This chapter highlights the need for a Centralised National Integrated Water Information System to address fragmented and inconsistent water data across agencies in the Philippines. It shows that the core challenge is not data availability but the absence of coordination, standardisation and clear accountability for data sharing and use. The chapter proposes a minimum viable integration approach, linking existing systems through common definitions, reporting protocols, validation mechanisms and interoperable interfaces. It concludes that strengthening governance, data-sharing rules and phased implementation, including pilot projects, is essential to improve regulatory consistency and sector-wide accountability
Strengthening Economic Regulation of Water and Sanitation Services in the Philippines
Highlights of a National Dialogue on Water
Abstract
Key findings and recommendations
The Philippines faces persistent fragmentation in the collection, management and utilisation of water-related data, which significantly constrains evidence-based decision-making and the implementation of integrated water governance across national and local levels.
Water datasets remain dispersed across LWUA, MWSS-RO, PAGASA, DILG, DENR-WRMO and other agencies, each operating with different standards, frequencies and validation mechanisms. As a result, existing platforms such as the National Water Resources Information System (NWRIS), LWUA Data Bank and PAGASA’s hydrometeorological systems cannot yet deliver the integrated, interoperable and real-time information environment required for modern water governance.
This fragmentation will increasingly limit the future Water Regulatory Commission (WRC), which will require unified and accurate data for licensing, compliance monitoring, performance benchmarking, tariff review and sector-wide oversight.
Compounding these challenges is the insufficient deployment of bulk metering, telemetry, water-level and quality monitoring and automated data-capture systems, which undermines the reliability of water balance assessments, climate-risk modelling and demand-supply management strategies.
To address these systemic issues, the establishment of a Centralised National Integrated Water Information System is essential as the single authoritative backbone for national water data. The platform should unify hydrological, meteorological, operational, financial and infrastructure information under a shared governance framework, common data standards and secure API-based interoperability.
As part of this reform, Listahang Tubig should be upgraded into the central national registry of water service providers, supported by mandatory digital reporting, standardised key performance indicators and alignment with WRC’s regulatory functions.
These institutional reforms must be supported by a nationwide programme of investments in bulk metering, water-quality sensors, IoT-enabled monitoring tools, real-time data communication and advanced validation and audit mechanisms to improve the accuracy and credibility of national water datasets.
Clear policies and regulations governing data sharing, cybersecurity, privacy protection and institutional coordination are necessary to ensure regulatory coherence and to align the system with the forthcoming National Water Resources Act.
Drawing from Korea’s digital platform government model – including cloud-based data lakes, integrated public-data governance and shared service architectures – the Philippines should adopt a phased roadmap: establishing mandates and pilot linkages, expanding nationwide inter-agency integration and ultimately incorporating AI-based analytics, forecasting and decision-support systems.
Through these reforms, the Philippines can significantly enhance data-driven water governance, improve regulatory effectiveness and build a resilient, transparent and efficient national water management framework.
Effective economic regulation in the water supply and sanitation sector depends on reliable, comparable and timely data. Regulators require consistent information on costs, service coverage, asset condition, water quality, non-revenue water and investment performance to set tariffs, benchmark utilities, monitor compliance and assess financial sustainability. In the Philippines, these functions are constrained by fragmented data systems, inconsistent reporting standards and limited interoperability across institutions.
Despite the existence of multiple sector databases, managed by regulators, line agencies and local governments, there is no integrated national framework that supports routine regulatory analysis. As a result, tariff-setting remains uneven, performance benchmarking is limited and investment decisions are often made without a consolidated view of costs, risks or service outcomes. These gaps weaken both current regulatory practice and the potential effectiveness of a future Water Regulatory Commission.
This chapter sets out a policy framework for a Centralised National Integrated Water Information System designed explicitly to support economic regulation, as well as enhancement of “Listahang Tubig” waterworks information system. The chapter will also explore the role of bulk metering and monitoring tools to improve data accuracy, as well as the role of strengthened policies, regulations and protocols for integrated digital water management. For the implementation of a digital-based, integrated national water management system that connects all stages from water sources to end-users, the four aforementioned themes are interconnected and mutually complementary and therefore require an integrated framework approach. This chapter analyses the current situation and challenges faced by the Philippines under each thematic area. It then presents specific examples of technologies, laws and institutional practices that can help address these challenges. These examples primarily draw on Korea’s experience, an OECD country with advanced capabilities and experience in smart water management technologies.
4.1.1. Centralised National Integrated Water Information system
Since the National Water Resources Information System (NWRIS) serves as a core instrument for achieving integrated national water management, it is essential to first examine the Integrated Water Management Plan (IWMP) of the Philippine government, which aims to realise such integration.
The formulation of the Integrated Water Management Plan (IWMP) aligns with the Philippine government’s eight-point socio-economic agenda, particularly emphasising food security, infrastructure development, the pursuit of a green economy and the creation of liveable and sustainable communities. It is also consistent with the strategies outlined in the Philippine Development Plan (PDP) 2023–2028, with a specific focus on strengthening the implementation of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM).
Chapter 12 of the PDP, "Expand and Upgrade Infrastructure", sets the objective of attaining water security, the ecological integrity of water systems and resiliency to water hazards. To this end, the PDP calls for strengthened implementation of integrated water resources management (IWRM), to be pursued through the following measures:
Address the institutional fragmentation of the water resources sector.
Ensure the government’s capacity to conduct continuous scientific studies.
Develop and maintain a decision support system for science-based water resources planning and management and for multi-stakeholder consultation and public participation.
Tap university or college-based water resource centres to undertake problem-oriented research, development, extension and training activities related to the water sector on a sustained basis.
Upgrade and expand water infrastructure, strengthen IWRM implementation and invest in data monitoring systems.
Furthermore, as part of a collaborative framework for planning and coordination in the management and utilisation of the country’s water resources, the Philippine government has adopted the principles of IWRM and has developed several key water-related plans accordingly:
National Water Security Roadmap (NWSR) 2024
Philippine Water Supply and Sanitation Master Plan (PWSSMP) 2019-2030
Philippine Development Plan (PDP) 2023-2028
National Irrigation Master Plan (NIMP) 2020-2030
Philippine Master Plan for Climate Resilient Forest Development (PMPCRFD) 2023-2028
The main objective of the Philippine National Integrated Water Information System is to facilitate data collection and sharing among stakeholders for planning, monitoring and assessment into a unified data framework and provide access to end-users using web-GIS technologies.
