Skills that Matter for Success and Well‑being in Adulthood

5. How can policies support social and emotional learning for all?

Abstract

This chapter explores policy options for promoting social and emotional learning across the life course, building on findings of this report that highlight the importance of these skills in shaping a wide range of life outcomes in adults’ lives. It examines how learning opportunities can be embedded in education systems, non-formal learning and workplaces to contribute to the development of these skills in both youth and adulthood. It also addresses the challenge of ensuring equal access to such opportunities and developing targeted measures for specific socio-demographic groups. Adopting a comprehensive, lifelong-learning approach is essential to equip adults with the social and emotional skills needed to thrive as workers, learners and citizens.

In Brief

The 2023 Survey of Adult Skills shows that social and emotional skills – including agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, extraversion and openness to experience – relate to educational attainment, employment outcomes, well-being, health and civic engagement. Yet these skills systematically differ across socio-demographic groups, reflecting social norms, educational opportunities and cumulative advantages. This highlights the need for targeted policies to support social and emotional learning (SEL) throughout life. A lifelong-learning approach that embeds SEL in education systems, non-formal learning and workplaces can help strengthen these skills in both youth and adulthood.

Policy options:

• Extend SEL beyond K-12: Most current efforts focus on children and adolescents. However, evidence shows that social and emotional skills can be also strengthened in adulthood. Expanding SEL policies to adulthood requires an adult-centred SEL framework that identifies social and emotional skills that are impactful, meanable through interventions, and granular enough to support practical learning and intervention design. Existing employability frameworks that include SEL offer useful starting points.

• Leverage post-secondary and vocational pathways: Many vocational education programmes and higher education institutions embed SEL in curricula, work-based projects and mentoring. A more systematic adoption would require a comprehensive SEL framework that is aligned with labour market needs as well as efforts to strengthen the capacity of educators and trainers to teach and assess SEL.

• Harness non-formal learning: Non-formal learning activities such as community education, online courses and volunteer programmes, already build communication, teamwork and leadership skills, even when not labelled SEL. Governments can formalise and expand these learning opportunities by supporting structured curricula that explicitly targets SEL, introducing digital badges or micro-credentials that make SEL achievements visible, and providing incentives that widen access for under-represented adults.

• Target disadvantaged groups: Persistent differences in social and emotional skills by gender, immigrant background, parental education, educational attainment and literacy proficiency call for tailored interventions. Policies should aim at integrating SEL into compulsory schooling to ensure that all children have an equal starting point in developing social and emotional competencies. Policies should also embed SEL into language and integration programmes for migrants, active labour-market programmes for the unemployed, and adult education to support vulnerable groups. At the same time, initiatives should challenge stereotypes – for example, by encouraging girls’ leadership and boys’ empathy.

• Embed SEL in workplaces: Workplaces are key settings for developing social and emotional skills throughout adulthood. Governments can reinforce this role by making SEL an explicit objective of publicly funded workforce programmes. For example, public support for training provided through individual learning accounts, training vouchers or employer subsidies could require providers to state SEL objectives and align training to a recognised SEL framework. In addition, governments can tackle structural barriers in SEL provision by supporting small and medium-sized enterprises, which often lack the resources or expertise to design training programmes.

Introduction

The 2023 Survey of Adult Skills confirms that social and emotional skills play a role across education, work and well-being, complementing cognitive skills in shaping adults’ lives. Adults with higher levels of openness to experience and emotional stability are more likely to attain higher levels of education and to maintain strong literacy, numeracy and problem-solving skills in nearly all participating countries and economies (see Chapter 2). Extraversion, emotional stability and conscientiousness are linked to employment, job satisfaction and wages, even after accounting for education and cognitive skills. Beyond labour market success, social and emotional skills are associated with health, life satisfaction and civic engagement (see Chapter 3). The evidence points to the need for skills policies that look beyond cognitive proficiency alone.

At the same time, the results of this report show that social and emotional skills differ across socio-demographic groups of the adult population (see Chapter 4). Systematic differences emerge by gender, age, parental education and immigrant background, suggesting that social roles, norms and structures shape the social and emotional development of social groups differently. Without policy attention, these differences risk reinforcing existing social and economic divides. In addition, the positive associations of social and emotional skills with cognitive skills and education point to cumulative advantages and disadvantages: unequal opportunities for learning can foster socio-economic differences in social and emotional skills, while uneven levels of social and emotional skills may, in turn, reinforce inequalities in education and cognitive proficiency.

