This chapter examines the main characteristics of Hungary’s freshwater resources and recent trends shaped by climate change, economic and demographic dynamics, and environmental factors. Although Hungary is considered water-rich, most of its freshwater originates beyond its borders. Climate change is amplifying existing water-related risks, notably floods and droughts, while total renewable freshwater resources are declining. At the same time, water abstraction has been rising since 2014, driven by economic growth despite a declining population. Progress has been made in expanding access to water supply and sanitation and improving water quality. However, the ecological status of surface waterbodies and the quantitative status of groundwater bodies remain below the EU average.
Water Governance for Climate Resilience in Hungary
Abstract
Located in Central Europe, Hungary has 1 072 surface waterbodies and 185 groundwater bodies (OVF, 2022[1]). Surface waterbodies cover 1.9% of the national territory (the eighth highest share in the EU) (Eurostat, 2018[2]) and account for 97% of its total freshwater resources. Major waterbodies include Lake Balaton, Central Europe’s largest freshwater lake, and Lake Hévíz, the world’s largest thermal lake. Hungary sits in the middle section of the Danube River Basin, the second-largest water basin in Europe, which flows from Germany and across 19 countries into the Black Sea on the territory of Romania and Ukraine (Figure 1.1). The country holds the second-largest share of the Danube River Basin (11.6%) after Romania (29%) (European Commission, 2025[3]).
Note: The Danube River Basin flows across Albania, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Republic of Moldova, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland, and Ukraine.
Source: (ICPDR, 2025[4])
Hungary is rich in renewable freshwater resources, but heavily dependent on water flows from neighbouring countries. Hungary is among the ten European Union (EU) countries with the highest level of renewable freshwater resources (12 544 m3) per capita out of 23 Member States with available data (Eurostat, 2025[5]). However, an average 96% of this supply came from outside its borders between 2001 and 2020 (HUN-REN, 2024[6]), compared to less than 50% in 16 out of 23 EU countries with available data (Eurostat, 2025[5]). This means that Hungary generates comparatively little water from its own rainfall and natural sources and is highly dependent on water inflows from other countries, posing water security risks. Significant annual variation is observed, with a minimum of 83 461 million m3 and a maximum of 138 599 million m3 actual external inflows between 2000 and 2023 (Figure 1.2). Between 2000 and 2023, total renewable freshwater resources in Hungary declined by 3% each year on average. In 2022, Hungary’s water exploitation index plus (WEI+)1 almost doubled compared to its 2019 level, going from 1.2% to 2.3% (EEA, 2025[7]).
Source: Danube Water Balance (2025)
Water abstraction levels in Hungary are rising. Although abstraction rose at a pace of 1.3% annually between 2014 and 2022 (Figure 1.3), levels in 2022 remained 21% below the 2009 peak, coinciding with Hungary’s economic downturn after the 2008 global crisis (OECD, 2025[8]). In 2023, Hungary had the third-highest abstraction levels per capita (495 m3) among 13 EU countries with available data (Eurostat, 2025[9]). On average, 20% of water abstracted is consumed and not returned to the ecosystem (HUN-REN, 2024[6]). Between 2005 and 2022, 89% of water abstraction came from surface water and the remainder from groundwater. Agriculture (87%) and industry (85%) rely primarily on surface water (87% and 85% respectively), while 40% of the public water supply depends on groundwater (OVF, 2022[10]). Illegal groundwater abstraction, particularly for agriculture and water supply, is estimated to account for 16% of total water abstraction (European Commission, 2025[11]). Overall, only an estimated 10% of wells in Hungary are officially authorised (OVF, 2022[1]).
Source: (Eurostat, 2025[9]), (FAO, 2025[12])
Water quality challenges constitute an increasing threat to the good status of water resources and sustainable water supply (Box 1.1). In 2021, 16% of surface water bodies had a poor ecological status, and 19% of groundwater bodies were in poor chemical condition, exceeding the EU average of 13% and 14% respectively (European Commission, 2025[13]). The main sources of water pollution identified in Hungary’s third River Basin Management Plan (RBMP) are untreated or inadequately treated urban wastewater, industrial discharges, and agricultural runoff.
As part of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD), EU Member States monitor the quality of surface water bodies based on their ecological and chemical status and groundwater bodies based on their quantitative and chemical status.
The ecological status of surface waterbodies in Hungary has improved but remains below the EU average (Figure 1.4). In 2021, 11.3% of Hungarian surface waterbodies were in good ecological status, up from 8% in 2009-2015 (European Commission, 2025[13]), but still well below the EU average of 39.5% (Water Europe, 2024[14]). The chemical status of Hungary’s surface waterbodies remained stable between 2015 and 2021, with 46% of groundwater bodies in good status, exceeding the EU average of 29%, despite a significant improvement in the spatial and temporal scale of the monitoring network. Agricultural nutrient loads are the main diffuse pressure on surface waterbodies in Hungary, but urban stormwater run-off as a result of extreme precipitation or floods, atmospheric emissions and mining also contribute to diffuse pollution (OVF, 2022[1]). The main point sources of pollution come from industry (primarily manufacturing) and municipal wastewater discharge.
Note: The EU figure reflects data from Member States having reported electronically to the EEA for the Third River Basin Management Plans, including Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Cyprus, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Spain and Sweden.
Between 2015 and 2021, the share of groundwater bodies in poor quantitative and chemical status in Hungary remained stable, but the share of groundwater bodies classified as good but at risk grew (Figure 1.5). One-fifth (20%) of groundwater bodies had a poor quantitative status in 2021, quadruple the EU average of 5%, and 19% were in poor chemical condition, exceeding the EU average of 14% (European Commission, 2025[13]). Groundwater bodies with poor quantitative status are concentrated in the east of the Great Plains, where the decreasing water level of the groundwater bodies poses increasing challenges to agriculture and irrigation (OVF, 2022[1]). Although the good chemical status of groundwater bodies remained stable between 2015 and 2021, with 79.5% and 80.5% respectively, gaps in the monitoring methodology and its implementation (e.g. the exclusion of some chemicals) make this trend uncertain. The main reported sources of pressure on groundwater in the EU are diffuse pollution, especially from agriculture (32%), and abstraction (18%), most commonly from agriculture, public water supply and industry (EEA, 2024[15]). A significant share (60%) of Hungary’s groundwater bodies is vulnerable to these pressures due to their geological structure. Pollution from the surface can seep into groundwater bodies fast and contaminate entire waterbodies through underground flows, weakening their chemical condition (OVF, 2022[1]).
