://gpseducation.oecd.org/.
Questions can be directed to the Education at a Glance team at the OECD Directorate for Education and Skills: EDU.EAG@oecd.org.
This work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD. The opinions expressed and arguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of the Member countries of the OECD.
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← 1. Does not include adults who in Cycle 2 were only administered the doorstep interview due to a language barrier.