This chapter explores policy options for promoting social and emotional learning across the life course. It discusses how such learning opportunities can be embedded in education systems, non-formal learning and workplaces to contribute to the development of these skills in both youth and adulthood. It also addresses the challenge of ensuring equal access to such opportunities and developing targeted measures for specific socio-demographic groups. Such a comprehensive, lifelong-learning approach goes beyond current policy efforts, which largely concentrate on early education and schools, and responds to the need of strengthening these skills in the adult population to prepare workers and citizens for the future.

Because empirical evidence and policy guidance on fostering social and emotional skills in adulthood remain limited, this chapter is exploratory, seeking to frame promising policy directions and showcase policy examples that can inform future action. Rather than offering definitive prescriptions, it seeks to stimulate further debate, research and experimentation in this relatively new field. Continued analytical work, empirical research and policy evaluation will be essential to build a comprehensive foundation for effective social and emotional skills policies that span the entire life course.

The current approach: Promoting social and emotional learning in schools

In recent years, social and emotional skills have gained increasing prominence in education policy under the umbrella term of social and emotional learning (SEL). SEL refers to interventions and practices aimed at developing skills such as self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, collaboration and responsible decision-making. Policymakers across OECD countries now view SEL as an important lever for promoting equity and inclusion, enhancing student well-being and strengthening resilience.

SEL policies are mostly designed for pre-primary, primary and secondary education. This focus reflects strong evidence that social and emotional skills are particularly malleable at younger ages (Steponavičius, Gress-Wright and Linzarini, 2023[1]). In addition, investing in the development of social and emotional skills at an early stage tends to be more effective and cost-efficient than attempting to address skill gaps later in life, as early gains tend to accumulate over time and reinforce the growth of these skills throughout adolescence and adulthood.

Most OECD countries have embedded SEL into their national curricula, often as a holistic framework that outlines key competencies. For example, Finland has incorporated social and emotional learning as part of its national curriculum for general upper secondary education, focusing on a set of transversal skills that support student well-being (Finnish National Agency for Education, 2025[2]). These skills are grouped into six key areas: well-being competences, interaction competences, multidisciplinary and creative competences, societal competences, ethical and environmental competences and global and cultural competences.

In addition, some countries incorporate SEL in existing subjects, most often in the humanities, national languages, science and the arts (OECD, 2024[3]). Other develop dedicated courses for teaching social and emotional skills, such as citizenship education. Beyond the classroom, extracurricular activities and community engagement play a significant role in promoting SEL. Countries encourage students’ participation in such activities through awarding credits, for example. In addition, they invest in teacher training and professional development, recognising the critical role of educators in fostering SEL. Programmes typically focus on equipping teachers with the skills and knowledge necessary to integrate SEL into their teaching practices effectively.

Assessing students’ social and emotional skills is key to ensuring that educational goals and learning objectives are met. An assessment also helps detect inequalities in these skills among student groups and determine the need for intervention. An OECD report reviewed countries’ practices in assessing, documenting and recognising social and emotional skills in upper secondary education (OECD, 2023[4]). It concluded that, unlike other areas of learning, countries do not have system-wide monitoring tools for tracking the development of social and emotional skills. Current approaches are typically fragmented, using information from a variety of sources, including student self-reports, teacher observations, classroom-based assessments or students’ achievements in extra-curricular activities, projects and work experiences.

Key considerations

Policy efforts to promote SEL in schools have been expanding across OECD countries, reflecting a growing recognition of the importance of these skills for students' academic success, well-being and future employability. However, unified, whole-system policy approaches for developing and monitoring these skills in formal education are still emerging. The OECD’s Survey on Social and Emotional Skills (SSES) project outlined key policy actions toward a holistic approach for promoting social and emotional skills development across the education system (OECD, 2023[5]; 2024[6]):

Make social and emotional learning a policy priority and invest strategically

Social and emotional skills receive less systematic attention than academic knowledge and cognitive skills. Policymakers can address this imbalance by making social and emotional skills a core element of education strategies and committing sustained resources for their development. Investments based on empirical evidence, which target skills shown to have strong long-term effects, promise the largest returns. Investing in the design of programmes aiming to address the needs of disadvantaged learners is also crucial. Such strategic investment can support long-term learning and equity, ensuring that social and emotional learning is viewed not as a temporary initiative but as a fundamental part of skills policy.