Source: (European Commission, 2025[13])
Hungarian surface waterbodies are heavily modified compared to other EU countries. In 2021, more than half (55%) of surface waterbodies were heavily modified, more than four times the EU average (13%) (EEA, 2023[16]). This share has risen by 61% since 2010, driven by reclassification and improved data coverage. Between 2010 and 2021, the share of heavily modified rivers increased from 40% to 52%, and modified lakes from 7% to 66%, while the share of natural lakes fell by half due to physical alteration (OVF, 2022[1]). Driving factors behind the modification and artificialisation of surface waterbodies include flood protection, water supply, and the protection of agricultural areas, transport infrastructure, tourism and recreational areas.
Note: Heavily modified waterbodies are those substantially changed in character due to physical alterations by human activity whereas artificial waterbodies are created by human activity.
Climate change is compounding existing threats to water security in Hungary. Water security is about managing risks of water shortage, excess, pollution, and risks of undermining the resilience of freshwater systems (OECD, 2013[17]). In Hungary, a combination of factors including rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, increasing evapotranspiration, and the reduction of water stored in the form of snow and ice in the higher-elevation catchments of the Carpathian mountains has resulted in growing and often unpredictable water risks (Figure 1.6).
Hungary is facing rising temperatures and more frequent heatwaves. Average summer temperatures in the country rose by 2.1 °C between 1900 and 2022 (Egyensúly Intézet, 2024[18]). Projections suggest further seasonal warming of 1-3 °C by 2050 and 2-6 °C by 2100 (Pongrácz, 2011[19]). Heatwaves have become more frequent and intense, particularly in urban areas where they are amplified by the urban heat island effect. For example, in 2023, the municipality of Budapest recorded an average heat island intensity of 2.5 °C during the daytime in the summer (OECD, 2025[20]). This localised warming can drive a sharp rise in water demand, especially during the summer. In the area surrounding Lake Balaton, daily water use can reach 130 000 m³ during heatwaves, nearly double the annual average (BBJ, 2022[21]).
Precipitation patterns are changing in Hungary, becoming less frequent and more intense. Between 1901 and 2020, total precipitation declined by 4%, while the number of precipitation days dropped by 35%, implying longer dry spells punctuated by heavy rainfall episodes (Egyensúly Intézet, 2024[18]). Between 2000 and 2024, precipitation levels fluctuated considerably from one year to another, ranging from 420 mm to 981 mm (KSH, 2025[22]). Forecasts anticipate increased winter and autumn precipitation (by 20-30% and 15-25%, respectively) and declines in summer precipitation by 5-25% over the 2021-2050 and 2071-2100 periods (Pongrácz, 2011[19]), which are projected to be accompanied by more frequent and intense river floods and droughts, respectively. The combination of more intense rainfall events and prolonged dry periods diminishes infiltration and groundwater recharge rates. This trend threatens the security of Hungary’s public water supply, which depends heavily on groundwater (93.5%), including karst aquifers (14.9%) (Eördöghné Miklós, 2014[23]) that are particularly vulnerable to climate extremes and supply water to large cities such as Miskolc and Pécs.
Climate change is also altering key hydrological processes such as evapotranspiration and snowmelt. In Hungary, evapotranspiration increased by an estimated 2.23 mm ± 0.3 mm annually between 1981 and 2020 (Báder and Szilágyi, 2023[24]), which combined with declining water availability could lead to an increased risk of droughts. Higher evapotranspiration also leads to the concentration of solutes in groundwater, promoting the build-up of less soluble pollutants (Humphries et al., 2011[25]). In parallel, with higher average temperatures and shorter winters, snowmelt is taking place earlier and faster, disrupting seasonal water availability and increasing flood risks (Gottlieb and Mankin, 2024[26]). A temperature increase of up to 3 °C in catchments of the upper Danube would significantly increase the earlier occurrence of snowmelt-induced floods (Blöschl et al., 2017[27]; Novaky and Balint, 2013[28]).
These climate shifts are leading to more frequent and intense droughts. Hungary is among the most drought-exposed countries in Europe, ranked 7th in the EU and 16th globally (WRI, 2024[29]). Between 2000 and 2020, 100% of Hungarian land faced increased drought frequency and intensity relative to the 1950-2000 baseline, compared to 64% on average for OECD countries (OECD, 2025[30]). Drought conditions occurred in 23 of the last 30 years, affecting 80% or more of Hungarian land area in eight of those (KSH, 2025[31]). Soil moisture2 levels declined by 2.3% on average between 2020 and 2024 (1.9% in the OECD on average) compared to the 1981-2010 reference period (OECD, 2025[32]). Long-term trends show that the most affected regions are the Northern and Southern Great Plains, with a soil moisture change rate below the national average (Figure 1.7). Most (96%) of the Great Hungarian Plain is projected to experience a 10-30% increase in drought hazard between 2021 and 2050 (Mezősi et al., 2014[33]). Under a severe drought scenario in Hungary, the manufacturing sector could experience up to a 9% reduction in output, translating into estimated economic losses of around EUR 3.4 billion (Boffo et al., 2024[34]).
Source: (OECD, 2025[32])
The exposure of the Hungarian population to floods is increasing, while regional disparities and infrastructure vulnerabilities persist. Roughly one-quarter of Hungary’s territory lies on floodplains, with the floodplains of the Tisza among the areas most exposed to flood hazards (European Commission, 2025[3]). In 2020, 27.5% of the Hungarian population was exposed to 100-year river flooding, more than twice (2.1) the OECD average and 1.4 times the EU average (Figure 1.8). This makes it the country with the fifth-highest share of the population exposed to river flooding among EU and OECD countries. Exposure is rising in many regions, particularly in the Northern Great Plain, where flood-prone built-up areas rose by 47% between 2000-2022 (OECD, 2025[35]). Annual urban damage due to floods in Hungary is forecast to increase eightfold between 2010 and 2050 (WRI, 2025[36]). Hungary’s flood defence infrastructure is insufficiently prepared for climate extremes. Over 80% of primary flood protections do not meet standards, including 96% of Tisza and 43% of Danube defences (OVF, 2021[37]). By 2030, current flood risk expenditure should be multiplied between by a factor of approximately 2 to 3.25 to maintain current flood risk protection standards, reflecting the growing exposure of urban assets, population, and gross domestic product (GDP) to flood risks (OECD, 2020[38]).
