To illustrate the value of applying a segmentation approach to better understand the diversity of adult learners, this paper identifies learner profiles in Bulgaria, Finland, Ireland and Portugal. These countries were selected based on several interrelated criteria (see Box 2.1). This diversity enables a more comprehensive understanding of how learner profiles can inform policy in across different national contexts, while also offering transferable insights for other EU Member States seeking to develop more targeted, tailored and inclusive adult learning strategies.
The many faces of adult learners
Who learns, why, and who is left behind
Bulgaria, Finland, Ireland and Portugal were selected based on several interrelated criteria:
i) Participation in the Adult Education Survey (AES)
All four countries collect robust, comparable data through the AES 2022 (Eurostat, 2024[8]), enabling consistent cross-national analysis of adult learner profiles.
ii) Geographic diversity within the EU
The selection includes countries from Northern (Finland), Western (Ireland), Southern (Portugal), and Eastern (Bulgaria) Europe, ensuring a broad regional representation.
iii) Diverse economic and social structures
The countries exhibit distinct labour market conditions, welfare models, and policy approaches, enriching the analysis with a variety of systemic influences on adult learning.
iv) Variation in adult learning participation and behaviours
These countries differ significantly in participation rates, motivations for learning, and barriers to engagement, providing a nuanced basis for comparison. Some key findings of AES 2022 data are:
There are large differences in adult learning participation (see Panel A in Figure 2) – in Portugal, 44% of adults participated in formal or non-formal education and training in the previous year, slightly below the EU average of 47%, and compared to 53% in Finland and 55% in Ireland. In Bulgaria, the participation rate is only 21%, one of the lowest participation rates in the EU.
Bulgaria’s low participation rate is mainly due to limited motivation: 72% of adults neither learn nor wish to do so, compared to 30-31% in Finland and Portugal and 26% in Ireland (see Panel B in Figure 2). In these countries, participation is more constrained by practical or structural barriers
Portugal stands out for its relatively high share of adults not learning but who wish to learn (20%) and those already learning who remain motivated to continue (25%). The corresponding figures are lower in Finland (14% and 13%), Ireland (9% and 20%), and Bulgaria (6% and 4%).
Barriers also differ across countries (see Panel C in Figure 2). While non-participation is often due to busy schedules, family reasons, and the costs of learning in all four countries, these obstacles are particularly prevalent in Portugal.
1. The motivation to learn reflects adults who either did not learn, but who indicate that they wanted to learn, or adults who are already learning and who indicate that they would like to participate in even more learning activities.
Source: Eurostat (2024[8]), Adult Education Survey 2022, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cache/metadata/en/trng_aes_12m0_esms.htm.
The learner profiles are identified using the quantitative approach developed in the "OECD Skills Strategy Implementation Guidance for Flanders, Belgium: The Faces of Learners in Flanders” study. It employs a Latent Class Analysis (LCA) methodology to identify sub-groups within the adult population that share similar characteristics (see Box 2.2 and Annex A for a detailed description of the methodology and data). It involves defining a baseline model and selecting relevant indicators. Subsequently, the optimal number of classes (learner profiles) is determined by assessing fit using relative fit information criteria, alongside considerations of face validity. This analysis is conducted on the latest 2022 data from the EU Adult Education Survey (AES) (Eurostat, 2024[8]). The AES was chosen because it is specifically designed to provide detailed insights into adult learning and includes a comprehensive set of indicators on learning activities and learner characteristics.
This paper applies Latent Class Analysis (LCA) to identify distinct profiles of adults with similar learning behaviours, motivations, and barriers. LCA is a statistical segmentation technique that classifies individuals into mutually exclusive and exhaustive latent classes based on observed data patterns. Unlike traditional clustering methods, LCA estimates the probability of membership in each group and uses formal statistical tests to determine the optimal number of profiles, improving precision and robustness. See Annex A for a detailed description of LCA.
