Micro-credentials are widely viewed as a promising tool to support the development of flexible lifelong learning systems, which can support wider uptake of reskilling and upskilling. In 2023, Czechia requested support from the European Commission as part of the Technical Support Instrument (TSI) for the development of a harmonised national approach to micro-credentials across education and training sectors in the country. From late 2024 until summer 2026, the OECD worked with the Czech authorities and stakeholders, as well as the European Commission, to develop the strategy and micro-credentials presented in Chapter 3 of this report. The present chapter provides a concise overview of the rationale for developing micro-credentials, the European policy framework within which Czechia’s strategy has been developed and some of the common challenges associated with implementing micro-credentials in practice observed internationally.
1. The potential of micro-credentials
Copy link to 1. The potential of micro-credentialsAbstract
The emergence of micro-credentials as a tool for upskilling and reskilling
Copy link to The emergence of micro-credentials as a tool for upskilling and reskillingMicro-credentials are a potential building block of more flexible adult learning systems
Over the last decade, in the face of rapid technological change and aging populations, OECD countries have intensified efforts to develop more flexible forms of education and training to increase opportunities for people to acquire new skills throughout their working lives. In this context, micro-credentials – certificates that certify that learners have achieved a small volume of learning outcomes – have received substantial interest among policymakers and educational professionals (OECD, n.d.[1]). Micro-credentials offer a tool to allow individuals to obtain proof that they possess specific sets of knowledge and skills, which they can use to help them access and progress in work and, when appropriate recognition procedures exist, to gain credit towards larger qualifications. By certifying smaller volumes of learning outcomes – in terms of knowledge, skills or attitudes – than traditional education and training programmes, micro-credentials offer the potential to make education and training systems more flexible and accessible.
Box 1.1. Flexible adult learning provision and micro-credentials
Copy link to Box 1.1. Flexible adult learning provision and micro-credentialsTraditional adult learning offerings in many OECD countries require learners to attend classes at specific times and places, often in a traditional classroom setting. However, more flexible options are emerging, offering increased flexibility across four key dimensions:
Time flexibility accommodates adults’ busy schedules by allowing them to choose when to learn, how long to engage, and how much time to dedicate. Courses can offer part-time options, asynchronous learning, and flexible start and finish dates.
Place flexibility addresses the challenge of inconvenient locations. Distance and online learning allow adults to participate from anywhere, reducing barriers related to physical attendance.
Mode flexibility caters to different learning preferences, combining online and in-person elements. Blended or hybrid learning environments, where instruction is delivered both online and face-to-face, are becoming more common, reducing commuting time and offering learners flexibility in how they engage with course material.
Content flexibility allows for personalised learning pathways. Modular courses offer learners the choice to study topics in a sequential or concurrent order, and advances in learning analytics are enhancing personalised education. This flexibility enables adult learners to pursue specific skills relevant to their career and personal goals.
Micro-credentials are a tool for flexible adult learning. Many micro-credential courses involve self-paced learning and digital or hybrid delivery, with learners often having the freedom to choose which micro-credential course or bundle of micro-credential courses to undertake, allowing them to determine their own training pathway and the pace at which they acquire new learning outcomes.
Source: OECD (2023[2]), Flexible adult learning provision: What it is, why it matters, and how to make it work? https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/topic/policy-sub-issues/adult-learning/booklet-flexibility-2023.pdf (accessed on 29 April 2026).
As discussed in previous OECD work on adult learning (see Box 1.1), this flexibility has the potential to be particularly valuable for adults who have left the formal education and training system, who typically need to juggle learning activities with work and other responsibilities (OECD, 2023[3]). Limited time and the rigidity of traditional formal and non-formal education and training provision consistently emerge as key barriers to participation in learning among adults who are otherwise interested in upskilling and reskilling opportunities (OECD, 2025[4]; OECD, 2023[2]). Equally, certifying smaller volumes of learning – and breaking learning provision leading to this certification into smaller learning programmes – creates learning opportunities which are more manageable and potentially attractive for individuals who would find larger programmes and courses daunting and off-putting (OECD, 2023[2]).