Note: The dataset is derived from river flood hazard maps with a 100-year return period, representing the average or estimated time within which a specific hazard is likely to recur.
Source: (OECD, 2025[35])
Floods and droughts amplify the risk of inadequate water quality. Flood events can result in the overflow of wastewater systems, particularly in cities with older combined sewage systems such as Budapest, potentially contaminating the Danube and threatening drinking water supply infrastructure such as Budapest’s Danube filtration systems (Rudd et al., 2023[39]; Nagy-Kovács et al., 2018[40]; Budappest, 2022[41]). Heavy rainfall and flood events also wash contaminants such as pesticides, fertilisers and chemicals off agricultural land and industrial plants and into waterbodies. Conversely, drought conditions can reduce river flows, concentrating pollutants and promoting harmful algal blooms, as seen in Lake Balaton’s record algal bloom in 2019 (Istvánovics et al., 2022[42]). The incidence of microbiological non-compliance in small water supplies3 is significantly higher than in large supplies due to more frequent use of unprotected water sources, the lack of adequate water treatment technologies, and insufficient resources for water treatment and distribution.
Escalating climate pressures are translating into mounting economic losses. Between 2000 and 2023, climate-related economic losses in Hungary totalled EUR 6 551 million, with more than one-third (39%) incurred in 2022, when the country recorded a historic drought and the second-highest per capita loss among EU27 countries at EUR 253 per inhabitant (Eurostat, 2025[43]). The Hungarian banking sector is exposed to nature-related physical risks, particularly from industries that heavily depend on surface water and groundwater, with EUR 24.4 billion (43%) and EUR 23.3 billion (41%) of corporate lending, respectively (Boffo et al., 2024[34]). Hungary is among the OECD Europe countries most exposed to both droughts and floods, similar to Germany, highlighting common vulnerabilities and areas of co-operation in water risk management (Figure 1.9). The future economic toll of extreme droughts in Hungary could be substantial, with potential GDP losses between 4% and 7% per year. Increasing exposure to floods in Hungary may indirectly jeopardise up to 30% of GDP, as existing flood protection infrastructure already does not fully comply with regulatory standards (HITA, 2013[44]; OVF, 2021[37]).
Note: The quadrants are defined using the OECD Europe average for each axis. Drought exposure (vertical axis) is measured as the inverted average soil moisture anomaly for the period 2019–2023, relative to the baseline period 1981–2010. Flood exposure (horizontal axis) reflects the share of population exposed to 100-year return-period river floods in 2020. The area of each point is proportional to the country's climate-related economic loss per capita over a thirty-year average (1992-2022).
Source: Based on OECD (2025[35])
Hungary is a fast-growing and high-income EU economy, yet income per capita remains low compared to OECD Europe countries. The country’s GDP reached USD 444 billion in 2024, with an annual average growth rate of 5.3% between 2010 and 2024, compared to 4.5% in the EU. Although considered a high-income country globally, Hungary’s GDP per capita of USD 43 393 makes it the fourth least-developed EU country, with a level comparable to that of Poland and the Slovak Republic (OECD, 2025[45]). Between 2010 and 2024, Hungary doubled its GDP per capita, which grew 5.6% annually on average, well above the EU27 (4.3%) and OECD (4.1%) growth rates. In 2024, services made the largest sectoral contribution (51%) to gross value added (GVA) in Hungary (Eurostat, 2025[46]). However, although the services sector’s share of value added has increased by 6 percentage points (pp) since Hungary’s accession to the EU in 2004 (compared to 2.9 pp on average in the EU), industry and agriculture have retained a relatively large weight in the Hungarian economy (Figure 1.10). Respectively, they accounted for 46.2% and 2.8% of total value added in Hungary, compared to the EU averages of 40.4% and 1.8% respectively.
Source: (Eurostat, 2025[46])
While all Hungarian regions registered economic growth between 2010 and 2022, the regions of Central Transdanubia and Northern Hungary recorded the fastest growth in GDP per capita, with an average increase of 7% per year (OECD, 2025[47]) (Figure 1.11). Hungarian regions differ in terms of sectoral specialisation. Budapest and Pest contribute most to gross value added in services (36% and 11% respectively), while Central and Western Transdanubia lead in industry (16 and 15% respectively). The Southern Great Plain, Southern Transdanubia and Northern Great Plain, which have the lowest levels of GDP per capita, contribute most to agriculture, with 20%, 20% and 17% respectively (TEIR, 2025[48]).
Note: GDP is expressed in purchasing power parity (PPP) converted in current prices. Industry includes construction and manufacturing while agriculture includes forestry and fishing.
Source: (OECD, 2025[45]), (TEIR, 2025[48])
Industry is the primary driver of water abstraction in Hungary. In 2022, industry represented 76% of total water abstraction, compared to 34% in the EU, followed by public water supply (18%) and agriculture (7%) (Figure 1.12). More than 90% of industrial water abstraction in Hungary is driven by the energy sector, primarily for electricity cooling purposes (EEA, 2024[49]). This can be explained by an electricity mix dominated by nuclear energy (42.3%) and fossil fuels (25.4%), natural gas (18.7%) and coal (6.5%) (IEA, 2025[50]). Between 2009 and 2022, water abstraction for electricity cooling shrank by 31%, leading to an overall decline in industrial water abstraction of 30% (EEA, 2024[51]). The discharge of heated cooling water from power plants contributes to rising river temperatures, especially during summer when water levels and flows in river are lowest. For instance, in July 2023, Paks nuclear power plant was forced to reduce its output as the Danube River approached the regulatory 30°C discharge temperature limit (Reuters, 2024[52]). The volume of water abstracted for construction and manufacturing increased by 86% between 2009 and 2022.