LCA has been widely applied across disciplines, from consumer research to education and labour market analysis. In education, it has been used to examine student engagement and learning motivations. However, applications outside formal education remain limited. The OECD has previously employed LCA in the “Faces of Joblessness” (Fernandez et al., 2016[14]) and “Faces of Learners in Flanders” (OECD, 2022[3]) reports, the latter informing the approach used in this study.
The analysis uses 2022 data from the EU Adult Education Survey (AES) (Eurostat, 2024[8]), which provides detailed, harmonised information on adults aged 25‑64. The AES captures participation in formal, non-formal, and informal learning during the 12 months preceding the interview, along with detailed indicators on motivations and barriers. It was selected over other datasets, such as PIAAC, for its comprehensive focus on adult learning.
Two separate LCA models were developed:
1. Non-participating adults, examining dispositions towards learning and barriers to participation.
2. Participating adults, focusing on reasons for participation and interest in further learning.
For non-participants, indicators captured both motivational attitudes (e.g. lack of interest or perceived need) and practical obstacles (e.g. cost, family responsibilities, lack of support, or limited course availability). For participants, indicators reflected extrinsic and intrinsic motivations – such as career improvement, job security, curiosity, or social interaction – and whether they wished to continue learning. See Table A A.1 in Annex A for an overview of included indicators.
The optimal number of learner profiles was determined by running models with two to seven classes and assessing goodness of fit using the Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) and the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC). These measures balance model complexity and interpretability, avoiding overfitting. The model with the lowest BIC/AIC value was generally selected, subject to qualitative validation to ensure conceptual coherence and policy relevance. See Figure A A.1 and Table A A.2 in Annex A for results of this analysis.
The learner profiles identified for Bulgaria, Finland, Ireland and Portugal, are presented in Figure 3, along with the corresponding shares of the adult population each profile represents. These profiles, which represent stylised or “idealised” types of adult learners, reflect different combinations of dispositions towards learning and the obstacles encountered. Together, they capture the diverse factors that influence individuals’ learning decisions.
As described in Box 2.2 and Annex A, the number of profiles selected for the four countries varies based on statistical fit (BIC and AIC) and considerations of face validity. This results in a range from two profiles for non-participating adults in Bulgaria to six profiles for participating adults in Ireland.
The analysis of adult learner profiles across Bulgaria, Finland, Ireland and Portugal reveals several commonalities, as well as country-specific differences, in the motivations and barriers shaping adult learning participation.
A consistent finding across all four countries is the presence of a sizeable profile of Disengaged Adults among non-participants. These individuals are characterised by a very low motivation – indicating that they do not want to participate in education and training – and minimal reported external barriers. While the shares of the adult population represented by these profiles vary substantially – from 25% in Ireland to 72% in Bulgaria – it points to a common challenge: psychological disengagement, rather than structural obstacles, appears to be a key factor limiting participation. This underscores the need for policy responses that address attitudinal and motivational barriers, particularly in reaching those furthest from learning. It should be noted, however, that this low motivation may be influenced by external factors not captured by the AES. The profiles are inherently shaped by the specific phrasing of the survey questions (see also Annex A on ‘data and methodological limitation’).
Another common finding is the existence of several barrier-constrained profiles among non-participants, though the nature and severity of the constraints differ. In Bulgaria and cost, time, and family responsibilities are the most frequently cited barriers. In Portugal, a distinct profile is primarily constrained by health or age-related limitations. Finland, by contrast, differentiates more clearly between personally constrained adults (e.g. not learning because of personal reasons, such as negative previous learning experiences) and structurally constrained adults (e.g. those lacking access to suitable learning opportunities). These differences underscore the importance of tailoring adult learning policies to specific local and national contexts, and to the types of barriers most prevalent within them.
Among adults participating in education and training, a notable cross-country trend is the presence of Unmotivated but Obligated learners. These profiles are characterised by low intrinsic or career-related motivation, alongside a strong sense of external obligation – often driven by employer requirements or legal mandates. The presence of this profile in all four countries suggests that participation alone is not an adequate proxy for engagement, and that further efforts are needed to improve the perceived relevance and quality of adult learning opportunities, particularly in cases where participation is mandatory or externally driven.