Measure social and emotional skills systematically and use data effectively

Robust measurement is essential for recognising the impacts of social and emotional skills and for guiding action. Reliable assessments can help track progress, highlight inequities and inform teaching practices. While self-report surveys remain common, innovation is needed to move toward performance assessments of relevant behaviours that capture a wide range of skills. This requires investing in education research and exploring the potential of new technologies for developing more direct and robust assessments. Importantly, assessment data should be shared with teachers, schools, families and policymakers so that it can inform learning, instruction and policy.

Support teachers with training, tools and time

Teachers are at the frontline of developing students’ social and emotional skills, but many report lacking the confidence, tools or time to integrate social and emotional learning effectively (Jones et al., 2018[7]). Policymakers should embed social and emotional skills in both initial teacher education and professional development programmes, ensuring that educators understand not only the theory but also practical strategies for fostering social and emotional skills in the classroom. Schools also need to provide conditions that are supportive for teachers: dedicated time for planning, access to quality materials, and mentoring or peer networks that support innovation. Incentives, such as recognition of practice related to SEL in career development frameworks, can further encourage uptake.

Adopt a whole-school and community approach

Social and emotional development does not happen in isolation: it is shaped by interactions at home, at school and in the community. Policies that promote a whole-school approach – where leadership, curriculum, school climate and extra-curricular activities all reinforce social and emotional learning – are more effective than isolated interventions. Engagement with parents and local communities is critical, as these skills are strengthened when they are consistently supported across contexts.

Developing adult-focused frameworks for social and emotional learning

The development of social and emotional skills does not stop at the end of formal schooling. These skills can be also cultivated in adulthood (Oliveira et al., 2021[8]; Roberts et al., 2017[9]). Results of the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills show that they play a role in shaping key life outcomes in adults’ lives across a variety of contexts and countries. At the same time, social and emotional skills are unevenly distributed across socio-demographic groups. Supporting SEL in youth and adulthood can help reduce these inequalities, support professional and personal development, and enhance well-being across the population, ensuring that social and emotional skills remain accessible and relevant throughout life.

Yet most SEL policies, programmes and assessment tools have been designed for K-12 learners, and it is unclear how these resources translate to adult learning contexts (Giammarco, Higham and McKean, 2020[10]). Expanding SEL beyond schools would require adapting existing SEL programmes and measurement tools to adult learners or developing new ones. Most importantly, such efforts would need to be anchored in a comprehensive, evidence-based skills framework that identifies the social and emotional skills with biggest impact across educational, professional and social contexts and, at the same time, with the strongest susceptibility to change through interventions and training.

This report used an extra short version of Big Five personality framework to analyse differences in broad social and emotional skill domains among adults and their associations with life outcomes. The Big Five framework is a valuable assessment tool for research given it comprehensiveness, cross-cultural applicability and analytical power across a variety of outcomes and life domains. However, its broad domains – each reflecting a large number of behavioural tendencies – are less suited for designing concrete interventions or training programmes. Adult-focused frameworks need to define more narrow competencies, such as teamwork, adaptability or conflict resolution. These narrow skills should be validated by research as being teachable through short-term learning and practice.

Therefore, while the empirical analyses of this report drew on the Big Five model to demonstrate the importance of social and emotional skill domains in adults’ lives, the policy options discussed in this chapter focus instead on narrower, more readily teachable skills. Evidence suggests that many of these specific social and emotional skills are conceptually related to the broad Big Five domains – for example, collaboration to agreeableness, self-efficacy to conscientiousness, emotional regulation to emotional stability, curiosity to openness to experience, and zest to extraversion (Walton et al., 2021[11]). However, more research is needed to determine the impacts of such narrow skills across adult outcomes and their distribution across the adult population, to ensure that policy initiatives target the most impactful skills among groups who would benefit most from their development.

Some frameworks of employability skills have already begun to incorporate social and emotional components next to foundational cognitive skills. For example, the UK Skills Builder Framework defines so-called essential skills that are highly transferable and relevant to almost any work context, including creativity, leadership and teamwork (see Box 5.1). The World Economic Forum’s 21st Century Skills Framework includes character qualities, such as curiosity and initiative, and competencies, such as creativity, next to foundational literacies, such as literacy, numeracy and science.1 Other employability skills frameworks incorporating social and emotional skills include the World Bank’s PRACTICE model, the Skills for Employment framework of the International Labour Organisation, the European Key Competences Framework of the European Union, and the CBI (Confederation of British Industry) Employability Skills Framework.