An urgent need for an integrated water information system exists to support data-driven decision-making in project planning, policy development, financing and monitoring at all levels of governance in the Philippines. This central repository will provide access and sharing of water resource data across agencies. It will function as a digital platform for real-time monitoring, data exchange and informed water governance.
The WRMO was established to systematise and integrate national water resources management and is responsible for the formulation, planning and supervision of water management policies and its main functions are as follows:
ensure the immediate implementation of IWRM in alignment with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs);
formulate an Integrated Water Management Plan (IWMP) to support this implementation;
integrate various inter-agency plans into the IWMP, including the Philippine Development Plan (PDP), the Philippine Water Supply and Sanitation Master Plan (PWSSMP) and the National Water Security Roadmap (NWSR);
generate and manage reliable and timely water and sanitation data to support water-related policy-making, regulation, planning and implementation; and
closely collaborate with relevant government agencies, local government units (LGUs), civil society and the private sector to fulfil these mandates and functions.
Challenges
Institutional fragmentation, policy misalignment and stakeholder conflicts pose significant challenges to water governance in the Philippines. Conflicting laws and policies among government agencies lead to inefficiencies in resource allocation, pricing and service coverage, affecting utility performance. Growing variability in rainfall patterns and extreme weather events exacerbate water scarcity and threaten food security, domestic supply and power generation.
The water sector is fragmented, with over 30 government agencies involved in policymaking, development, planning, regulation and monitoring of water resources for various purposes. This fragmentation leads to incoherent policies, unintegrated plans, overlapping functions and unsustainable water resource management.
In 2021, the UNDP’s Data Governance Study (DGS) for the Philippines highlighted significant gaps in data management and integration between government agencies involved in disaster risk reduction and management. The study revealed the absence of a centralised data warehouse or unified sharing platform, hindering the development of comprehensive plans and assessments. The DGS identified 46 data interfaces, including web applications, local applications, websites and flat files, many of which have overlapping functions and unclear linkages.
Note: 1. BMB, EMB, FMB, MGB, PAB, MBCO, NAMRIA;
1. 2. PAGASA, PCIEERD, PCAFNRRD;
2. Planning, design, construction, operation and/or maintenance
Source: (NEDA, 2021[1])
Various agencies related to water resources management contribute water-related data in accordance with their respective mandates. Although these datasets are maintained separately, they can complement one another, as illustrated in Table 4.1.
Water districts regularly report data, including average water production, consumption and water rates to LWUA through online and official submission channels. These data are consolidated and validated and are made available through the LWUA Data Bank Website. Hydrometeorological, climatological and agrometeorological data are collected, processed and stored by the relevant offices of PAGASA. DILG maintains partial project-level information through the Subaybayan Portal on National Government investments and accomplishments in the water sector, particularly under the LGSF Programme; these data do not cover areas under the jurisdiction of LWUA and MWSS. If appropriately integrated and validated, these datasets can support water balance assessments, supply and demand management and projections of population growth and urban expansion. The broader water supply and sanitation services data landscape should be reviewed and strengthened through appropriate policy and institutional arrangements.
Other agencies like the Department of Science and Technology – Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (DOST-PNRI) monitor arsenic concentrations. The Department of Information and Communications Technology (DICT) provides ICT infrastructure and e-governance data and the National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA) offers geospatial data and R&D for water. Their data and information could be highly useful in the current IWRM dialogue if adequately processed.
Data access and sharing remain major challenges due to the absence of a centralised system. Essential data for planning, monitoring and assessment is often siloed across platforms, with agencies storing information on-premise or limiting external access. These redundancies could exacerbate issues, lead to missed opportunities and create fragmented data exchanges among stakeholders.
Considering the complexity of the Philippines’ water governance landscape, there is an urgent need to strengthen coordination and expand linkages among stakeholders to support the development of a national integrated water information system. This is fully aligned with the “Outcome 3: Intersectoral linkages enhanced, under Chapter 7: Reinvigorate Services of the Philippine Development Plan (PDP) 2023–2028”, which emphasises the importance of cross-sectoral coordination, integration of services and improved institutional collaboration to enhance service delivery and innovation. In particular, the establishment of an integrated water information system would contribute to operationalising these objectives by enabling data interoperability, fostering co-ordinated decision-making across agencies and strengthening whole-of-government approaches in water governance.
Considering the complexity of the Philippines’water governance landscape, there is an urgent need to identify and expand linkages among stakeholders so as to foster the development of a national integrated water information system in the Philippines, leveraging existing local capacities and current national strategies.
The National Government recognises the significance of digitalisation and government database access. Many water-related agencies have databases and systems, enabling integration into a data lake architecture via APIs. This creates an interoperable data ecosystem with accessible data sources, independent but streamlined data processing and real-time/near real-time report generation and visualisation. This strategy shortens the information system development stage by leveraging stakeholders’ capacities and aligning with local to national governance initiatives.
Without standardised protocols, data contextualisation and utilisation become difficult, while the lack of a structured data-sharing strategy leads to redundant agreements, further complicating coordination efforts. Therefore, the proposed project will result in establishing a unified data framework that will address the fragmented data management and inconsistent cataloguing practices.
Data access and sharing remain major challenges due to the absence of a centralised system. Essential data for planning, monitoring and assessment is often siloed across platforms, with agencies storing information on-premise or limiting external access. These redundancies could exacerbate issues, lead to missed opportunities and create fragmented data exchanges among stakeholders.
Until now, water resource information was collected and managed individually by each department, such as the Ministry of Environment, the Ministry of Interior and Safety and the Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, according to their purpose and use. As a result, data sharing among agencies was inefficient, making searches and utilisation inconvenient. This highlighted the need for unified sharing of water management information and a single point of information provision, leading to the promotion of water resource informatisation.
In the Philippines, national water resource data management is being progressively developed under the leadership of the National Water Resources Board. In particular, a nationwide water permit inventory and groundwater databank have been established to systematically manage water permit grantees, water use information and hydrogeological data.
At the same time, the Philippine government is promoting a national digital transformation agenda that emphasises the use of geospatial information for data-driven decision-making. In particular, the DENR-WRMO has highlighted the need to develop integrated geospatial datasets covering water permit grantees, water users and water service providers.
However, despite these efforts, data remain fragmented across institutions and a fully integrated geospatial platform is still limited. Therefore, strengthening an integrated GIS-based water information system is essential to enhance water governance, improve allocation efficiency and support climate-resilient water management.