Finally, all four countries feature profiles of learners with mixed or intrinsic motivations, although the prominence and characteristics of these groups vary. In Ireland and Portugal, multi-motivated and highly engaged learners account for a significant share of participants. In contrast, they represent a smaller proportion of the adult learning population in Bulgaria. Career-oriented learners – those combining extrinsic incentives drivers, such as job advancement, with intrinsic motivations like self-improvement or personal growth – are visible in each country, though their relative prevalence differs. This variation suggests that while intrinsic motivation is present in al contexts, the conditions that support and sustain it – such as labour market relevance, personal growth opportunities, or social aspects – are unevenly distributed.
Source: Adapted from Eurostat (2022[15]), Adult Education Survey 2022, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/microdata/adult-education-survey.
Six profiles were identified for Bulgaria – two for adults not participating in learning and four among those participating – each representing a distinct and internally coherent set of characteristics (see Table 1). These profiles, along with key insights and related policy implications are described in more detail below.
2.3.1. Description of profiles
Among adults in Bulgaria who are not currently participating in leaning, two distinct learner profiles were identified:
Profile 1 “Disengaged Adults” (72% of the population): This group is characterised by a lack of motivation to engage in learning, rather than the presence of external barriers. Individuals in this profile do not cite time constraints, financial costs, or personal or situational obstacles, suggesting that learning is not viewed as a priority or necessity. Their disengagement appears primarily attitudinal, reflecting low perceived relevance or interest, rather than circumstantial limitations.
Profile 2 “Barriers-Constrained Non-Participants” (7% of the total population): Adults with this profile are interested in learning but are held back by tangible constraints such as limited time, affordability, or a lack of suitable learning opportunities. These individuals may be more responsive to policy interventions that reduce these barriers – for example, through more flexible learning formats, financial support mechanisms or tailored training provision.
Among adults in Bulgaria who are already participating, four distinct learner profiles were identified, each representing a different combination of motivations and engagement levels:
Profile 3 “Unmotivated but Obligated” (7% of the population): Participation among this group is driven primarily by external requirements – such as employer mandates or legal obligations – rather than personal motivation. Individuals in this profile report low intrinsic interest and a limited sense of the value or necessity of learning, suggesting minimal engagement.
Profile 4 “Career-Oriented Learners” (6% of the population): These adults view learning as a means to support career progression and job security. While their overall motivation may not be consistently high, they are pragmatic learners who engage in education to achieve specific employment-related outcomes.
Profile 5 “Credential Seekers” (5% of the population): Learners in this profile are intrinsically motivated and place strong value on formal recognition through certification. For them, learning serves both personal development and validation, rather than fulfilling a requirement or immediate job-related need.
Profile 6 “Multi-Motivated Learners” (3% of the population): This group demonstrates high levels of engagement and motivation across a wide range of factors, including career advancement, personal growth, certification and social interaction. They see learning as beneficial in multiple dimensions and are highly receptive to diverse learning opportunities.
2.3.2. Key insights
The learner profiles for Bulgaria reveal a central challenge in adult learning: a significant proportion of adults remain disengaged due to low motivation (i.e. not wanting to participate in education and training). The Disengaged Adults profile, representing 72% of non-participants, suggests that many adults do not perceive learning as necessary or valuable. This disengagement is not primarily driven by practical barriers such as cost or time, but by attitudinal factors shaped by past experiences, limited awareness of opportunities, or uncertainty about the benefits of investing in skills.
Among participating adults, the diversity of motivations is more pronounced. One profile – Unmotivated but Obligated (7% of the population) – engages in learning primarily due to external requirements, raising questions about the depth of engagement and the long-term effectiveness of participation. At the other end of the spectrum, more intrinsically engaged profiles such as Credential Seekers (5%) and Multi-Motivated Learners (3%) reflect a smaller segment of adults who actively value learning for personal development, career advancement, or broader social and cognitive benefits.