These frameworks inform the design of policies, training programmes and professional development initiatives, offering guidance on skill definitions, learning objectives and assessment strategies that are relevant for adults. They can serve as useful starting points for integrating SEL into broader lifelong learning and employability strategies.

Key considerations

SEL policies should move beyond the school setting to embed social and emotional skills in contexts where adults continue to learn and develop, such as vocational training, higher education, workplace training and non-formal learning. This would require a well-defined framework of social and emotional skills that are both impactful on life outcomes and amenable to improvement through targeted interventions. Such a framework would provide a shared language for policymakers, educators, employers and training providers, helping to align curricula, workplace programmes and adult learning initiatives around consistent learning objectives.

An adult SEL framework needs to define skills at a sufficiently granular level to support practical learning and intervention design, distinguishing broad domains from specific competencies that can be nurtured through short-term programmes. It must be adaptable to diverse contexts, recognising differences in learners’ backgrounds, life stages and professional environments. It should also be accompanied by robust assessment tools that capture both existing skill levels and progress over time. Together, these elements would allow policymakers and training providers to better match programmes to learners’ needs and scale up the most effective interventions.

Existing employability frameworks illustrate how adult-focused SEL frameworks can be operationalised. For instance, the UK Skills Builder Framework breaks down broad competencies into teachable, measurable components: teamwork, for example, includes the ability to encourage others, resolve conflicts and assess the effectiveness of the team. Drawing on these approaches, policymakers can design curricula and training programmes that explicitly foster social and emotional skills, while also providing clear benchmarks for assessment and evaluation.

Box 5.1. The Skills Builder Framework: Integrating social and emotional skills into employability development

The Skills Builder Framework, developed in the United Kingdom, provides a structured approach to developing eight essential skills that are critical for success in education, employment and wider life: listening, speaking, problem solving, creativity, staying positive, aiming high, leadership and teamwork. These skills reflect both cognitive and social-emotional dimensions and are broken down into 16 stages of progression, creating a clear roadmap for skill development from beginner to advanced levels.

A key strength of the framework is its applicability across age groups and contexts. So far it has been adopted widely by schools, colleges, universities, non-formal learning providers, employers and career services, offering a shared language and benchmarks to describe and assess progress.

In schools, the framework helps educators embed employability skills into the curriculum. In post-secondary and adult learning settings, it supports career guidance and preparation for work-based learning. Teachers and trainers use the framework to plan instruction and track progress by drawing on the progression steps to design lessons and set age-appropriate expectations. This structured approach provides students with visible milestones, supporting both motivation and reflection on personal growth.

In the workplace, employers and training providers use the framework to strengthen recruitment, professional development and workforce training. It helps organisations identify skill gaps, design targeted learning interventions, and ensure that training programmes are aligned with both job requirements and broader employability needs. For instance, an employer might use the framework during onboarding to assess a new employee’s teamwork or problem-solving skills and then provide tailored development opportunities, such as mentoring or team-based projects, to build on these areas.

Source: See https://www.skillsbuilder.org/universal-framework (accessed on 18 August 2025).

Integrating social and emotional learning in VET and higher education

While SEL is increasingly established in K-12 education, its integration into vocational education and training (VET) and higher education remains limited and often fragmented. Most SEL initiatives in post-secondary institutions are either embedded informally in teaching practices, included as part of broader employability or life skills programmes, or delivered through optional extracurricular activities. Few institutions have comprehensive frameworks or systematic approaches to assess, monitor and develop these skills among students (Conley and Donahue-Keegan, 2024[12]).

In vocational education and training, SEL is increasingly recognised as essential for employability and workplace readiness (Sauli, Wenger and Fiori, 2022[13]). Some programmes incorporate team projects, client interactions and simulated work environments to foster collaboration, communication and resilience. Certain national VET systems, such as those in Germany and Switzerland, piloted projects to embed social and emotional competencies into curricula and teacher training (see Box 5.2). However, these practices are not yet standardised across programmes, and systematic evaluation of their effectiveness remains limited. At the international level, the programmes SELVET and EL4VET funded by the European Commission serve as examples for expanding and formalising SEL in VET (Rácz and Mc Donnell, 2015[14]; Sauli, Wenger and Fiori, 2022[13]).