4.1.2. Enhancement of Listahang Tubig waterworks information system
Since the early 2010s, the Philippines has recognised the need to develop a digital information system to establish an integrated water management framework and to address various challenges such as water scarcity, water pollution and extreme weather events that are increasing in frequency and intensity over time. After several preparatory stages, the government officially launched the Listahang Tubig development project in 2018. The system was developed in collaboration with several agencies, including national disaster and water resource authorities as well as regional water management offices.
The Listahang Tubig System serves as a key infrastructure that enables local water utilities across the Philippines to make data-driven decisions in water management. The operation and management of this system are primarily handled by the Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA), which functions as the central institution supporting local water districts and utilities. In addition to managing water resources, LWUA is responsible for system maintenance, data updates and user support services related to the Listahang Tubig.
The LWUA is empowered to regulate all local water districts (LWDs) under Presidential Decree No. 198 and the Provincial Water Utilities Act of 1973, as amended. To attain performance levels required for various concerns such as, but not limited to, incentives, credit classification, recategorisation, loan application, Board per diem adjustments and other performance-based concerns, key performance indicators (KPls) were identified as enumerated in LWUA MC 011-18. To capture the KPIs, LWUA MC No 012-20 required LWDs to submit monthly data sheets, water quality monitoring reports and water sources data updates to the LWUA regularly. The aim of standardising the reports in digital forms, is an attempt at digitalisation of the accomplishment, submission, data storage, analysis and compliance monitoring system.
These reports are submitted to the Institutional Development Service (IDS) of the LWUA; processed by the Water and Sanitation Utilities Development Division (WSUDD) and stored by the Data Bank-Technical Assistance Department (DB TAD) and made available from the LWUA Website.
The Listahang Tubig system, administered by the NWRB, represents the primary digital platform for collecting water service information from regulated local water districts (LWDs). While it provides a foundation for water sector monitoring and analysis, several structural limitations constrain its effectiveness:
a) Data collection
Significant spatial and temporal gaps exist and datasets are often insufficient to support national-level analysis.
Data originates from a limited number of sources and is not systematically cross-referenced with information from other agencies, including PSA, LGUs or other regulatory bodies.
Although the system relies on regular submissions from WSPs/WSSPs, compliance is inconsistent, reflecting the system’s non-regulatory character for many providers.
b) Measurement and standards
Reporting questionnaires are outdated, not fully aligned with current drinking water standards (PNDSW, DOH AO 010 s. 2017) or data privacy requirements (RA 10173).
Water quality data are collected at the source using calibrated instruments, but time lags occur due to third-party (DOH-accredited) laboratory testing.
c) Reporting and delivery
Online reporting is estimated at 70–85% coverage among active LWDs; however, all districts submit data via courier, reflecting persistent infrastructure and capacity challenges.
Delays in reporting are exacerbated by limited fiscal resources, challenges in hiring qualified accountants and uneven internet connectivity. Inter-LWD co-operation, often facilitated through the Philippine Association of Water Districts (PAWD), helps mitigate some delays.
d) Database management
Submissions are received via email and courier, with printed originals stored at LWUA.
Data validation and management rely on manual processes, creating timeliness and quality issues.
e) Data analysis
LWUA’s Institutional Development Service and Engineering Service utilise these datasets for forecasting water demand, supply planning, tariff projections and benchmarking, using supplementary data such as PSA population statistics.
However, limited analytical integration restricts the ability to derive broader sector-wide insights.
f) Public access and information systems
Non-sensitive data are available through the LWUA Data Bank web page, but information is dispersed and lacks a unified, user-friendly portal.
In 2025 LWUA bid out a major ICT project, aimed at strengthening digital reporting, internal processes and system functionality. While these improvements will primarily benefit LWUA-regulated providers, it will not enable full sector-wide integration.
Main challenges for data systems
To achieve the objective, it is critical to gather all relevant stakeholders through the conduct of a consultation to identify and match the platform holders, stakeholders, data users, data generators and process holders who influence data flow. These include platform holders, stakeholders who use raw, processed, or analysed data to generate value, data generators who capture and generate data for platforms or others and process holders or mandated agencies that control data flow through needed datasets, restrictions on data usage or safeguards.
Data sharing agreements should be put in place to set up data formats; collection, cleansing and validation parameters and stakeholder access and retrieval. Further, policies on data privacy consistent with RA 10173 or the Data Privacy Act of 2012, should be developed and put in effect to facilitate data sharing among stakeholders. Though developing at this point, government agencies are well on their way towards digitalisation.
The Department of Information and Communications Technology (DICT) manages and streamlines ICT infrastructure and support through an integrated Information Systems Strategic Plan (ISSP), which is a medium-term (three to five years) plan for an agency’s ICT strategies and programmes. Finally, to develop the integrated water information system, the services of a qualified System Programmer with a track record of developing similar information system must be employed through the project at the onset to be able to visualise and provide guidance every step of the way.
The most prudent initial step is to identify and immediately address capacity gaps of the data sources (WSP/WSSP) and their regulatory institutions.
There are significant data gaps in the current Listahang Tubig data set that may be relevant to the development of an integrated water supply and sanitation management information system and the knowledge products derived from the integration of data from different water resources-related entities.
Data collection and reporting is redundant as data submission may already be extracted from the respective regulatory and other agencies that may be related to water resources such as LWUA, NWRB, MWSS-RO, DILG, CDA, PSA, etc. (Big Data). Data collection efforts should be aligned with the respective mandates of government agencies to avoid duplication, redundancy and unnecessary reporting burdens on stakeholders. Agencies should focus on collecting data and information that are directly relevant to their institutional functions and policy objectives, while leveraging existing data generated by other agencies whenever possible. Interoperability of these data with aligned definition and cycle of reporting would help eliminate duplication and additional burden to LGUs which are the common data generators.
For example, the DILG may prioritise the collection and analysis of results-based or outcome-oriented indicators that measure the performance of LGUs, particularly in relation to service delivery, governance and institutional development. Such an approach would promote efficiency in data management, strengthen inter-agency coordination and enable government resources to be directed towards generating actionable information rather than duplicating existing datasets.
Regulatory agencies, such as LWUA, should be designated as DATA NODE for the respective WSP/WSSP, to streamline and data collection and management, as well as control data quality within the regulatory framework of the concerned agency to ensure that the data collected is relevant temporally and spatially, sufficient and representative, consistent, accurate and valid, holistic and robust.
