Quantum technologies and the role of governments and policy in kickstarting the second revolution

Emerging technologies are advancing at a moment when governments face growing pressure to rethink how they support and manage science and innovation. Few fields illustrate these tensions more clearly than quantum information science and technology: it promises breakthroughs in computing, communication and sensing, yet it also raises questions about digital security, privacy and economic competitiveness.

New OECD research provides an overview of national strategies and policies for quantum technologies and takes stock of this fast-moving landscape. It examines how countries are designing quantum strategies, which policy tools they are deploying, and how they are balancing openness, competition and security. 

As of November 2025, 18 OECD countries plus the European Union have adopted national quantum strategies. Since 2013, governments worldwide have announced roughly USD 55.7 billion in public support for quantum science and technology. While motivations vary, two themes dominate: economic opportunity and national security.

With the private sector, governments are pursuing quantum technology applications that could potentially deliver substantial productivity gains and unlock advances in materials discovery, drug development, and clean energy. At the same time, quantum-enabled threats, particularly related to digital security, privacy and dual-use applications, have heightened concerns about technological sovereignty and resilience.

National strategies therefore aim to guide and strengthen increasingly complex science and technology ecosystems. Before these strategies were introduced, funding for quantum technologies was often fragmented and agency-specific. Today, co-ordinated strategic plans help to align public research, talent development, industrial innovation and security considerations.

The OECD's overview shows broad diversity in national governance structures for quantum. In some countries, quantum policies are embedded in wider science, technology or digital agendas and governance mechanisms. In others, quantum strategies are co-ordinated from central government bodies. For example, France (Prime Minister’s General Secretariat for Investment), Japan (Cabinet Office) and the United States (White House Office of Science and Technology Policy) have placed responsibility for quantum strategy at the highest executive level, underscoring its strategic significance. 

Assigned offices and councils, such as national quantum co-ordination bodies, play an important role in linking research, industrial policy, security agencies and diplomatic initiatives. These structures reflect the increasingly cross-cutting nature of quantum technologies, which require sustained co-operation across science ministries, economic and innovation agencies, security authorities and standard-setting organisations. 

With governance arrangements in place, countries rely on a broad policy mix to translate strategic intent into action. The OECD’s mapping of nearly 250 quantum policies identifies five main instruments: 
 

1. Institutional funding for public research provides long-term support to advance the scientific foundations of quantum technologies. It often aims to strengthen international partnerships, support commercialisation efforts, and help build the future talent pipeline.
     
2. Project-based grants for public research promote foundational discoveries, cross-disciplinary collaboration and international research exchanges. These grants also help bridge basic science and early commercialisation by encouraging industry partnerships. 
     
3. Grants for business research and development support firms exploring market potential and business-sector challenges in areas such as healthcare and energy. By reducing financial risk, they support the development of quantum-enabled products and services.
     
4. Public procurement enables governments to strategically purchase early-stage quantum systems, often before they are ready for commercial markets. Procurement can accelerate development and deployment of quantum devices, validate their performance, and build early markets that help providers refine prototypes and reduce costs. 
     
5. Equity financing involves public investment in quantum start-ups and SMEs to help them manage long and uncertain development timelines and significant capital requirements. By sharing risk with private investors, governments can help promising firms attract capital, scale operations and accelerate product development. 

 
Together, these instruments form a complementary policy mix that supports the full technology development lifecycle, from fundamental research and talent development to commercialisation, deployment and early market formation. This holistic approach helps countries strengthen domestic quantum ecosystems while positioning their economies to benefit from future technological breakthroughs.

International collaboration has long been central to quantum research. But it is now coming under pressure as countries weigh openness against security and economic considerations. Cross-border co-authorship rates of quantum-related publications in some countries once approached 40%, yet these rates have declined across the board. Geopolitical tensions, export controls and new research security safeguards are reshaping collaboration, even among long-standing partners.

Rather than a uniform retreat from international co-operation, the quantum landscape is shifting toward selective collaboration among trusted countries, motivated by a desire to strengthen economic competitiveness, technological leadership and, in some cases, security and defence capabilities, as illustrated by the growing number of bilateral quantum technology agreements.

Fragmented collaboration may, however, introduce trade-offs, including potential duplication of research and development efforts, reduced economies of scale and slower progress on shared global challenges. Keeping collaboration channels open, while appropriately managing security-relevant aspects of the technology, will be a key policy challenge. 

The coming decade will test governments’ ability to foster scientific progress among like-minded countries while managing emerging technological and geopolitical risks. Well-designed national quantum strategies can help countries chart a balanced path: directing public investment, providing clear signals to researchers and industry, and embedding safeguards to develop the technology in ways that support human-centric, democratic values. The OECD will continue to support these efforts by providing comparative data, policy analysis and international dialogue.