Higher education institutions have been experimenting with SEL integration, particularly through interdisciplinary programmes and co-curricular activities such as mentoring, volunteering and group-based projects. For example, some universities in the United States and Europe offer “soft skills” modules or embed SEL components in professional programmes such as medicine, engineering and business. Nevertheless, these initiatives are often voluntary, vary widely in scope and depth, and target SEL rather implicitly. Comprehensive approaches aiming to cultivate SEL within entire programmes or institutions are less common (Conley and Donahue-Keegan, 2024[12]). An example is the Resilience Lab at the University of Washington, which provides students, staff and instructors with training and tools to build self-awareness, respond to stress more effectively and cultivate compassion.2

Box 5.2. Initiatives promoting social and emotional learning in vocational education and training in Germany and Switzerland

This box presents two initiatives underscoring the growing recognition of the importance of social and emotional learning in vocational education and training.

Socially competent – dually trained (Sozial kompetent – dual ausgebildet) – Germany

The Socially competent – dually trained programme was launched by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi) to enhance social and emotional competencies within Germany's dual VET system. This programme funded innovative projects designed to strengthen social skills among both apprentices and trainers. The initiative recognised the importance of competencies such as teamwork, communication and adaptability in preparing individuals for the complexities of modern workplaces. By integrating these skills into the dual VET framework, the programme sought to ensure that graduates are not only technically proficient but also equipped with the interpersonal skills necessary for success in their careers.

Development of socio-emotional skills amongst VET school teachers: pilot project supporting 21st century skills – Switzerland

In Switzerland, the Swiss Federal University for Vocational Education and Training (SFUVET) initiated a pilot project focused on developing socio-emotional skills among VET school teachers. Recognising the challenges posed by rapid changes in the labour market and the increasing demand for adaptability, the project aimed to equip educators with skills such as stress management, resilience and emotional intelligence. By enhancing teachers' socio-emotional competencies, the project sought to improve their well-being and effectiveness in the classroom, thereby fostering a positive learning environment for students. The initiative also aimed to integrate these competencies into teacher accreditation courses, ensuring that VET educators are well-prepared to meet the evolving needs of both learners and the world of work.

Source: See https://www.bundeswirtschaftsministerium.de/Redaktion/DE/Publikationen/Ausbildung-und-Beruf/sozial-kompetent-dual-ausgebildet.html and https://www.sfuvet.swiss/research/projects/development-socio-emotional-skills-amongst-vet-school-teachers-pilot-project (accessed 19 August 2025).

Key considerations

Supporting social and emotional learning in vocational and higher education is a crucial step for fostering the skills adults need to thrive in work, society and personal life. Building on emerging practices, several policy directions can support the systematic development of social and emotional skills in post-secondary institutions.

Policymakers should encourage institutions to adopt comprehensive frameworks that identify the social and emotional skills most relevant to adult learners. These frameworks need to be concrete enough to guide programme design and assessment, while flexible enough to adapt to different disciplines, occupational pathways and learners’ social and emotional profiles. The latter is especially important in light of evidence showing that social and emotional skills play a role in the selection into academic disciplines (see Chapters 2). Finally, linking SEL objectives to employers’ needs can help institutions align their strategies with broader economic goals.

Strengthening capacity among educators and trainers is another critical step. Teachers and faculty in VET or higher education often lack explicit preparation for fostering social and emotional skills. Professional development programmes should therefore include guidance on how to embed SEL into academic and practical learning, while also equipping teachers with the tools, mentoring and ongoing support needed to implement these approaches effectively. At the same time, institutions should be supported in designing assessment tools that capture progress in SEL, enabling both learners and educators to reflect on growth and areas for improvement.

Fostering adults’ social and emotional skills through non-formal learning

Non-formal learning activities are increasingly recognised as important avenues for developing social and emotional skills (Napierala, Carretero and Downes, 2020[15]). These activities include intentional and institutionalised learning, such as community education programmes, workplace training, online courses, volunteer programmes and workshops offered by non-governmental organisations or local authorities. Many of these initiatives are shown to enhance skills such as communication, teamwork, leadership and resilience, even when their explicit focus is not on social and emotional skills development (see Napierala, Carretero and Downes (2020[15]) for an overview).