There is also a strong need to establish Data Sharing Agreement and institutionalise Open Data for IWRM which is not currently integrated with the Listahang Tubig. This is aligned with the Outcome 3 of the Philippine Development Plan 2023-2028: Intersectoral Linkages, particularly, Strengthen data collection ecosystem for market intelligence, insights and industry studies.
The recommendation to adopt a Data Lake architecture is based on the increasing complexity, volume and heterogeneity of water-related data across agencies in the Philippines. While traditional centralised database systems are effective for managing structured and standardised datasets, they face limitations in handling diverse, high-frequency and unstructured data required for integrated water resources management and for advanced analytics, particularly in the context of growing variability in rainfall patterns and water availability.
The existing data management landscape across water supply and sanitation (WSS) agencies in the Philippines is highly fragmented. Agencies such as MWSS, NIA, NPC, PAGASA and local government units operate independent systems with varying levels of digital maturity, data standards and platform technologies. Data types range from structured administrative records (e.g., service coverage, tariffs, infrastructure inventories) to semi-structured and unstructured data such as sensor-based hydrological observations, satellite data, climate forecasts and operational logs.
Under these conditions, a conventional centralised database approach alone may not be sufficient to support interoperability, scalability and advanced analytical functions. In contrast, a Data Lake architecture allows for the ingestion, storage and processing of heterogeneous data in its native format, thereby providing a flexible and scalable foundation for future applications, including AI-based forecasting, digital twin systems and integrated decision support.
Importantly, the proposed Data Lake is not intended to replace the existing centralised systems, such as NIWIS or Listahang Tubig, but rather to complement them. A dual-layer architecture is recommended, where the centralised system continues to serve as the operational and regulatory platform, while the Data Lake functions as an analytical layer supporting advanced data integration and processing.
This approach is consistent with international best practices, including South Korea’s Water Management Information Networking System (WINS) and National Waterworks Information System (NWIS), where centralised systems are combined with advanced data platforms to enable integrated water management and data-driven decision-making.
Therefore, the adoption of a Data Lake model provides a forward-looking, scalable and context-sensitive solution that aligns with the Philippines’ current institutional readiness while supporting long-term digital transformation in the water sector.
4.1.3. Investments in bulk metering and monitoring tools to improve data accuracy
Given the high population density and the ongoing expansion of water supply infrastructure, data on water supply, consumption, leakage rates and pressure in water distribution systems are critically important for developing demand-based water supply plans. To achieve this, it is essential to establish large-scale smart metering systems, such as District Metered Areas (DMA) and Automatic Meter Reading (AMR) or Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI), tailored to the local infrastructure conditions.
Therefore, Investment in bulk metering and monitoring tools is essential for enhancing data accuracy within the water supply system. These investments enable comprehensive measurement and real-time monitoring of water flows at key points such as treatment plants, distribution networks and major supply zones. Implementing high-precision bulk meters and remote monitoring systems allows for accurate assessment of total supply volumes, identification of leaks and detection of inefficiencies across the network.
Furthermore, developing an integrated data platform that consolidates information from various sensors and meters provides real-time visualisation, anomaly detection and data analysis. This infrastructure significantly improves the reliability of data, supports non-revenue water (NRW) reduction, optimises operational efficiency and informs data-driven decision-making.
Overall, these investments are vital for establishing a robust, efficient and sustainable water management system, ultimately leading to reduced water losses, energy savings and enhanced service reliability. Careful planning, selection of accurate metering equipment and phased deployment tailored to local conditions are key to maximising the benefits of these technologies
The current status and planned development of smart monitoring infrastructure for smart water management are summarised as follows:
Local Water Districts-level
At the local water district (LWD) level, infrastructure and investment constraints remain a critical barrier to achieving universal access to water supply and sanitation (WSS) by 2030. It is estimated that approximately PHP 1.07 trillion will be required to meet this target. Currently, only 38% of non-NCR cities are covered by LWDs, meaning that 622 out of 1,617 cities lack access to LWD-operated services.
Private investment has been limited, particularly in lower-income local government units (LGUs), which hampers the expansion of water supply networks. As a result, extending the coverage and operational capacity of LWDs has become a national priority. Among the 875 established LWDs, about 39% (343 districts) remain non-operational due to insufficient water supply sources and incomplete pipeline infrastructure.
Utility-Level Investments
At the utility level, both Maynilad Water Services (West Metro Manila) and Manila Water (East Metro Manila) have made substantial investments to improve service delivery and reduce Non-Revenue Water (NRW).
In 2013, Maynilad Water Services invested approximately PHP 2 billion (around EUR 35 million) in NRW reduction programmes, resulting in a decline of NRW levels from 41% to 35.4% and recovering up to 140 million litres per day. In 2016, the company invested EUR 10.4 million (approximately PHP 560 million) to replace around 135,000 outdated water meters, including EUR 750,000 allocated to the introduction of advanced electronic meters.
Manila Water, operating in East Metro Manila, achieved a remarkable NRW reduction from 63% in 1997 to 12.69% in 2022. The company has implemented GIS-integrated systems for operations, billing and customer management and adopted i2O pressure management technology to reduce energy consumption and minimise leakage.
Technology Deployment and Private Sector Participation
Recent years have seen notable advancements in technology deployment and private sector involvement. Companies such as KROHNE Philippines have introduced GPRS/2G/4G-enabled bulk meters, which allow real-time monitoring of flow, pressure and temperature. Moreover, advanced metering infrastructure (AMI) is being gradually deployed in major utilities and pilot areas, supporting data-driven management and operational efficiency improvements.
Improvement Measures and Strategic Actions
To address existing challenges and enhance the efficiency of water service delivery, several improvement measures and strategic actions are being pursued:
Utilities have undertaken advanced meter replacement programmes, upgrading more than 135,000 meters to modern, electronic and remotely readable devices. Maynilad has established 1,372 District Metered Areas (DMAs) integrated with GIS technology to identify leakages and illegal connections more accurately. Manila Water has implemented i2O smart pressure management systems, significantly contributing to NRW reduction.
In addition, continuous research and development (R&D) efforts are being carried out in collaboration with universities and private firms to develop Internet of Things (IoT)-based smart water metering solutions.
From a policy perspective, the government is actively promoting public-private partnerships (PPP) and exploring innovative financing mechanisms such as ESG and green bonds to support sustainable infrastructure investments.