Micro-credentials can be developed as independent credentials or be part of modularised qualifications
Micro-credentials can be used to certify small volumes of learning developed independently, based on a small, newly developed and stand-alone learning programme, for example. They can also be used to certify learning outcomes relating to one part of a larger programme of learning, which has been broken into distinct units or modules. The modularisation of formal learning programmes has become increasingly widespread in vocational and higher education. It means that different modules can be combined in different combinations and followed at different paces, thus facilitating multidisciplinary and flexible study and learning patterns. When micro-credentials are issued on successful completion of specific learning modules, this allows learners to obtain formal recognition for their learning without completing a full qualification and to accumulate – or “stack” – modules over time, potentially allowing them to obtain a full qualification over a longer period than usual with traditional study patterns (OECD, 2023[2]).
In Europe, modularisation of learning programmes is particularly developed in Nordic countries. For example, reforms to the vocational education and training (VET) sector in Denmark now allow students to obtain certificates for modules of a full qualification (European Commission, 2022[5]). The adult vocational training programmes (Arbejdsmarkedsuddannelser, AMU) offer short, flexible and modular training programmes for labour-market entry. Several courses are grouped into one module, and the learner can receive a certificate upon the completion of a module. Each course can last between a few days and six weeks, and the learner can take all courses in one continuous training programme or one-by-one at the leaner’s own pace. The certificates are recognised by both the education sector for further training (VET and higher VET) and the labour market for access to employment.
Alternatively, micro-credentials can be developed and issued independently from existing qualifications, as a supplementary offer to existing education and training programmes. This approach generally allows greater flexibility in the design and implementation of micro-credentials as there is no requirement to link learning to existing learning programmes or related occupational or professional standards. This makes it possible to develop learning offerings leading to micro-credentials that incorporate new content tailored to specific or fast-evolving skills needs. It can also be quicker to develop such new or stand-alone micro-credential offerings than to adapt existing modules or change entire training programmes, making these offerings attractive for training providers and learners who want to respond quickly to skills requirements. Box 1.2 provides a summary of the key advantages and use cases of these two approaches.
Box 1.2. Micro-credentials: modular building blocks vs. stand-alone learning units
Copy link to Box 1.2. Micro-credentials: modular building blocks vs. stand-alone learning unitsMicro-credentials can be issued based on modular components of full qualifications or be stand-alone certificates based on stand-alone training provision. These two main approaches have specific advantages and can serve different purposes as summarised below.
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Approach |
Key benefits |
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Certification of modular elements of full qualifications |
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Certification of stand-alone programme of learning |
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An emerging hybrid model leverages both functions, where micro-credentials based on modules of modularised programmes are combined with new, additional, stand-alone micro-credentials that complement the traditional learning offer.
Note: Based on OECD (2023[3]) Public policies for effective micro-credential learning https://doi.org/10.1787/a41f148b-en and European Training Foundation (2022[6]) Guide to design, issue and recognising micro-credentials https://www.etf.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2023-05/Micro-Credential%20Guidelines%20Final%20Delivery.pdf (accessed on 29 April 2026).
The European Union has created a common framework for micro-credentials in Europe
In 2022, European Union (EU) Member states adopted a Council Recommendation on “a European approach to micro-credentials for lifelong learning and employability” establishing common principles for the development of micro-credentials across the EU (Council of the European Union, 2022[7]). This Recommendation explicitly set out to strengthen and complement existing learning opportunities, increase participation in lifelong learning and help reach the EU’s ambitious target of 60% of all adults participating in training every year.
The Recommendation defines micro-credentials as follows:
“…the record of the learning outcomes that a learner has acquired following a small volume of learning. These learning outcomes will have been assessed against transparent and clearly defined criteria. Learning experiences leading to micro-credentials are designed to provide the learner with specific knowledge, skills and competences that respond to societal, personal, cultural, or labour market needs. Micro-credentials are owned by the learner, can be shared and are portable. They may be stand-alone or combined into larger credentials. They are underpinned by quality assurance following agreed standards in the relevant sector or area of activity” (Council of the European Union, 2022[7]).