2.3.3. Policy implications
These findings underscore the need for a more differentiated and targeted approach to adult learning policy in Bulgaria. One-size-fits-all policies are unlikely to address the varying needs motivations and barriers reflected across learner profiles. For example, Disengaged Adults may benefit from low-threshold entry points, confidence-building initiatives and awareness campaigns to increase the perceived relevance and accessibility of learning. In contrast, Barrier-Constrained Non-Participants would be better served by tangible supports such as subsidised training, flexible delivery formats and improved access to digital infrastructure.
Likewise, the needs of current participants vary considerably. Career-Oriented Learners may prioritise learning opportunities linked to employment progression, while Credential Seekers and Multi-Motivated Learners may place greater value on formal recognition or broader learning experiences. Addressing this diversity requires responsive policy instruments and adaptive delivery models.
To translate these insights into practice, learner profiling could be embedded in programme design, outreach and learner support services. Local training providers, employment offices, and guidance counsellors could use simple profiling tools to match adults with learning pathways suited to their profile. Funding schemes could be adapted to prioritise interventions with the greatest potential for impact – such as targeted outreach to disengaged groups or tailored support for those facing structural barriers.
Nine adult learner profiles were identified for Finland – four for adults non-participating in learning and five among those actively participating – each representing a distinct and internally coherent set of characteristics (see Table 2). These profiles, along with key insights and related policy implications, are described in more detail below.
2.4.1. Description of profiles
Among adults in Finland who are not currently participating in learning, five distinct adult learner profiles were identified:
Profile 1 “Disengaged adults” (31% of the population): Adults in this profile are characterised almost exclusively by a lack of motivation. They do not report facing practical or contextual barriers to participation; rather, their disengagement appears to stem from personal choice or perception, rather than an external constraint.
Profile 2 “Not willing and Multi-barriered” (2% of the population): While also demotivated, these adults face multiple external constraints – such as a lack of suitable learning opportunities, financial constraints, time pressures or family or family responsibilities. Their lack of motivation may be linked to perceptions of inaccessibility or lack of suitability of available learning opportunities.
Profile 3 “Personally Constrained” (2% of the population): Adults with this profile experience barriers related to personal circumstances, including past negative experiences with education and training, mental health challenges, emotional difficulties, or major life transitions. Although not entirely unmotivated, these internal factors dominate and hinder participation.
Profile 4 “Willing but Structurally Constrained” (12% of the population): Adults with this profile express willingness to participate but are hindered by structurally barriers – primarily time and cost-related. With targeted policy support to reduce these obstacles, they may be strong candidates for re-engagement in learning.
Among adults in Finland who are already participating, five distinct adult learner profiles were identified:
Profile 5 “Unmotivated but Obligated” (3% of the population): These adults are not intrinsically motivated and do not perceive a need to engage in learning. Their participation is driven by obligation – often linked to mandatory compliance training or conditional programme requirements.
Profile 6 “Extrinsically Motivated for Employment” (13% of the population): These adults are mainly driven by work-related factors, particularly the aim to improve job performance, but also to improve career prospects. Their engagement is primarily instrumental and job-related.
Profile 7 “Mixed-Motivation Lifeskills Learners” (12% of the population): Participation among this profile is driven by a combination of motivations, including general interest and curiosity, credential acquisition, and improved employment prospects. These learners are often navigating life transitions and may be re-entering education or upskilling to meet evolving personal or professional needs.
Profile 8 “Self-Directed Enthusiasts” (13% of the population): These learners are intrinsically motivated, engaging in learning for enjoyment and personal development. Participation is voluntary and interest-led, reflecting a strong orientation towards lifelong learning.
Profile 9 “Career-Oriented Learners” (12% of the population): Adults in this profile are actively pursuing learning opportunities to achieve career-related goals. Their motivation is both instrumental and personal, combining the pursuit of qualifications with a desire for advancement and professional fulfilment.