Finally, to encourage public participation, utilities are introducing consumer engagement platforms that provide customers with real-time access to water consumption data, thereby promoting water conservation and facilitating early leak detection.
While historical challenges, such as the severe water crisis in Metro Manila in the mid-1990s, provide context for these investments, the focus of current efforts is on upgrading infrastructure, modernising metering and improving operational efficiency. At that time, only about 67% of households had access to piped water services and just 26% enjoyed continuous 24-hour supply. Frequent leaks, illegal connections, inaccurate metering and ageing infrastructure contributed to high water losses and limited revenue collection. Learning from these past experiences, current initiatives prioritise modern metering, district-level monitoring and advanced data analytics to prevent similar inefficiencies, ensure reliable supply and optimise network management.
Main challenges for metering and monitoring
The major challenges across Philippine water supply facilities include limited infrastructure coverage, ageing assets, water leakage and inefficiencies in operation and maintenance. Most metering systems still rely on manual or irregular readings, resulting in low data reliability and limited real-time monitoring, which hampers Non-Revenue Water (NRW) management and demand forecasting.
Historical context illustrates the magnitude of these challenges. In 1997, the NRW rate in Metro Manila was approximately 63%, meaning that nearly two-thirds of treated water was lost before being billed, primarily due to pipeline leaks, illegal connections and metering inaccuracies. Over time, targeted investments, modern metering and improved operational practices have significantly reduced NRW to around 16% in 2022. Despite such progress, the lack of comprehensive real-time data acquisition and accessible public water information continues to constrain efficient water supply management. Insufficient data hampers demand forecasting, supply planning and rapid response to emergencies, while delays in identifying leaks both in location and severity exacerbate water losses.
Strengthening public participation and co-operation in water management requires the establishment of an accurate and accessible public water information portal. Such a platform would enable stakeholders and citizens to access timely, relevant data, supporting transparency, informed decision-making and community engagement in water conservation and policy compliance.
4.1.4. Policies, regulations and protocols to promote digitalised integrated information systems
The legal and institutional framework for water management remains fragmented. Multiple laws, including the Water Code, the Local Water Utilities Act and various environmental and sectoral regulations, govern water resources, often with overlapping or inconsistent mandates. There is no comprehensive water sector law, nor a single authority with clear responsibility for integrated planning and data governance.
More than 30 government agencies are involved in the sector, with weak coordination across policy planning, infrastructure development, regulation and data management. Reporting standards and water quality regulations are unevenly enforced, particularly among small and non-regulated providers. On planning and infrastructure, the different players within the sector have their own roadmaps and do not integrate or coordinate plans with other sector players in the vicinity. The conflicting, unco-ordinated mandates and interests of these agencies and service providers makes it difficult for the sub-sector to move towards the goal of universal access to water and wastewater services.
There is limited enforcement of reporting standards and water quality regulations, particularly among small and non-regulated water service providers. Additionally, the regulatory framework remains fragmented and the absence of a central water regulatory authority hinders accountability and service performance. Due to the complexity of the water sector, the participation of multiple agencies is deemed necessary. However, in the Philippines, there is no single, unified agency with overall authority and capacity to manage and develop water resources. While the National Water Resources Board (NWRB) has broad authority, various studies conducted under the Water Resources Act, which regulates the use, development, conservation and protection of water resources, indicate that the current law is inadequate to perform such roles. Key agencies in the water sector and their functions are listed in Table 4.2.
To unify and harmonise policies in the water sector, President Ferdinand Marcos Jr. issued Executive Order No. 22 (2023), establishing the Water Resources Management Office (WRMO) under the supervision of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). The office aims to immediately implement integrated water resources management in line with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and to develop the corresponding Integrated Water Resources Master Plan (IWRMP). It also orders the WRMO to oversee the passage of legislation to establish the Department of Water Resources and/or the Water Regulatory Commission.
In the Philippines, water supply and sanitation facilities remain insufficient and ongoing challenges persist in the water resources sector. These challenges include institutional fragmentation, weak sector planning and monitoring, inadequate data collection, poor performance of water utilities, insufficient infrastructure planning and funding and inadequate support for marginalised urban and rural communities (ADB, 2013[3]; NEDA, 2021[1]; NEDA, 2023[4]).
According to Article 14, Section 8 of the 1987 Philippine Constitution, all water bodies belong to the state. The exclusive rights to access, use and develop essential resources are entirely vested in the government.
The Philippine Water Resources Act (Presidential Decree No. 1067) enacted in 1976 is a comprehensive law governing water inclusion, usage, exploitation, development, control, conservation, protection and dispute resolution. Additionally, at least eight other legal frameworks govern the country’s water sector, covering areas such as:
Establishment of local water districts
Sanitary requirements for facilities
Privatisation of state-owned water facilities
Establishment of protected areas
Water quality standards and regulations
Protection of watersheds that supply irrigation areas
Recognition of sustainable traditional rights of indigenous peoples and local communities.
Challenges
Several outdated or overlapping laws govern water resource use and management, including the Water Code (Presidential Decree No. 1067), the Local Water Utilities Act (Presidential Decree No. 198) and other sectoral mandates. These laws do not reflect contemporary challenges such as more frequent and intense extreme weather events, urbanisation, digital governance and integrated resource management. The absence of a comprehensive national water sector law inhibits coherent long-term planning and cross-sectoral integration.
There are various water-related laws in the country, with multiple departments holding authority over water resources, each operating independently within their respective domains.
Despite successful integrated and innovative approaches to managing water resource stress in other countries, the Philippines lacks a clear and systematic governance framework for water resources.
4.2.1. Centralised national integrated water information system
The effective collection, integration and use of water-related data remain a challenge in many countries, including the Philippines. Fragmented information systems, inconsistent reporting formats and the lack of real-time monitoring limit the ability of policymakers, regulators and water utilities to make evidence-based decisions. Increasing hydro-climatic variability, rapid urbanisation and emerging digital technologies further underscore the need for robust, centralised water information platforms that can support planning, operational management and disaster preparedness.
Integrated water information systems enable the consolidation of diverse datasets, including hydrological, water quality, groundwater, water supply and sanitation coverage and infrastructure status. By standardising formats, employing Geographic Information System (GIS) mapping and implementing real-time monitoring, such systems enhance the accuracy and reliability of water data. These platforms provide a foundation for evaluating water availability, identifying service gaps, forecasting demand and monitoring non-revenue water and infrastructure performance.