Source: (EEA, 2024[49])
Agriculture represented 6.7% of total water abstraction in Hungary in 2022, considerably below the EU average of 29% (EEA, 2024[49]). However, on a per capita basis, agricultural water abstraction stood at 68.4 m³, the seventh highest level among EU23 countries with available data (Eurostat, 2025[9])4. Although the total volume of agricultural water5 abstraction decreased by 1.1% per year on average between 2009 and 2022 (EEA, 2024[49]), irrigated land grew 7% on average each year over the same period (KSH, 2023[53]). Given Hungary’s Common Agriculture Policy (CAP) Strategic Plan aims to quadruple the surface of irrigation area between 2020 and 2030 (Agroberichten Buitenland, 2020[54]), a further increase in irrigation water demand is foreseeable. Despite the rise in irrigation, the volume of recent droughts in Hungary have led to agricultural production decline (Figure 1.13). The steepest year-on-year reduction occurred in 2022, when arable crop production dropped 32% compared to 2021, likely due to the severe drought that affected 85% of the country’s total land area. Long-term trends show that cropland soil moisture declined more than 2% on average during 2019-2023 (2.7% in the EU on average) compared to the 1981-2010 reference period. The most affected regions are the Northern Great Plain, Pest and Budapest, whose cropland soil moisture anomaly is below the national average. The Northern Great Plain is particularly vulnerable to soil moisture decline given that agriculture contributes to more than 8% of the region’s GDP. Under a severe drought scenario, agriculture could experience the highest reduction in output across sectors (up to 53%), resulting in estimated economic losses of more than EUR 6 billion (Boffo et al., 2024[34]).
Note: Soil moisture anomaly in cropland is measured as the 2019-2023 average compared to the 1981-2010 reference period average.
Source: KSH (2022[55]), Eurostat (2022[56]), Eurostat (2021[57]), KSH (2023[58]), KSH (2023[53]), OECD (2025[35])
Agriculture, forestry and fishing account for the largest share of water consumption in Hungary, reflecting the significant proportion of water abstracted that is not returned to the environment after use. In 2023, the agriculture, forestry and fishing sectors consumed 83.7% of the water they abstracted and accounted for almost two-thirds (65.9%) of total water consumption in Hungary (Figure 1.14) (OVF, 2025[59]). In contrast, the energy sector (excluding hydropower) returned almost all (99.6%) of the water it abstracted to the environment. The remaining industry sectors (manufacturing, mining and quarrying, construction, and water supply, sewage and waste management) accounted for 23.9% of water consumption, while the services sector accounted for 10%.
Note: Sectors are categorised according to the EU classification system for economic activities (NACE). “Other industry” represents mining and quarrying (NACE B); manufacturing (C); water supply, sewerage, waste management and remediation activities (E); and construction (F). “Services” covers trade (G); transport and telecommunication (H & J); accommodation and food service activities (I); financial and insurance activities (K); services and public administration (N-Q); and sport and recreation (R).
Source: OVF (2025[59]), Abstraction and return data per NACE sector (country submission based on internal data).
Hungary’s population is declining and concentrated in the capital region. Hungary was home to 9.6 million people in 2023, down from 10.4 million in 1990 (World Bank, 2022[60]). Almost half (46%) of the population is concentrated in the regions of Budapest (17%), the Northern Great Plain (15%) and Pest (14%) (OECD, 2025[61]). The total population is evenly distributed across cities6 (34.7%), towns and suburbs (33.9%), and rural areas (31.4%), the latter representing 71.5% of the total land area (above the EU average of 65.7%) (Eurostat, 2024[62]). Population density varies widely across the country, ranging from 3 196 inhabitants per km2 in the capital region of Budapest to 60 and 65 inhabitants per km2 in the rural regions of Southern Transdanubia and Southern Great Plain respectively (Eursotat, 2022[63]). Urban sprawl, which can heighten flood risk by preventing the infiltration of rainfall, has grown between 2010 and 2020: most Hungarian municipalities have seen their built-up area growth outpace population growth (OECD, 2025[32]).
Access to the public water supply is close to universal in Hungary, but an urban-rural gap persists. All Hungarian municipalities and 95.5% of the population were connected to the public water supply in 2024 (KSH, 2025[64]) (Figure 1.15). However, the share of dwellings connected to public water supply is below the national average in the predominantly rural regions of the Southern Great Plain (91%), Northern Hungary (93%) and Southern Transdanubia (94%), as well as in the region of Pest (94%), the second most densely populated region in Hungary (KSH, 2025[65]). An estimated 200 000 people consume water from private wells in Hungary, which has in some cases been associated with infectious and non-infectious diseases such as methemoglobinemia due to the concentration of nitrites and nitrates that can increase during floods (MTA, 2018[66]).
Source: (KSH, 2025[64])
Similarly, although connection rates to the public sewerage network have grown over the past two decades, reaching 84% of households in 2024, territorial disparities persist. Although the gap between urban rural areas in terms of connection rates decreased by 20 percentage points between 2005 and 2023, rural sewerage connection rates remain lower (66%) than urban (90%) ones (KSH, 2025[67]) (Figure 1.16). Connection rates are below the national average in the predominantly rural regions of Northern Hungary (81%), the Southern Great Plain (76%) and Southern Transdanubia (74%) (KSH, 2025[65]). Climate change is increasing extreme precipitation and flood risks, putting additional strain on sanitation systems through sewer overflows and infrastructure damage, which heightens water pollution and public health concerns. Although new sewerage networks in Hungary separate wastewater from rainfall, older combined systems remain prevalent in the country’s largest cities. In Budapest, 54% of sewers were still combined in 2019 (FCSM, 2019[68]), raising risks of overflows and water pollution during extreme precipitation events.