2.4.2. Key insights
The learner profiles for Finland illustrate the complex interplay of motivation and barriers that shape adult participation in learning. Among non-participants, a substantial share (31%) – albeit much smaller than in Bulgaria, as described above – are Disengaged Adults who do not perceive learning as relevant or necessary and thus remain outside the system by choice rather than constraint. In contrast, smaller yet critical segments, such as the Willing but Structurally Constrained (12%) and the Personally Constrained (2%), comprise of adults who are motivated to learn but face substantial obstacles related to time, cost, or personal circumstances. The presence of Not Willing and Multi-barriered adults (2%) further illustrates how low motivation can be compounded by a range of external challenges, including the lack of learning opportunities, financial constraints, family responsibilities and insufficient support mechanisms. These findings underscore the need for holistic approaches that address the multiple and intersecting reasons for non-participation.
Among those currently participating in learning, engagement and motivation vary considerably. Profiles range from Unmotivated but Obligated learners (3%), whose participation is driven more by external pressure than personal interest, to highly engaged learners such as Self-Directed Enthusiasts (13%) and Career-Oriented Learners (12%). The presence of Mixed-Motivation Lifeskills Learners (12%) reflects the multiple and evolving goals that learning can serve, particularly during periods of life transition. These variations indicate that participation alone is not a sufficient indicator of policy success; meaningful and sustained engagement depends on a deeper understanding of learners’ underlying motivations and constraints.
2.4.3. Policy implications
These insights point to the importance of a more personalised, learner-centred approach to adult learning policy in Finland. Tailored interventions that reflect the specific characteristics of each profile can enhance both reach and impact. For Disengaged Adults, awareness-raising initiatives, peer role models, accessible entry-level programmes and low-threshold entry points may help increase perceived relevance and interest. For the Willing but Structurally Constrained, alleviating financial and logistical barriers – through subsidised training, flexible formats, or childcare support – could enable immediate participation. Personally Constrained individuals may require more tailored interventions, including mental health services, life coaching, or access to integrated social services.
For adults already engaged in learning, policies should aim to sustain and deepen engagement by aligning with learners’ varying motivations. Those participating out of obligation or to meet labour market requirements – such as the Unmotivated but Obligated and Extrinsically Motivated for Employment profiles – may benefit from clearer progression pathways and enhanced training quality. Highly motivated learners, including Self-Directed Enthusiasts and Career-Oriented Learners, should be supported through flexible, modular provision, stackable credentials and recognition of prior learning. For Mixed-Motivation Lifeskills Learners, integrated offerings that combine education with career guidance and access to broader support services may be particularly effective.
Nine adult learner profiles were identified for Ireland – three for adults not participating in learning and six for those already engaged – each representing a distinct and internally coherent set of characteristics (see Table 3).
2.5.1. Description of profiles
Among adults in Ireland who are not currently participating, five distinct adult learner profiles were identified:
Profile 1 “Disengaged Adults” (25% of the population): Adults in this profile demonstrate a fundamental disengagement from learning. Their non-participation stems not from external constraints but rather a lack of interest in, or perceived low value of, education and training.
Profile 2 “Barriers-Constrained Non-Participants” (5% of the population): This profile faces multiple and compounding barriers to participation in learning – notably financial constraints, family obligations, and schedule conflicts. While motivation is present, it is likely overshadowed by these structural challenges.
Profile 3 “Willing but Unconvinced” (15% of the population): Adults in this profile are neither demotivated nor significantly constrained by practical barriers. Their limited engagement may reflect a lack of information, uncertainty about the value of learning, or difficulty identifying relevant and accessible opportunities.
Among adults who are already participating, five adult learner profiles were identified for Ireland:
Profile 4 “Unmotivated but Obligated” (9% of the population): Adults with this profile participate in learning despite low intrinsic motivation and limited perceived need. Engagement is often driven by compulsory requirements, suggesting reluctant or passive participation.
Profile 5 “Extrinsically Motivated for Employment” (5% of the population): These learners participate in learning primarily due to external obligations, particularly job-related requirements. While participation is active, it is not underpinned by personal motivation or a strong sense of relevance.
Profile 6 “Compliance-Driven Learners” (18% of the population): Participation by adults with this profile is shaped largely by institutional or workplace obligations. Learners exhibit moderate motivation, often aiming to improve job performance or meet formal expectations, with some awareness of broader career benefits.