The European Union Council Recommendation sets out a list of measures that EU Member States could consider implementing to support the development of micro-credential ecosystems and support lifelong learning and employability, along with common minimum standards for the information that micro-credentials (as a certificate) should contain. Among the key principles outlined in the Recommendation are:
The learning outcomes certified by micro-credentials must be assessed against transparent and clearly defined criteria.
Micro-credentials can serve “societal, personal, cultural or labour market” needs, although the language of the Recommendation has a strong focus on employability.
Micro-credentials can be issued by a wide range of actors for formal and non-formal learning.
Micro-credentials must be underpinned by quality assurance following agreed standards in the relevant sector or area of activity.
The Recommendation sets out broad actions that Member states can pursue to develop ecosystems for micro-credentials, including in the higher education and VET sectors and in non-formal and informal settings. To support this, the Recommendation also recommends adjusting quality assurance mechanisms, using skills intelligence systems, publishing catalogues of available micro-credentials and integrating micro-credentials into national qualifications frameworks and systems. The Recommendation additionally stresses the value of cross-sectoral cooperation and experimentation for developing and implementing micro-credentials on the ground.
Czechia has committed to making education and training more flexible and boosting adult learning
Against the backdrop of the broader trend toward developing flexible adult learning opportunities and the European approach to micro-credentials discussed above, Czechia has also taken steps to promote lifelong learning at national level. As summarised in Box 1.3, Czechia’s most wide-ranging strategy for education and training, adopted in 2020, has a strong focus on making the education and training system more flexible and on boosting lifelong learning. This strategy has a strong focus on formal education and training up to upper secondary level, with a particular focus on modularising and modernising the VET system. While explicitly acknowledging the importance of increasing adult learning more broadly – including beyond the continuing VET system – the strategy does not contain specific actions related to adult learning in higher education or in the non-formal sector outside of VET and higher education.
More recently, the Czech authorities have deployed European funding from the Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF) to support a piloting of micro-credentials in the higher education sector in an effort to support development of adult learning provision at the advanced skill level. This pilot project, along with wider developments in the Czech landscape for lifelong learning are discussed in Chapter 2 of this report.
Box 1.3. Czechia’s national education strategy includes a strong focus on enhancing the relevance of education and developing lifelong learning
Copy link to Box 1.3. Czechia’s national education strategy includes a strong focus on enhancing the relevance of education and developing lifelong learningCzechia’s Strategy for Education Policy until 2030+ (Strategy 2030+), adopted in October 2020, outlines priorities for the development of key parts of the education and training system for the ten-year period to 2030. The strategy set out to modernise the Czech education and training system guided by two strategic objectives:
1. To focus education more on the acquisition of competences needed for an active civic, professional and personal life.
2. To reduce inequalities in access to quality education and pave the way for the maximum development of the potential of children, pupils and students.
Alongside objectives covering all stages of initial education, Strategy 2030+ also includes a strong focus on enhancing the relevance and flexibility of the upper secondary and tertiary vocational education and training (VET) systems and on expanding opportunities for lifelong learning. In this context, the Strategy set out measures to introduce modular curricula in VET to permit different learning units to be combined more flexibly and students to be assessed on individual modules independently. As discussed in the next chapter, efforts to introduce modularisation across initial and continuing VET provision provide a good basis for certifying smaller units of learning, which could ultimately be integrated into a system of micro-credentials.
More generally, Strategy 2030+ reaffirms the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports’ commitment to supporting upper secondary schools and higher-education institutions in their role as providers of further education and to the development of career guidance.
Source: Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (2020[8]) Strategy for the education policy of the Czech Republic up to 2030+, https://msmt.gov.cz/uploads/brozura_S2030_en_fin_online.pdf (accessed on 29 April 2026).