A recent OECD report explored trends in adult learning participation and adult learning policy (OECD, 2025[16]). It showed that participation rates have stagnated or decreased in most OECD countries over the past decade, while older adults, migrants, low-educated adults and those from lower educated families continue to participate at lower rates. At the same time, policies value lifelong learning as a key lever for promoting individual and societal well-being. Accordingly, many countries have attempted to expand access to adult learning through training leave policies, financial incentives for learners and employers, or measures that enhance the flexibility of provision.

The report shows that health and safety training dominate non-formal learning, while 9% of respondents report participating in learning activities focused on teamwork and leadership skills, 4% report learning communication and presentation skills, and less than 2% report participating in activities with a creative focus. However, the survey does not collect information on whether activities have an explicit SEL focus, and it remains unclear to what extent non-formal learning across the OECD actively targets SEL. In many cases, SEL is implicitly embedded within non-formal learning, as participants strengthen communication or leadership skills through collaborative tasks or community engagement. In other cases, countries adopt more explicit strategies to promote SEL through non-formal learning, developing structured curricula and dedicated training programmes. For example, Canada’s “Skills for Success” model provides a national framework that incorporates SEL alongside foundational cognitive skills and builds dedicated courses and resources for adults based on this (see Box 5.3).

Key considerations

To strengthen the role of non-formal learning in fostering social and emotional skills, policy measures should aim to expand, formalise and integrate SEL across adult learning pathways. Governments and training providers could support the development of structured curricula or frameworks for non-formal adult learning that explicitly embed SEL, with clear learning objectives and progression steps. In addition, assessment tools and recognition mechanisms, such as micro-credentials or digital badges, can make SEL achievements visible and valued by employers and the wider community. Policies should also ensure that programmes are accessible and inclusive, targeting low-educated adults, migrants and other groups at risk of exclusion. Promoting collaboration between educational institutions, employers and civil society organisations is key to ensuring the relevance of SEL in non-formal education for employability and social integration.

Box 5.3. Canada’s Skills for Success model: Building social and emotional capacity for adults through non-formal training

Canada’s Skills for Success initiative, led by Employment and Social Development Canada, constitutes a national framework designed to equip Canadians – especially job seekers – with foundational and transferable skills vital for success in work, education and life. The model defines nine essential skills that span cognitive, digital and social-emotional domains: reading, writing, numeracy, digital tools, communication, problem solving, collaboration, creativity and innovation, and adaptability.

In transitioning from its predecessor (the Essential Skills framework), Skills for Success has explicitly incorporated social and emotional competencies by introducing creativity, innovation and adaptability, and broadening definitions for communication (including non-verbal cues) and collaboration (encompassing inclusivity and respect).

To make the model actionable, the Government provides free assessment tools and learning resources: users can evaluate their skill levels and access workbooks and online modules to strengthen their skills across the areas of the Skills for Success model.

The model is also a foundation for funded projects under the Skills for Success programme. The programme provides funding to organisations, employers, provinces and territories to develop and test training and assessment tools. For instance:

• Initiatives like Skills Quest 4 Success focus on delivering interactive SEL training, particularly for persons with disabilities, addressing adaptability, creativity, collaboration and communication.

• Other projects, such as Driver for Hire, integrate SEL within industry-specific training, targeting collaboration, communication, problem-solving, adaptability and innovation for gig-economy workers.

Canada’s Skills for Success model demonstrates how governments can mainstream SEL within employment and training initiatives, making these competencies explicit, supported by practical tools, and integrated into funded programmes for jobseekers. This approach combines skills clarity, accessibility, targeted support and scalability, offering a blueprint for embedding social and emotional skills into workforce development.

Source: See https://www.canada.ca/en/services/jobs/training/initiatives/skills-success.html (accessed 21 August 2025).

Supporting social and emotional learning among disadvantaged groups

Results of the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills show marked difference in social and emotional skills by gender, immigrant background, parental education, educational attainment and literacy proficiency in nearly all participating countries and economies (see Chapter 4). These findings highlight the need for targeted interventions to strengthen social and emotional learning among groups with lower skill levels in order to prevent that the uneven distribution of these skills reinforces existing inequalities in education and the labour market. Across countries, policies and initiatives have sought to embed SEL into programmes targeting groups at risk of exclusion, including youth from low socio-economic backgrounds, migrants and refugees, the unemployed and adults with limited educational attainment.