Profile 7 “Career-Oriented Learners” (12% of the population): These adults pursue learning to enhance employability and career prospects, while also recognising its intrinsic value. Their motivation reflects both external drivers and a personal interest in learning.
Profile 8 “Learning for Life and Growth” (5% of the population): Learners with this profile are highly engaged and motivated by both professional and personal development. Learning is seen as a means to expand future opportunities and fulfil personal interest and curiosity.
Profile 9 “Multi-Motivated and Highly Engaged” (6% of the population): This profile reflects the most engaged and diverse group of learners, motivated by a combination of career advancement, personal growth, health, and enjoyment. Learning is embraced as a lifelong endeavour and a tool for self-actualisation.
2.5.2. Key insights
The learner profiles identified for Ireland reveal a diverse and nuanced landscape of participation in adult education and training.
Among non-participants, three distinct profiles emerge: Disengaged Adults (25%), do not perceive learning as relevant to their lives and exhibit little intrinsic motivation. Barriers-Constrained Non-Participants (5%), are motivated to learn but face structural obstacles, such as financial constraints, family obligations, and schedule conflicts. The Willing but Unconvinced (15%) express openness to learning but require clear incentives. This diversity illustrates that non-participation is shaped by both attitudinal and structural factors, and that differentiated responses are required.
Among participants, profiles span a wide spectrum of motivation. At one end are Unmotivated but Obligated and Extrinsically Motivated learners – together representing nearly 15% – whose participation is driven by external pressures rather than intrinsic interest. This raises concerns about the depth and sustainability of engagement. At the other end, profiles such as Career-Oriented Learners (12%), Learning for Life and Growth (5%), and Multi-Motivated and Highly Engaged (6%) reflect strong intrinsic motivation and a well-aligned learning offer that supports both professional advancement and personal development. These patterns suggest that meaningful participation depends not only on access, but also on the perceived relevance, value and personal resonance of learning opportunities.
2.5.3. Policy implications
To respond effectively to this diversity, Ireland would benefit from adopting a more profile-informed approach to adult learning and skills policy. For non-participants, tailored outreach and guidance are key to engaging the Willing but Unconvinced, while the Barriers-Constrained Non-Participants profiles would benefit from targeted support measures, including financial assistance, flexible learning formats and childcare provision. Addressing disengagement will require broader, long-term efforts to promote a culture of lifelong learning – through early exposure, consistent societal messaging and visible returns on investment in skills.
For those already participating, enhancing engagement among Unmotivated but Obligated, Compliance-Driven Learners and learners who are Extrinsically Motivated for Employment will require more personalised and empowering approaches. These should include greater learner agency, clearly articulated progression pathways, and closer alignment with individual aspirations. At the same time, sustaining the motivation of highly engaged learners will require continued investment in flexible, high-quality provision, as well as robust validation and recognition systems that support long-term personal and professional growth.
Nine adult learner profiles were identified for Portugal – four for adults not participating in learning and five among those actively participating – each representing a distinct and internally coherent set of characteristics (see Table 4).
2.6.1. Description of profiles
Among adults In Portugal who are not currently participating, five distinct adult learner profiles were identified:
Profile 1 " Disengaged Adults" (27% of the population): These adults do not engage in learning due to a lack of perceived need or interest, rather than external constraints. They often do not recognise the relevance or value of learning for their lives.
Profile 2 " Mildly Constrained but Potentially Motivated" (22% of the population): Adults with this profile are open to learning but face a mix of external barriers, including busy schedules, family responsibilities, cost of participation and limited support. With the right conditions in place, they may be willing to engage.
Profile 3 "Health and Age-Constrained Non-Participants" (3% of the population): These adults express some interest in learning but face significant physical or health limitations that inhibit their participation.
Profile 4 "Multi-Barriered Non-Participants" (4% of the population): These adults are hindered from participation in learning by a combination of practical and contextual factors, ranging from busy schedules and cost of participation to a lack of suitable programmes and health and age-related barriers. While not entirely unmotivated, these adults face a complex set of challenges that restrict engagement.