International experience demonstrates the value of stepwise system development. For example, South Korea developed the Water Management Information Networking System (WINS), which links multiple agencies and provides standardised access to hydrological, meteorological, river and water quality data. Building on this, the country established a National Integrated Water Management Platform to integrate data from nine separate systems, enabling real-time public access and comprehensive policy support. Lessons from such initiatives can inform the development of the Philippine National Integrated Water Information System under the proposed Water Resources Commission, ensuring that data collection, analysis and dissemination meet both regulatory and public needs. Key features are summarised in Box 4.1 while detailed descriptions of the platform are provided in Annex E.
Building on the WINS framework, Korea has also developed a National Waterworks Information System (NWIS), which consolidates operational, water quality and facility data from local utilities and provides public-facing services through web and mobile platforms. The system includes real-time monitoring, AI-based forecasting (e.g., for sudden pipe freezing) and location-based water supply information. A full description of NWIS, its services and implementation are provided in Annex E, offering a detailed reference for the stepwise enhancement of the Philippine Listahang Tubig system.
Key Features of WINS
Information Integration and Sharing: WINS manages and integrates data held by six ministries and 15 water-related organisations, including the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, Ministry of Climate Energy and Environment, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs and the Korea Meteorological Administration. It shares 83 types of water-related data such as hydrological (flood and drought), meteorological, river and spatial information.
Standardised Data Management: Data is standardised based on the National Water Management Information Standard (2004), enabling efficient linkage of data generated by different organisations. Using common basin maps and coding systems, data is organised into a database, allowing for systematic management of diverse water resource information.
Real-Time Information Provided Using ICT: By utilising the latest ICT technologies and GIS (Geographic Information System), data is visualised and provided in real-time, enhancing user convenience.
Main Functions of WINS
Water Resource Information Integration: It centrally manages various data such as hydrological (rainfall, water level, flow rate), dam operation status, groundwater conditions and more. It provides detailed search services by region, basin and river across the country.
Policy Decision Support System: Supports policy-making for flood and drought response, water supply planning, environmental protection, based on the collected data.
Inter-Agency Information Sharing System
Centralised Platform: WINS connects data from each organisation to a central server for integrated management, preventing data duplication and increasing efficiency.
Standardised Data Structure: Data is integrated based on common basin maps and standard coding systems, ensuring interoperability and smooth exchange and collaboration between agencies.
Real-Time Information Sharing: Uses real-time observation data for flood and drought early warning systems, supporting quick decision-making. Immediate data on dam discharge, river water levels and other relevant information are shared seamlessly.
Collaborative System: Regular meetings and operational committees are held to strengthen co-operation among agencies and continuously improve data quality.
4.2.2. Investments in bulk metering and monitoring tools to improve data accuracy
Local Waterworks Modernisation Project
Similar to the situation in the Philippines, Korea faced challenges such as high Non-Revenue Water (NRW), difficulty in securing new water sources, increasing climate uncertainties and rapidly ageing local water supply systems due to underinvestment in maintenance. To address these issues, the Korean government launched the Local Waterworks Modernisation Project, a nationally funded programme designed to support financially constrained local governments. The project demonstrates a scalable model that could be replicated by agencies responsible for local water utilities in the Philippines through phased coordination among national and local governments.
Implemented over an eight-year period (2017–2024), the project had a total investment of KRW 3.096 trillion (approximately USD 2.56 billion), including KRW 2.399 trillion for water distribution networks and KRW 697 billion for treatment plants. The national government provided up to 50% of total project costs, with additional support (up to 20%) for municipalities facing fiscal limitations. The main activities included the replacement of ageing pipelines, rehabilitation of network systems and the introduction of ICT-based real-time monitoring for leakage reduction. These interventions have resulted in lower energy and production costs, while ensuring safe and reliable drinking water for local residents. The project aimed to raise the water supply efficiency (revenue water ratio) to 85% (Ministry of Environment of Korea, 2017[6]). This is further described in Box 4.2.
In Korea, ageing infrastructure and leakage in local water supply facilities created significant operational inefficiencies and regional disparities in service reliability: 34% of water mains and 75% of water treatment plants were over 21 years old and smaller municipalities experienced higher service interruptions and leakage compared to metropolitan areas. To address these challenges, Korea implemented a nationally funded Waterworks Modernisation Project (2017–2024), focusing on:
Renovating ageing distribution networks to reduce leaks, improve reliability and enhance public trust in tap water.
Modernising treatment plants to improve water quality, safety and operational efficiency.
The project was implemented based on a step-by-step targeted approach to modernise local water systems, combining infrastructure investment with systematic monitoring and maintenance management. The Ministry of Economy and Finance adjusted the scale of support at the last stage based on available financing.
Key features
Purpose: Reduce NRW, modernise water facilities and establish a virtuous cycle in supply management.
Period: 2017–2024
Scope: 132 projects including water supply pipelines and treatment plants
Programme budget: KRW 3.1 trillion (USD 2.56 billion)
Key Goals: Achieve 85% water supply efficiency, modernise treatment facilities
Legal Basis: Article 2 (National Responsibilities) and Article 75 (Government Subsidies, etc.) of the Waterworks Act
Estimated overall investment needs: KRW 52 555.9 billion (approximately USD 43.43 billion).
Smart water management system for metropolitan waterwork
Building on infrastructure modernisation, Korea launched the Smart Water Management Initiative (2020–2023) to integrate ICT-based monitoring and management across 161 municipalities. The initiative targeted three core areas: water quality monitoring and emergency response, accident prevention and resilience and public trust enhancement.
The initiative introduced real-time monitoring, GIS-linked network modelling and smart metering to detect leaks, predict service disruptions and optimise operational efficiency. Public-facing platforms provide citizens with access to reliable water information, improving transparency and confidence in tap water.
This project offers a practical roadmap for the Philippines to develop a smart, resilient and citizen-centred water supply system, combining digital monitoring, data analytics and public engagement. Detailed project components, costs and technical specifications are provided in Annex F.
4.2.3. Enhancing Governance, Legal Frameworks and Public Engagement
Government frameworks
Digital transformation in the water sector is not primarily a technological challenge, but an institutional and governance one. While the Philippines has made notable progress in expanding ICT infrastructure, e-government services and data openness, water governance continues to be constrained by fragmented institutional responsibilities, uneven implementation capacity and siloed information systems. These constraints limit the ability of public authorities to plan, regulate and monitor water resources and services in a coherent, timely and forward-looking manner.