Source: (KSH, 2025[67])
Household water use, which accounts for most of public water supply use, is slightly below the European median and is highest in the capital city. In 2023, households accounted for three-quarters (75.4%) of public water supply use, followed by the services (16.6%) and industry and construction (7.3%) sectors (Eurostat, 2025[69]). In 2023, annual household water use in Hungary averaged 39 m³ per capita7, below the European median of 40-50 m³ per inhabitant (Eurostat, 2024[70]). However, residential use grew by 1.3% on average per year since 2014, when the lowest level of residential water use was observed at 33 m3 per inhabitant (Figure 1.17). The highest household water use levels were observed in 2023 in the most economically dynamic and densely populated regions of Budapest (49 m3) and Pest (39 m3), which account together for 31% of the population, while Northern Hungary, the least urbanised region (52%), had the lowest rate of water use (28 m3). Between 2014 and 2023, household water use per capita grew fastest in regions with the lowest initial levels, notably Northern Hungary (18%), the Northern Great Plain (16%) and the Southern Great Plain (15%). Budapest had the lowest increase at 4% (KSH, 2025[64]).
Source: (KSH, 2025[64])
Water supply affordability is a significant issue in Hungary. In 2021, the country had the second-highest water affordability ratio (4.2) on average among 23 EU countries, indicating that average household expenditure on water supply services exceeded 4.2% of net income, based on Eurostat data (Martins et al., 2023[71]). Relatively low income levels compared to the other 22 EU countries assessed appear to be the main driver for this high ratio, considering that Hungarian households’ average water expenditure is below the sample average. Variation across Hungarian regions is considerable, from 0% to 9%. Affordability issues are not limited to low-income households: more than half (50%) of the population within the bottom six income deciles spend 3% or more of their net income on water supply services, a threshold generally considered to indicate affordability issues. These issues may intensify in the future, as climate change and ageing infrastructure drive up the costs of providing water services.
Despite progress on water leakage and wastewater collection and treatment, infrastructure challenges remain. On average, water losses from leakage declined from 25.5% in 2017 to 22.9% in 2022. Some regions such as Northern Hungary experience losses of up to 30% (State Audit Office, 2024[72]). While tertiary treatment increased from 46% to 88% of collected wastewater between 2010 and 2023, untreated wastewater rose from less than 1% to 4% (Figure 1.18). Overall, 59% of urban wastewater complied with the requirements of the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive in 2020, making Hungary the eighth-least compliant EU country (European Commission, 2025[73]). As a result, Hungary was condemned by the Court of Justice of the EU for failing to comply with the requirements of the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive (UWWTD) in December 2023 and has been urged by the European Commission to ensure compliance with the new, more stringent requirements of the UWWTD recast in 2024.
Source: (KSH, 2023[74]) (KSH, 2023[75])
Land use patterns in Hungary contribute to heightened exposure to climate-related risks, notably droughts and floods. First, wetlands, which can mitigate floods (by acting as a buffer) and droughts (by helping maintain groundwater levels) account for just 0.6% of Hungary’s land area, compared to 2.6% on average in OECD Europe countries (Figure 1.19). Second, dwindling tree cover can reduce water retention in soils and exacerbate soil erosion. Trees8 cover 19% of Hungarian land, which is almost two times less than the OECD Europe average of 36%. Between 2000 and 2023, Hungary lost 12% of its tree cover, with higher rates in drought- and flood-prone regions like the Northern (21%) and Southern (20%) Great Plain (OECD, 2025[20]). European water basins with a tree cover of 30% have 25% higher water retention than those with 10% cover (EEA, 2015[76]), limiting water retention capacity in regions with low tree cover such as Budapest and the Northern and Southern Great Plains. Third, croplands that are managed to improve soil quality, reduce soil erosion and facilitate water infiltration (e.g. through no-till farming, mulching, cover crops and green landscape elements) can significantly contribute to regulating hydrological cycles. Hungarian land use is dominated by cropland (68%), well above the OECD Europe average of 39% (OECD, 2025[77]). Cropland covers more than 50% of land area in all regions except Budapest (24%), and almost three-quarters of land area in the main agricultural regions of the Northern and Southern Great Plains. However, in Hungary, mulching and no-till farming declined from 2023 to 2024, most markedly in the more drought-prone eastern part of the country, while natural landscape elements remain below 1% of arable land (Green Policy Center, 2024[78]). Overall, around 25% of Hungarian soils have limited water absorption or drainage capacity, making them more vulnerable to desiccation and runoff (Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 2010[79]).
Source: (OECD, 2025[77])
Hungary’s network of protected areas supports water resilience by enhancing natural water retention, mitigating runoff and soil erosion, and reducing the impact of water-related risks. These 327 natural areas, including 10 national parks, 39 landscape protection areas and 175 minor nature reserves (Ministry of Agriculture, 2021[80]), support ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration, water regulation (e.g. flood control) and water purification (Protected Planet, 2020[81]). Notably, 72% of Hungary’s wetlands and water-related ecosystems are Natura 2000 protected areas9, which are nature conservation areas of EU importance (Government of Hungary, 2023[82]). Protected areas cover different groups of ecosystems, with agroecosystems accounting for 45% in Hungary, far exceeding the EU average of 17.4%.
Source: (BISE, 2025[83])
References
[54] Agroberichten Buitenland (2020), Irrigation development in Hungary, https://www.agroberichtenbuitenland.nl/actueel/nieuws/2020/08/11/irrigation-in-hungary.
[24] Báder, L. and J. Szilágyi (2023), “Widening Gap of Land Evaporation to Reference Evapotranspiration Implies Increasing Vulnerability to Droughts in Hungary”, Periodica Polytechnica Civil Engineering, https://doi.org/10.3311/ppci.21836.
[21] BBJ (2022), Ample supplies of drinking water for summer heat, https://bbj.hu/economy/agriculture/weather/ample-supplies-of-drinking-water-for-summer-heat/.
[83] BISE (2025), Europe’s biodiversity, https://biodiversity.europa.eu/europes-biodiversity/protected-areas/coverage-and-representativeness (accessed on 12 March 2025).
[27] Blöschl, G. et al. (2017), “Changing climate shifts timing of European floods”, Science, Vol. 357/6351, pp. 588-590, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan2506.
[34] Boffo, R. et al. (2024), “Assessing nature-related risks in the Hungarian financial system: Charting the impact of nature’s financial echo”, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 243, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/24fd70e3-en.
