The role of digital intermediation platforms in opening up international markets

Annex D. Competition analysis: the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index (HHI)

Table A D.1. Market concentration and dominant platforms in digital intermediation markets

By sector, 2014-2024

Sector	Year	Num Countries Leading	Dominant Platform	Countries	Median HHI	Median Balanced HHI	Total Countries in Sample
Ride-Hailing & Carpooling	2014	14	Uber	Australia, Belgium, Canada, Finland, France, Israel, Italy, Mexico, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Türkiye, United Kingdom, United States	0.981496	0.981496	20
Ride-Hailing & Carpooling	2015	9	Uber	Australia, Belgium, Canada, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States	0.862275	0.862275	22
Ride-Hailing & Carpooling	2016	15	Uber	Australia, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Estonia, Finland, Greece, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States	0.834608	0.834608	38
Ride-Hailing & Carpooling	2017	18	Uber	Australia, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Estonia, Finland, Greece, Ireland, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, United Kingdom, United States	0.799396	0.799396	38
Ride-Hailing & Carpooling	2018	19	Uber	Australia, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Estonia, Finland, Greece, Ireland, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Slovak Republic, Sweden, United Kingdom, United States	0.707542	0.707542	38
Ride-Hailing & Carpooling	2019	16	Uber	Australia, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Finland, Greece, Ireland, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Slovak Republic, Sweden, United Kingdom, United States	0.626171	0.626171	38
Ride-Hailing & Carpooling	2020	17	Uber	Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Finland, Greece, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States	0.575195	0.575195	38
Ride-Hailing & Carpooling	2021	18	Uber	Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Finland, Greece, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States	0.547662	0.547662	38
Ride-Hailing & Carpooling	2022	19	Uber	Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Finland, Greece, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States	0.512872	0.512872	38
Ride-Hailing & Carpooling	2023	17	Uber	Australia, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Finland, Greece, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States	0.519535	0.519535	38
Ride-Hailing & Carpooling	2024	19	Uber	Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Finland, Greece, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States	0.517101	0.517101	38
Travel & Accommodation Booking	2014	7	Booking	Belgium, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain	0.36355	0.36355	20
Travel & Accommodation Booking	2015	12	Booking	Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden	0.337748	0.337748	22
Travel & Accommodation Booking	2016	23	Booking	Austria, Belgium, Costa Rica, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Türkiye	0.38144	0.38144	38
Travel & Accommodation Booking	2017	24	Booking	Austria, Belgium, Costa Rica, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Türkiye	0.400598	0.400598	38
Travel & Accommodation Booking	2018	25	Booking	Austria, Belgium, Costa Rica, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom	0.378151	0.378151	38
Travel & Accommodation Booking	2019	26	Booking	Austria, Belgium, Costa Rica, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom	0.37595	0.37595	38
Travel & Accommodation Booking	2020	28	Booking	Austria, Belgium, Colombia, Costa Rica, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom	0.380855	0.380855	38
Travel & Accommodation Booking	2021	28	Booking	Austria, Belgium, Chile, Costa Rica, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom	0.352599	0.352599	38
Travel & Accommodation Booking	2022	27	Booking	Austria, Belgium, Chile, Costa Rica, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom	0.375636	0.375636	38
Travel & Accommodation Booking	2023	28	Booking	Austria, Belgium, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom	0.356989	0.356989	38
Travel & Accommodation Booking	2024	29	Booking	Austria, Belgium, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Czechia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom	0.376957	0.376957	38
X2C Online Marketplace	2014	6	eBay	Australia, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Norway, United Kingdom	0.428192	0.428192	20
X2C Online Marketplace	2015	7	Amazon	Canada, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Spain, United Kingdom, United States	0.410785	0.410785	22
X2C Online Marketplace	2016	9	Amazon	Austria, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Spain, United Kingdom, United States	0.449917	0.449917	38
X2C Online Marketplace	2017	9	Amazon	Austria, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Spain, United Kingdom, United States	0.452107	0.452107	38
X2C Online Marketplace	2018	12	Amazon	Austria, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Spain, United Kingdom, United States	0.433773	0.433773	38
X2C Online Marketplace	2019	14	Amazon	Austria, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, Norway, Portugal, Spain, United Kingdom, United States	0.40989	0.40989	38
X2C Online Marketplace	2020	19	Amazon	Austria, Canada, Costa Rica, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Israel, Italy, Luxembourg, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States	0.4135	0.4135	38
X2C Online Marketplace	2021	19	Amazon	Austria, Canada, Costa Rica, Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Israel, Italy, Luxembourg, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Slovak Republic, Spain, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States	0.4544	0.4544	38
X2C Online Marketplace	2022	20	Amazon	Australia, Austria, Canada, Costa Rica, Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Israel, Italy, Luxembourg, New Zealand, Norway, Slovak Republic, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States	0.454494	0.454494	38
X2C Online Marketplace	2023	19	Amazon	Australia, Austria, Canada, Costa Rica, Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Israel, Italy, Luxembourg, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States	0.440329	0.440329	38
X2C Online Marketplace	2024	20	Amazon	Australia, Austria, Canada, Costa Rica, Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, Iceland, Israel, Italy, Luxembourg, Mexico, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States	0.432935	0.432935	38

Notes: This table reports annual indicators of market concentration across selected digital intermediation sectors. The Herfindahl–Hirschman Index (HHI) is calculated based on platform traffic shares, with higher values indicating greater concentration. “Balanced HHI” includes only platforms continuously active throughout the 2014-2024 period. “Dominant platform” refers to the platform with the largest traffic share in the highest number of countries in a given year. “Num countries leading” counts the number of countries in which that platform is the market leader.

The country coverage varies over time; “Total countries in sample” reports the number included in each year.

Sources: Author’s elaboration based on data from Semrush and Crunchbase.