Among adults who are already participating, five adult learner profiles were identified for Portugal:
Profile 5 “Compliance-Driven Learners” (11% of the population): These adults participate primarily due to external requirements, such as employer mandates or formal obligations, rather than intrinsic motivation or perceived personal relevance.
Profile 6 “Multi-Motivated Workers” (4% of the population): These adults are engaged and versatile learners, motivated by a mix of professional, personal, and social incentives. They actively pursue learning to achieve a broad range of benefits.
Profile 7 “Self-Improvement Oriented” (20% of the population): Adults with this profile are motivated by personal growth, employment goals, and practical upskilling. They view learning as a means of self-betterment and empowerment.
Profile 8 “Career-Oriented Learners” (5% of the population): These adults engage in learning to gain new qualifications, expand professional opportunities and improve employability.
Profile 9 “Highly Empowered Learners” (5% of the population): Representing the most intrinsically motivated and empowered learners, these learners are driven by a strong sense of purpose encompassing professional development, personal fulfilment, and civic or social engagement.
2.6.2. Key insights
The learner profiles identified for Portugal reveal a diverse range of motivational drivers and practical constraints influencing adult participation in learning. Among non-participants, the largest profile – Disengaged Adults (27%) – highlights the central challenge of low perceived relevance. In contrast, the Mildly Constrained but Potentially Motivated adults (22%) represent a significant segment that could be re-engaged through relatively modest measures, such as flexible provision, financial support and targeted outreach. Smaller profiles, such as Health and Age-Constrained (3%) and Multi-Barriered Non-Participants (4%), underscore the need for inclusive approaches that address physical limitations and intersecting forms of disadvantage.
The interplay between barriers and motivations is particularly salient in the Portuguese context. While time and cost emerge as common obstacles – more frequently than in many other countries – learner profiles indicate that such barriers rarely operate in isolation. For example, both the Mildly Constrained and Multi-Barriered profiles report similar constraints, but in differing combinations and intensities. The latter profile experiences a compounded set of constraints that severely limits participation. This underscores the need for integrated, multidimensional support that combines education, employment, health, and social services.
Among current learners, profiles range from externally driven participants to highly self-motivated individuals. The presence of Compliance-Driven Learners (11%) suggests that mandatory training can serve as gateway to adult learning, though it may not translate into sustained or self-directed engagement. At the other end of the spectrum, Highly Empowered Learners (5%) and Self-Improvement Oriented (20%) adults exemplify the transformative potential of learning for personal growth and fulfilment. Similarly, Career-Oriented (5%) and Multi-Motivated Workers (4%) further illustrate how professional and personal incentives often intersect to sustain participation over time. These findings highlight the need for provision that supports multiple learner objectives.
2.6.3. Policy implications
These insights suggest several directions for policy development. Among non-participants, differentiated outreach strategies should be prioritised. For Disengaged Adults, who typically lack a sense of relevance or personal motivation, awareness-raising campaigns and community-based initiatives may help stimulate interest in learning. Mildly Constrained individuals who face moderate practical barriers despite being open to participation, could be supported through modular and locally accessible learning opportunities, alongside targeted financial incentives. For those facing health or age-related limitations, such as the Health- and Age-Constrained profile, expanding access to home-based and digital learning will be essential. Multi-Barriered Non-Participants, who experience intersecting constraints, are likely to require coordinated, wraparound support encompassing education, employment, health, and social services.
For current learners, more personalised and sustained forms of provision are warranted. Among Compliance-Driven Learners, participation is often linked to external requirements and may not translate into ongoing engagement. Enhancing the quality, relevance and learner agency of mandatory training could strengthen outcomes for this profile. In contrast, intrinsically motivated learners – such as Highly Empowered, Career-Oriented, and Multi-Motivated adults – benefit from opportunities that align with their professional and personal goals. For these profiles, policy should focus on sustaining participation through clear progression pathways, and skills recognition and validation systems. Investment in mentoring, peer learning, and supportive learning environments can further reinforce intrinsic motivation and highlight the broader value of continuous learning.