[41] Budappest (2022), Flood Water Poses Life-Threatening Health Risks – Drowning Is Only One Of Them, https://budappest.com/flood-water-poses-life-threatening-health-risks-drowning-is-only-one-of-them/.
[7] EEA (2025), Water scarcity conditions in Europe, https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/indicators/use-of-freshwater-resources-in-europe-1?activeAccordion=546a7c35-9188-4d23-94ee-005d97c26f2b.
[15] EEA (2024), Europe’s state of water 2024: the need for improved water resilience, https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/publications/europes-state-of-water-2024/state-of-water-2024/@@download/file.
[51] EEA (2024), Water abstraction by source and economic sector in Europe, https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/indicators/water-abstraction-by-source-and (accessed on 5 December 2024).
[49] EEA (2024), Water abstraction by source and economic sector in Europe, https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/indicators/water-abstraction-by-source-and/water-abstraction-by-economic-sector.
[16] EEA (2023), Delineation of water bodies, https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis/maps-and-charts/delineation-of-water-bodies-water-assessments (accessed on 5 December 2024).
[76] EEA (2015), Water-retention potential of Europe’s forests: A European overview to support natural water-retention measures, https://www.actu-environnement.com/media/pdf/news-25551-water-retention-potential-forest.pdf.
[18] Egyensúly Intézet (2024), Hogyan legyen Magyarország vízben gazdag ország? [How can Hungary be rich in water resources?], https://egyensulyintezet.hu/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Vizbiztonsag_javaslat_EI.pdf (accessed on 12 December 2024).
[23] Eördöghné Miklós, M. (2014), “Characteristics of the aquifer from the perspective of the water services”, Pollack Periodica, Vol. 9/1, pp. 113-120, https://doi.org/10.1556/pollack.9.2014.1.12.
[73] European Commission (2025), 2025 Environmental Implementation Review Country Report – HUNGARY - European Commission, https://environment.ec.europa.eu/publications/2025-environmental-implementation-review-country-report-hungary_en.
[3] European Commission (2025), Hungary: Ready to see water differently?, https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/water/water-wise-eu/hungary_en.
[13] European Commission (2025), “Report from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on the implementation of the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) and the Floods Directive (2007/60/EC)”, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:52025SC0029.
[11] European Commission (2025), Third River Basin Management Plans Second Flood Hazard and Risk Maps and Second Flood Risk Management Plans Member State: Hungary, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex:52025SC0029.
[9] Eurostat (2025), Annual freshwater abstraction by source and sector, https://doi.org/10.2908/env_wat_abs (accessed on 5 December 2024).
[43] Eurostat (2025), Climate related economic losses by type of event, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/cli_iad_loss__custom_17352968/default/table?lang=en.
[46] Eurostat (2025), National accounts aggregates by industry (up to NACE A*64), https://doi.org/10.2908/nama_10_a64 (accessed on 5 December 2024).
[5] Eurostat (2025), Renewable freshwater resources - long term annual averages, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/env_wat_ltaa__custom_18451553/default/table (accessed on 21 October 2025).
[69] Eurostat (2025), Water use by supply category and economical sector, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/env_wat_cat/default/table?lang=en (accessed on 2025).
[62] Eurostat (2024), Urban-rural Europe - introduction, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Urban-rural_Europe_-_introduction (accessed on 18 December 2024).
[70] Eurostat (2024), Water Statistics, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Water_statistics.
[56] Eurostat (2022), Consumption of inorganic fertilizers, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/aei_fm_usefert/default/table?lang=en (accessed on 5 December 2024).
[57] Eurostat (2021), Gross nutrient balance, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/aei_pr_gnb/default/table?lang=en (accessed on 5 December 2024).
[2] Eurostat (2018), Land cover overview by NUTS 2 region, https://doi.org/10.2908/lan_lcv_ovw (accessed on 5 December 2024).
[63] Eursotat (2022), Population density by NUTS 3 region, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/demo_r_d3dens__custom_13879689/default/table?lang=en (accessed on 5 December 2024).
[12] FAO (2025), AquaStat: Hungary, https://data.apps.fao.org/aquastat/?lang=en.
[68] FCSM (2019), Sewer network operation, https://www.fcsm.hu/szolgaltatasok/szenny-es-csapadekviz-elvezetes/csatornahalozat-uzemeltetes.
[26] Gottlieb, A. and J. Mankin (2024), “Evidence of human influence on Northern Hemisphere snow loss”, Nature, Vol. 625/7994, pp. 293-300, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06794-y.
[82] Government of Hungary (2023), A biológiai sokféleség megőrzésének 2030-ig szóló nemzeti stratégiája [National Strategy for Biodiversity Conservation until 2030], https://cdn.kormany.hu/uploads/sheets/1/14/141/14141a7031c32aa7f9338edf332e811.pdf (accessed on 12 March 2025).
[78] Green Policy Center (2024), Hungary’s Second Climate Adaptation Progress Report - greenpolicycenter.com, https://www.greenpolicycenter.com/2024/12/02/magyarorszag-masodik-klimaalkalmazkodasi-elorehaladasi-jelentese/ (accessed on 31 October 2025).
[44] HITA (2013), The Hungarian Water and Sanitation Industry in the 21st century, https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&ved=2ahUKEwjYyOi0jNiNAxWQBfsDHeVLOfgQFnoECAoQAQ&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.awex-export.be%2Ffiles%2Flibrary%2FInfos-sectorielles%2FPECO%2F2017%2FHONGRIE%2FHungarian-Water-and-Sanitation-Industry-OK.
[25] Humphries, M. et al. (2011), “Water chemistry and effect of evapotranspiration on chemical sedimentation on the Mkuze River floodplain, South Africa”, Journal of Arid Environments, Vol. 75/6, pp. 555-565, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2011.01.013.
[79] Hungarian Academy of Sciences (2010), “Klíma-21” füzetek / “Clima-21” brochures, https://real.mtak.hu/72240/1/klima_fuzetek_Demeny_et_al._2010_u.pdf.
[6] HUN-REN (2024), National Water Altlas, https://www.nemzetiatlasz.hu/MNA/MNA_2_6_atdolg.pdf.