Implementing micro-credentials in practice: challenges and opportunities
Copy link to Implementing micro-credentials in practice: challenges and opportunitiesProgress has been made in implementing micro-credentials, but challenges remain
Since the adoption of the Council Recommendation on a European approach to micro-credentials in 2022, considerable efforts have been made in many Member states to implement national policies for micro-credentials at system level (OECD, 2023[3]) and expand the delivery of micro-credentials in different education and training sectors, with a frequent focus on higher education (OECD, 2024[9]). In parallel, initiatives to develop, pilot and refine micro-credential offerings have developed in other OECD member countries, notably in Australia and New Zealand (OECD, 2023[3]).
In late 2025, the European Commission published a progress report on the implementation of the Council Recommendation (European Commission, 2025[10]). This report confirmed that progress had been made in developing micro-credentials and elements of micro-credentials systems, with some countries having adopted major initiatives, but highlighted that this progress has been uneven across countries and training sectors and that challenges remain. Based on an analysis of survey responses from the higher education, VET and employment policy sectors across EU Member States, the report highted the following main issues:
A frequent lack of strategic frameworks and a legislative basis for micro-credentials in national education and skills systems.
Fragmentation and uncoordinated approaches across education and training sectors and training provider types, even when some progress has been made in developing sector-specific frameworks.
Challenges related to designing policies to assure the quality of micro-credentials – as a means to build trust and promote recognition – among non-formal education and training providers outside of VET and higher education and to some extent in VET.
Difficulties in ensuring micro-credentials are aligned with labour market skills requirements, including a lack of reliable skills intelligence.
A lack of promotion and effective incentives to ensure uptake of micro-credentials when these were developed in different sectors.
An ongoing lack of evidence on the outcomes and impacts of micro-credentials.
The challenges identified in the Commission report resonate with the issues discussed with stakeholders in Czechia and in other comparator jurisdictions during this project. Based on previous OECD analysis of the development of micro-credentials systems and taking into account the Czech context, the project examined in some depth how micro-credentials had been implemented in four comparator OECD countries, which are among those having made most progress in this area (Australia, Estonia, Finland and Ireland). Insights and examples from these systems, as well as other systems identified as having particularly relevant practice in the area of micro-credentials, have been used to underpin the proposed strategy for Czechia presented in Chapter 3 of this report.
The analysis of international examples made it possible to understand challenges faced by pioneering micro-credentials systems and to identify different approaches to overcoming the main implementation challenges highlighted, whether these are system-wide issues – such as a lack of common legislative or normative basis for micro-credentials – or specific to certain sectors of micro-credential provision. The question of quality assurance is one example of a recurring issue that varies substantially across different types of (potential) micro-credential issuers. Higher education institutions in most systems enjoy substantial autonomy in matters of quality assurance and are generally trusted institutions in national skills systems, which has in many cases meant that higher education institutions have been able to pilot and offer micro-credentials on the basis of their existing accreditation and reputations. This holds to some extent for national VET sectors, although the more regulated – often national – curricula and qualifications in VET reduces the freedom of individual VET providers to offer micro-credentials on a stand-alone basis. In contrast, most national skills systems appear to continue to struggle with the question of how best to the assure quality of micro-credentials if these are to be issued by non-formal providers outside of VET and higher education. The landscape of private and non-profit providers of adult learning is typically diverse across countries and formal accreditation is often absent or based on sector specific of industry standards, which make it difficult to adopt a system-wide approach to quality standards. This is among the issues addressed in more detail in Chapter 3.
The issue of limited evidence of the outcomes and impacts of micro-credentials identified in the Commission implementation report mentioned above warrants a specific mention. Although some evidence exists to suggest that modular, small-volume learning can be effective in serving learner groups who might otherwise not engage in upskilling and reskilling, robust evidence on the impact of such learning and certification methods remains scare (OECD, 2023[11]). This lack of evidence is problematic in that it hinders evidence-based policymaking and may limit the development of micro-credentials. At the same time, it is challenging to measure the impact of a learning format that has not been implemented on a sufficiently large scale. As such – as recommended in the proposed strategy in this report – careful evaluation of more trials of micro-credentials is required to improve the overall evidence base available to policymakers and practitioners.