The Philippine water sector remains characterised by institutional fragmentation across national agencies, regulators and local government units. Although coordination mechanisms exist, they rely heavily on voluntary co-operation and project-based arrangements. Data systems covering water resources, service provision, infrastructure and ICT have largely been developed in parallel, with limited interoperability and no single national platform providing a consolidated and authoritative view of the sector. This fragmentation weakens policy monitoring and evaluation, complicates investment planning and reduces transparency and accountability.
Addressing these challenges requires a combination of institutional, legal and operational reforms. As summarised in Table 4.4, strengthening institutional leadership is a central priority. Elevating existing coordination arrangements into a fully empowered department or regulatory commission would establish a clear focal point for water policy, data governance and digital system integration. At the operational level, capacity constraints, particularly at local government and implementing agency levels, need to be addressed through skills development, transparent permitting systems and performance monitoring tools. In parallel, closing rural coverage gaps will require targeted incentives and blended finance approaches that integrate water and ICT investments.
International experience, particularly from Korea, highlights the importance of anchoring digital water management within a clear and enforceable governance framework. Korea’s approach combines strong central coordination, legally mandated data sharing and sustained investment in integrated information systems. The Electronic Government Act and the Public Data Act provide the legal backbone for interoperability, joint use of administrative information and secure data exchange across government. Together, these frameworks have enabled the development of integrated platforms that link water resources, water supply operations, public services and citizen-facing information, supporting both operational efficiency and public trust.
The Korean Electronic Government Act aims to digitise government operations using ICT, expand information disclosure and promote citizen participation. It is a law that systematically supports digital administration across the government while upholding principles of secure information protection and personal data privacy. The law defines provisions for government online service delivery, information openness, improvements to civil service systems and enhanced security, playing a crucial role in realising transparent and efficient public administration.
Key Contents
Providing standards for the development and delivery of e-Government services:
Ensuring accessibility to e-Government services, enhancing user safety and convenience and maintaining the timeliness of service content.
Developing integrated services by combining and linking administrative information managed and held by various government agencies, focusing on areas such as citizen welfare, life safety and promoting business activities.
Through surveys on the utilisation of e-Government services, consolidating redundant and similar services and discontinuing services with low usage rates.
Enhancement of public convenience and administrative efficiency through the joint use of administrative information
When applying for joint use (by each government department, etc.), the Minister of the Interior and Safety approves the joint use after consulting with the holding institutions, with the possibility of revoking or suspending approval if necessary.
Expansion of target information for joint use: from administrative agency data to broader administrative and public institution data.
Prior consent system for sharing personal information: users must give prior approval before their personal data is shared and they have the right to request access to verify whether their personal information is being shared.
Regulations for penalties related to misuse: prohibits the use of shared information for purposes outside the original intent and includes penalties for privacy breaches or misuse of personal data
Efficient management of information resources:
Adoption and operation of the Information Technology Architecture (ITA) as the blueprint for informatisation across the entire government and individual agencies; establishing monitoring systems for information systems.
Promoting integrated management of information resources to ensure efficiency and establishing and operating regional information centres to support effective regional informatisation.
Expected Benefits
Enhanced Administrative Efficiency: Reduction in civil service processing times, minimised waiting periods, cost savings and automation of repetitive tasks through system integration and process simplification.
Improved Public Convenience: 24-hour online civil services and digital channels increase citizen satisfaction, utilising mobile, internet and other digital platforms.
Increased Transparency and Trust: Public data openness ensures government transparency, while strengthened security through electronic signatures and digital certification systems enhances safety.
Sustainable Government: Promoting eco-friendly, paperless administration and supporting efforts to bridge the digital gap contribute to sustainable development.
Source: (MOIS, 2022[7])
Quantitative increase in data sharing through the Public Data Portal
In 2013, the Government of Korea established the Public Data Portal to improve accessibility to public data for citizens and businesses. The portal integrates datasets dispersed across multiple government agencies into a single platform and provides data in various formats, including downloadable files and open APIs, thereby enhancing usability and reusability. In addition, it offers value-added services such as public data utilisation case studies, applications for data provision, information on business support policies, developer network forums and inquiry counselling. A key feature of the portal is the provision of 217 “National Key Datasets,” which are prioritised for public access.
By the end of December 2024, the number of datasets disclosed through the Public Data Portal is expected to reach approximately 100 000, representing a twentyfold increase from 5 272 datasets at the end of 2013, when the open data initiative was at an early stage. Over the same period, private-sector use of public data, measured by downloads and open API requests, has increased dramatically to 75.79 million cases, compared to only 14 000 cases in 2013.
Towards an integrated data ecosystem: DPG Hub and shared government services.
Development of ‘Data Fusion Infrastructure,’ such as data lakes, to facilitate the linking and use of public and private data.
Building on the expansion of public data disclosure, the government is developing a cloud-based integrated platform, tentatively referred to as the “DPG Hub”, to securely connect, combine and utilise public and private data and digital services. This includes the establishment of data fusion infrastructure, such as data lakes, to enable seamless linkage and joint use of datasets across sectors.
In parallel, a “Cross-Agency Shared Service Building Block” is being developed to allow multiple government agencies to collaboratively use common digital functions and services. As a top-tier integrated platform within the Digital Platform Government (DPG) framework, this system aims to foster an enabling environment for the free flow, fusion and utilisation of data by linking major public and private platforms.
Source: (NIA, 2023[8])
Integrated data platforms should be treated as core public infrastructure rather than as standalone technical projects. A national water information system, linking hydrological data, utility performance, infrastructure assets and service coverage and aligned with broader e-government architectures, would significantly enhance evidence-based decision-making and regulatory oversight. Legal frameworks play a critical role in ensuring the durability of such systems. Embedding data-sharing obligations, interoperability standards, cybersecurity safeguards and transparency requirements in water and public data legislation is essential to move beyond ad hoc or donor-driven initiatives.
Finally, digital water governance should be explicitly citizen-centred. Public access to reliable water information, clear service standards and transparent reporting strengthens trust and supports social acceptance of reform, including tariff adjustments, infrastructure investment and climate adaptation measures. As the Philippines advances its National Water Resources Act, integrating provisions on digital water information systems, monitoring and evaluation and public disclosure would help align institutional reform with the country’s broader digital government agenda and provide a robust foundation for long-term water security.