[4] ICPDR (2025), Countries of the Danube River Basin, https://www.icpdr.org/sites/default/files/nodes/documents/icpdr_facts_figures.pdf.
[50] IEA (2025), Hungary Country Profile, https://www.iea.org/countries/hungary/energy-mix.
[42] Istvánovics, V. et al. (2022), “Record‐setting algal bloom in polymictic Lake Balaton (Hungary): A synergistic impact of climate change and (mis)management”, Freshwater Biology, Vol. 67/6, pp. 1091-1106, https://doi.org/10.1111/fwb.13903.
[65] KSH (2025), 15.1.1.1. Main data on environment and communal services, https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/kor/hu/kor0001.html (accessed on 15 January 2026).
[67] KSH (2025), 15.1.1.42. Settlements with a public sewerage network and connected dwellings, https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/kor/en/kor0042.html (accessed on 16 January 2026).
[31] KSH (2025), Areas affected by drought, https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/kor/hu/kor0039.html (accessed on 8 December 2025).
[64] KSH (2025), Settlements and dwellings with public water supply, https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/kor/en/kor0041.html (accessed on 16 January 2026).
[22] KSH (2025), Weather data for Hungary and Budapest, https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/kor/hu/kor0037.html (accessed on 12 September 2025).
[58] KSH (2023), Area exposed to drought, https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/kor/en/kor0039.html (accessed on 5 December 2024).
[53] KSH (2023), Irrigation, https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/mez/en/mez0118.html (accessed on 5 December 2024).
[74] KSH (2023), Municipal sewerage [thousand m³], https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/kor/en/kor0026.html (accessed on 5 December 2024).
[75] KSH (2023), Municipal waste water treatment [thousand m³], https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/kor/en/kor0027.html (accessed on 5 December 2024).
[55] KSH (2022), Production of main arable crops [tonnes], https://www.ksh.hu/stadat_files/mez/en/mez0015.html (accessed on 5 December 2024).
[84] KSH (2013), Water Statistics of Hungarian Regions and River Basin District Subunits, https://circabc.europa.eu/sd/a/3270f5c8-873e-4210-bc50-26552d3b0cf7/HU_Regional_Water_Statistics_Final_Report_v2.0.pdf.
[71] Martins, R. et al. (2023), “Water affordability across and within European countries: a microdata analysis”, Utilities Policy, Vol. 83, p. 101609, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jup.2023.101609.
[33] Mezősi, G. et al. (2014), “Climate Change Impacts on Environmental Hazards on the Great Hungarian Plain, Carpathian Basin”, International Journal of Disaster Risk Science, Vol. 5/2, pp. 136-146, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-014-0016-3.
[80] Ministry of Agriculture (2021), Országos jelentőségű, egyedi jogszabállyal védett természeti területek [Natural areas of national importance protected by specific legislation], https://termeszetvedelem.hu/orszagos-jelentosegu-egyedi-jogszaballyal-vedett-termeszeti-teruletek/.
[66] MTA (2018), Hungarian Water Research Programme: challenges and research tasks, https://mta.hu/data/dokumentumok/Viztudomanyi%20Program/Hungarian%20Water%20Research%20Programme%20Challenges%20and%20Resesarch%20Tasks%202019.pdf.
[40] Nagy-Kovács, Z. et al. (2018), “Operational Strategies and Adaptation of RBF Well Construction to Cope with Climate Change Effects at Budapest, Hungary”, Water, Vol. 10/12, p. 1751, https://doi.org/10.3390/w10121751.
[85] NNGYK (2023), Drinking Water Quality Report 2023, https://www.nnk.gov.hu/attachments/article/726/2024_4_Ivo%CC%81vi%CC%81zmino%CC%8Bse%CC%81g%202023_v2.pdf.
[28] Novaky, B. and G. Balint (2013), “Shifts and Modification of the Hydrological Regime Under Climate Change in Hungary”, in Climate Change - Realities, Impacts Over Ice Cap, Sea Level and Risks, InTech, https://doi.org/10.5772/54768.
[8] OECD (2025), Environment at a Glance Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ac4b8b89-en.
[35] OECD (2025), Exposure to river flooding, https://data-explorer.oecd.org/vis?fs[0]=Topic%2C1%7CEnvironment%20and%20climate%20change%23ENV%23%7CAir%20and%20climate%23ENV_AC%23&fs[1]=Measure%2C0%7CPopulation%20exposure%20to%20river%20flooding%23RF_POP_EXP%23&pg=0&fc=Measure&snb=1&vw=tb&df[ds]=dsDis.
[30] OECD (2025), Global Drought Outlook: Trends, Impacts and Policies to Adapt to a Drier World, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/d492583a-en.
[77] OECD (2025), “Land resources: Land cover change in countries and regions”, OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/3bce4397-en (accessed on 31 October 2025).
[20] OECD (2025), Local Data Portal - Climate Monitor, https://localdataportal.oecd.org/profile.html?latitude=47.4764&longitude=19.1437&zoom=8.0000&view=climate&geolevel=TL2&code=HU11&topic=climateMitigation&subtopic=waste&indicator=GHG_TOTAL_GR_1990_2023.
[32] OECD (2025), Local Data Potal, https://localdataportal.oecd.org/profile.html?geolevel=TL2&code=HU33&view=climate&topic=climateAdaptation&indicator=GHG_TOTAL_GR_1990_2023&latitude=46.5711&longitude=20.0967&zoom=8.0000&subtopic=wetDry.
[61] OECD (2025), OECD Data Explorer: Demography statistics - Regions (for ’Developer API’), https://data-explorer.oecd.org/vis?lc=en&pg=0&snb=51&tm=population&vw=tb&df%5bds%5d=dsDisseminateFinalDMZ&df%5bid%5d=DSD_REG_DEMO%40DF_DEMO&df%5bag%5d=OECD.CFE.EDS&df%5bvs%5d=2.0&dq=A.TL2.HUN%2BHU11%2BHU12%2BHU21%2BHU22%2BHU23%2BHU31%2BHU32%2BHU33..POP%2B.