Towards more harmonised micro-credential ecosystems?
One of the objectives of the European approach to micro-credentials discussed earlier was to develop coordinated micro-credential ecosystems that are coordinated across provider types and stakeholders within national skills systems and, ultimately, between skills systems in the European Union. Developing a truly coordinated – or harmonised – micro-credential system would theoretically require connections to be developed across three key dimensions:
The first is coordination and collaboration among education and training providers within different education and training (provider) sectors and, where relevant, between these sectors. In-sector coordination and collaboration is necessary to agree common approaches to micro-credential implementation within the specific regulatory frameworks and practices of VET, higher education or private sector training systems, notably to permit mutual recognition of the credentials issued. Cross-sectoral cooperation is required to ensure at least minimum common standards for micro-credentials are put in place to ensure that micro-credentials issued by different sectors are sufficiently similar to avoid a confusing multiplication of different certificate types with the same name.
The second is the integration of labour market actors within the learning ecosystem, ensuring dialogue is established around skills requirements and the appropriate use of labour market intelligence.
The third involves fostering inclusivity by engaging learners from all backgrounds and circumstances.
The development of micro-credential systems typically starts with efforts to achieve coordination of micro-credential provision within individual education and training sectors. However, to prevent micro-credentials being developed in incompatible ways that are confusing for learners, such sector-specific developments ideally need to be coordinated within a national micro-credentials framework. Across sectors, engagement with labour market actors and skills intelligence is important to ensure the relevance of training provision and the micro-credentials issued and engagement with learner communities is needed to ensure uptake of micro-credential provision and effects on learners’ skills outcomes. These principles have guided the reflections that fed into the strategy proposed in this report.
References
[7] Council of the European Union (2022), “Council Recommendation 2022/C 243/02 of 16 June 2022 on a European approach to micro-credentials for lifelong learning and employability”, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32022H0627%2802%29.
[10] European Commission (2025), Progress report on the implementation of the Council Recommendation on a European approach to micro-credentials for lifelong learning and employability, Publications Office of the EU, Luxembourg, https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/d6e3213e-daf4-11f0-8da2-01aa75ed71a1/language-en (accessed on 16 April 2026).
[5] European Commission (2022), The AMU system lets the Danish workforce continuously improve its skills, https://epale.ec.europa.eu/en/blog/amu-system-lets-danish-workforce-continuously-improve-its-skills (accessed on 29 April 2026).
[6] European Training Foundation (2022), Guide to Design, Issue and Recognise Micro-Credentials, European Training Foundation, https://www.etf.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2023-05/Micro-Credential%20Guidelines%20Final%20Delivery.pdf (accessed on 29 April 2026).
[8] Ministry of Education, Y. (2020), Strategy for the education policy of the Czech Republic up to 2030+, Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports, https://msmt.gov.cz/uploads/brozura_S2030_en_fin_online.pdf (accessed on 29 April 2026).
[4] OECD (2025), Trends in Adult Learning: New Data from the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills, Getting Skills Right, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ec0624a6-en.
[9] OECD (2024), “Promoting green and digital innovation: The role of upskilling and reskilling in higher education”, OECD Education Policy Perspectives, No. 103, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/feb029df-en.
[2] OECD (2023), “Flexible adult learning provision: What it is, why it matters, and how to make it work?”, https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/topic/policy-sub-issues/adult-learning/booklet-flexibility-2023.pdf (accessed on 29 April 2026).
[11] OECD (2023), “Micro-credentials for lifelong learning and employability: Uses and possibilities”, OECD Education Policy Perspectives, No. 66, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9c4b7b68-en.
[3] OECD (2023), “Public policies for effective micro-credential learning”, OECD Education Policy Perspectives, No. 85, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/a41f148b-en.
[1] OECD (n.d.), OECD Education Policy Perspectives, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5cc2d673-en.