The Philippine’s National Water Resources Act
The draft National Water Resources Act represents a critical opportunity to anchor digital transformation within the Philippines’ water governance framework. While the draft primarily focuses on institutional consolidation, through the proposed establishment of a Department of Water Resources and an independent Water Regulatory Commission, it remains largely silent on the role of data, information systems and digital infrastructure as core enablers of effective water management.
Although the draft recognises the importance of coordination and regulation, it does not yet explicitly mandate the development of an integrated national water information system, nor does it clearly define data-sharing obligations across agencies, regulators and local government units. As a result, there is a risk that existing data fragmentation, across water resources, service provision, infrastructure and climate information, could persist even under a reformed institutional structure.
International experience suggests that governance reform and digital reform are mutually reinforcing. Without a clear legal basis for interoperability, standardised reporting, public disclosure and secure data exchange, integrated water management remains difficult to operationalise. Embedding provisions on water information systems, monitoring and evaluation and public access to water data within the National Water Resources Act would therefore strengthen its effectiveness and durability.
In this context, the draft Act could be enhanced by: (i) explicitly mandating the establishment of a national integrated water information system; (ii) clarifying institutional responsibility for data governance and system maintenance; and (iii) aligning water-sector data provisions with the broader digital government and public data framework. Doing so would help ensure that institutional reform is matched by the information infrastructure required for evidence-based regulation, investment planning and public accountability.
Fragmented information systems, weak interoperability, limited metering and monitoring and unclear institutional mandates significantly constrain effective economic regulation, investment planning and climate risk management. While platforms such as Listahang Tubig provide an important foundation for utility-level monitoring, their current scope and institutional anchoring are insufficient to support integrated water resources management or sector-wide regulatory oversight. The analysis of metering and monitoring further demonstrates that data gaps and reliability issues, particularly for non-revenue water, asset condition and real-time system performance, undermine benchmarking, tariff setting and operational efficiency. Finally, fragmented legal and governance frameworks for data limit the sustainability and scalability of digital water initiatives.
Against this backdrop and drawing on international experience, particularly Korea’s stepwise approach to integrated water information systems, the following recommendations set out a sequenced pathway to strengthen water data governance, digital infrastructure and regulatory effectiveness. Together, they aim to position a centralised national integrated water information system as core public infrastructure underpinning economic regulation (discussed in chapter 2), service aggregation (discussed in Chapter 3), investment prioritisation and long-term water security. Building on this chapter’s analysis, the following recommendations for strengthening water data governance, digital infrastructure and institutional coordination are provided:
Establish a centralised national integrated water information system: developing and implementing a national, centralised water information system can address fragmentation across water resources, utilities, infrastructure and climate data. The system can support integrated water resources management, regulatory oversight and climate risk preparedness, while aligning with broader e-government platforms and standards.
Develop a national master plan for water information and data management: strengthening water data governance, digital infrastructure and institutional coordination can be supported by preparing a national master plan that defines system architecture, governance arrangements, legal foundations and an implementation roadmap. The plan should specify data standards, interoperability requirements, institutional responsibilities and long-term financing and maintenance arrangements, ensuring sustainability and coherence across agencies.
Pilot the integrated system in priority areas before national roll-out: data integration, institutional coordination and user interfaces can be tested by implementing pilot deployments in priority provinces or basins to test. Pilot results should inform phased national expansion and system refinement. This can help to reduce implementation and operational risks, improve system usability and design and build institutional capacity and ownership.
Standardise water data and mandate inter-agency data sharing: it is critical to introduce national standards for water data collection, reporting and quality assurance. Relevant agencies and utilities can then be required to link existing systems to a central data hub through legally mandated data-sharing protocols with clear enforcement and accountability mechanisms.
Strengthen institutional arrangements, governance and capacity: establish a clear institutional lead for the integrated system, supported by a cross-agency steering mechanism. Invest in sustained capacity building at national and local levels to ensure system ownership, operational sustainability and effective use in policy and regulation.
Strengthen data accuracy through bulk metering and real-time monitoring: prioritise investments in bulk metering, leakage monitoring and real-time data acquisition to improve the reliability of utility and resource data. These investments should underpin NWR reduction strategies and operational decision-making.
Progressively develop smart water management capabilities: build smart water management functionalities incrementally, including real-time analytics, GIS-linked network models and predictive tools, ensuring that advanced technologies are deployed only where institutional capacity and data quality are sufficient.
Anchor digital water governance in law and regulation: embed obligations for data sharing, interoperability, cybersecurity, monitoring and evaluation and public disclosure within the national water resources act and related public data legislation, ensuring durability beyond individual projects or administrations.
Ensure transparency, public access and citizen-centred design: use the integrated system to provide accessible public dashboards, service performance indicators and water risk information. Transparent reporting should support public trust, accountability and social acceptance of water sector reforms.
Ultimately, the integrated information system should service as an enabling platform for broader water sector reform. The system can be leveraged to support tariff setting, investment planning, service rationalisation and regulatory oversight, progressively strengthening evidence-based and coherent water governance across national and subnational levels.
References
[3] ADB (2013), Philippines: Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Assessment, Strategy, and Road Map, https://www.adb.org/documents/philippines-water-supply-and-sanitation-sector-assessment-strategy-and-road-map.
[5] Han River Flood Control Office (HFCO) (2019), Water Management Information Networking System (WINS), Han River Flood Control Office (HFCO), Seoul, Republic of Korea.
[6] Ministry of Environment of Korea (2017), Local Government’s Waterworks Modernization Project, Ministry of Environment of Korea, Sejong City, Republic of Korea.
[7] MOIS (2022), Electronic Government Act, Ministry of the Interior and Safety (MOIS), Sejong City, Republic of Korea.
[4] NEDA (2023), Philippine Development Plan 2023–2028, Government of the Philippines, Manila, https://pdp.depdev.gov.ph/philippine-development-plan-2023-2028/.
[1] NEDA (2021), Philippine Water Supply and Sanitation Master Plan, National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA), Pasig City, Philippines, https://faolex.fao.org/docs/pdf/phi214382.pdf (accessed on 13 December 2024).
[8] NIA (2023), Guidelines on Public Data Management and Practical Manual for Data Provision Management.
[2] SEPO (2024), Quenching Policy Thrist: Reforming Water Governance in the Philippines, Senate Economic Planning Office, Manila..