[47] OECD (2025), OECD Data Explorer: Regions GDP, https://data-explorer.oecd.org/vis?fs[0]=Topic%2C1%7CRegional%252C%20rural%20and%20urban%20development%23GEO%23%7CRegions%23GEO_REG%23&fs[1]=Topic%2C2%7CRegional%252C%20rural%20and%20urban%20development%23GEO%23%7CRegions%23GEO_REG%23%7CRegional%20economy.
[45] OECD (2025), Productivity levels, https://data-explorer.oecd.org/vis?fs%5b0%5d=Topic%2C1%7CEconomy%23ECO%23%7CProductivity%23ECO_PRO%23&pg=0&fc=Topic&bp=true&snb=6&vw=tb&df%5bds%5d=dsDisseminateFinalDMZ&df%5bid%5d=DSD_PDB%40DF_PDB_LV&df%5bag%5d=OECD.SDD.TPS&df%5bvs%5d=1.0&dq=AUS%2BAUT%2BB.
[38] OECD (2020), Financing Water Supply, Sanitation and Flood Protection: Challenges in EU Member States and Policy Options, OECD Studies on Water, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/6893cdac-en.
[17] OECD (2013), Water Security for Better Lives, OECD Studies on Water, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264202405-en.
[86] OECD/European Commission (2020), Cities in the World: A New Perspective on Urbanisation, OECD Urban Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/d0efcbda-en.
[59] OVF (2025), Abstraction and return data per NACE sector.
[1] OVF (2022), Magyarország 2021. évi vízgyűjtő-gazdálkodási terve [River Basin Management Plan of Hungary], https://vizeink.hu/vgt/#page=1.
[10] OVF (2022), Magyarország 2021. évi vízgyűjtő-gazdálkodási terve [River Basin Management Plan of Hungary], 5_1 Annex, General Directorate of Water Management, https://vizeink.hu/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/VGT3/mellekletek/5_1_melleklet_Vizhasznalatok_bemutatasa.pdf.
[37] OVF (2021), Magyarország 2021. évi Árvízkockázat-kezelési terve [Flood Risk Management Plan of Hungary - 2021], https://vizeink.hu/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/akk/Arvizkockazat-kezelesi_terv.pdf.
[19] Pongrácz, R. (2011), “ANALYSIS OF PROJECTED CLIMATE CHANGE FOR HUNGARY USING ENSEMBLES SIMULATIONS”, Applied Ecology and Environmental Research, Vol. 9/4, pp. 387-398, https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/0904_387398.
[81] Protected Planet (2020), Report 2020: Tracking progress towards global targets for protected and conserved areas, https://protectedplanetreport2020.protectedplanet.net/.
[52] Reuters (2024), Hungary to allow nuclear plant to exceed Danube water temperature limit, https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/hungary-allow-nuclear-plant-exceed-danube-water-temperature-limit-2024-07-27/.
[39] Rudd, H. et al. (2023), “Vulnerability of wells in unconfined and confined aquifers to modern contamination from flood events”, Science of The Total Environment, Vol. 901, p. 165729, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165729.
[72] State Audit Office (2024), Nemzeti Vízstratégia megvalósítására hozott intézkedések ellenőrzése [Monitoring of measures taken to implement the National Water Strategy], https://www.asz.hu/dokumentumok/24004.pdf.
[48] TEIR (2025), National Regional Development and Spatial Planning Information System, https://www.oeny.hu/oeny/teir/#/ (accessed on 5 December 2024).
[14] Water Europe (2024), Ecological status in surface waters, https://water.europa.eu/freshwater/europe-freshwater/water-framework-directive/ecological-status-of-surface-water.
[60] World Bank (2022), Population, total - Hungary, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locations=HU (accessed on 12 January 2022).
[36] WRI (2025), Riverine flood damage in Hungary, https://www.wri.org/applications/aqueduct/floods/#/risk?p=eyJjb21tb24iOnsiZ2VvZ3VuaXRfdW5pcXVlX25hbWUiOiJIdW5nYXJ5Iiwic2NlbmFyaW8iOiJidXNpbmVzcyBhcyB1c3VhbCJ9LCJoYXphcmQiOnsieWVhciI6IjIwMTAuMCIsImZsb29kIjoiaW51bnJpdmVyIiwic2NlbmFyaW8iOiJyY3A4cDUiLCJwcm9qZ.
[29] WRI (2024), Aqueduct Country Rankings, https://www.wri.org/applications/aqueduct/country-rankings/ (accessed on 5 December 2024).
← 1. The Water Exploitation Index Plus (WEI+) developed by the European Environment Agency measures quarterly water consumption as a percentage of renewable freshwater resources at river basin or sub-basin levels (EEA, 2025[7]).
← 2. Soil moisture acts as a key regulator of water exchanges between land and the atmosphere. Low soil moisture levels reduce plant transpiration, decrease water vapour fluxes, and intensify dry conditions, in turn decreasing water availability.
← 3. Small water supplies are defined as those serving less than 5 000 people or 1 000m3 per day. In Hungary, they supply water to approximately 4 million people.
← 4. Where data was missing for 2022, the latest available year was used.
← 5. In Hungary, agricultural water is used for irrigation as well as fish farming and rice production.
← 6. Cities are sets of closely related local units, each one of which having a density greater than 500 inhabitants per km2, with a total population of at least 50 000 inhabitants (OECD/European Commission, 2020[86]). Towns and suburbs refer to a set of closely related local units that do not pertain to a city area, with density greater than 100 inhabitants per km2, and a total population of at least of 50 000. Rural areas are sets of closely related local units that are not part of a city area, or of a town and suburb area.
← 7. According to official national statistics, annual household water consumption in Hungary averaged 37.6m3 per capita annually in 2023 (KSH, 2025[65]).
← 8. Tree cover (which refers to the presence of trees in a given area regardless of their ecological composition or management regime) does not necessarily equate to natural forest cover. Notably, planted monocultures may provide more limited biodiversity and ecosystem services (including water retention) compared to mixed-species forests.
← 9. Natural areas of national importance are governed by the 1996 Act on Nature Conservation, while Natura 2000 sites are regulated by Decree 275 of 2004 (X. 8) on nature conservation areas of EU importance.