Many education systems have introduced interventions in early childhood and primary education, recognising that disadvantaged children are often less likely to benefit from enriched home environments. For example, targeted pre-school programmes frequently include components that promote self-regulation, empathy and communication (Calhoun et al., 2020[17]). In schools, mentoring, tutoring and extra-curricular activities often integrate SEL to help vulnerable learners develop confidence and persistence (Cipriano and McCarthy, 2023[18]). In VET and higher education, tailored career guidance, counselling services and peer mentoring programmes have been adopted to support students from underrepresented groups (Helms et al., 2021[19]). Employment and social services also play an important role, with active labour market programmes integrating SEL modules aimed at improving job readiness and interpersonal skills.

Gender differences in social and emotional skills add another dimension to such efforts. While women often score higher on measures of agreeableness and conscientiousness, men are more likely to demonstrate assertiveness and emotional stability. These differences can reinforce traditional gender roles and reinforce gender inequalities on the labour market. Some countries have begun to address gender difference in social and emotional skills through targeted measures. For example, some programmes integrate SEL into STEM education to encourage girls’ participation and confidence in traditionally male-dominated fields.3 Other approaches include mentoring schemes, gender-sensitive teacher training and awareness campaigns designed to challenge implicit biases and create more inclusive learning environments (Brussino and McBrien, 2022[20]; OECD, 2024[21]).

Key considerations

Despite efforts to promote inclusive SEL, initiatives remain fragmented. Programmes are frequently short-term or project-based, and evaluation evidence is limited. To ensure equitable opportunities, policies need to move beyond isolated interventions and adopt a more comprehensive approach that embeds SEL in mainstream provision, while tailoring support to the specific challenges of different groups. Some policy options for targeted support for specific groups include:

Adults from low socio-economic backgrounds

To tackle socio-economic differences in social and emotional skills, policies should prioritise integrating SEL programmes into compulsory schooling, ensuring that all children, regardless of their socio-economic background, have an equal starting point in developing these essential competencies. Such programmes should create environments where disadvantaged learners are encouraged to take initiative, collaborate and be creative. This approach should be complemented by policies that continue to address inequalities beyond formal education, by supporting SEL development in vocational training, higher education and lifelong learning programmes.

Migrants and refugees

This report showed that, in the majority of countries and economies participating in the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills, migrants demonstrate, on average, higher levels of conscientiousness, agreeableness and openness to experience than native-born adults (see Chapter 4). However, in some countries, migrants are less emotionally stable and extraverted. In addition, findings of the survey indicate that migrants often lack strong literacy skills, which may negatively impact social and emotional skills related to communication (OECD, 2018[22]). Policies can aim at embedding SEL into language learning and integration programmes, equipping learners not only with linguistic skills but also with emotional intelligence, resilience and interpersonal skills.

Adults with limited educational attainment

The largest and most consistent differences in social and emotional skills observed in the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills are between adults with different levels of educational attainment, with low-educated adults demonstrating lower levels of agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, extraversion and openness to experience in most countries (see Chapter 4). These findings highlight the need for integrating SEL into adult education and training programmes, particularly those targeting adults without upper secondary qualifications. In addition, SEL modules can be incorporated into active labour market policies that support the unemployed, such as job-search assistance, counselling and upskilling programmes. Effective strategies should include targeted outreach, financial incentives and close cooperation between adult education providers, employment services and local employers to ensure that SEL development is relevant, accessible and aligned with labour market needs.

Addressing gender differences

The consistent gender differences across countries in the Big Five domains found in the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills and numerous other studies call for a dual policy approach to gender-inclusive SEL. Policies should promote equal opportunities for men and women to develop a broad set of social and emotional skills, while at the same time adapt educational, training and workplace environments to better accommodate and leverage diverse socio-emotional profiles. For example, in education, governments can integrate SEL into school curricula to encourage girls to build self-confidence, leadership and risk-taking skills, while also supporting boys in developing empathy, collaboration and emotional regulation. In the workplace, one can adapt structures by revising recruitment, promotion and performance evaluation systems so they account for a broader range of socio-emotional strengths instead of prioritising only traditionally “male-coded” skills like assertiveness or risk-taking.

Cultivating social and emotional skills at the workplace

Interest in cultivating social and emotional skills at work has grown steadily as organisations adapt to rapid technological change, new forms of work organisation and customer-facing service models (Mehler et al., 2024[23]; Poláková et al., 2023[24]). Many employers already embed elements of SEL into onboarding, customer service training and supervisor development. An OECD study investigated workplace training strategies in 100 enterprises across five European countries (OECD, 2021[25]). It showed that courses in soft skills are the third most frequently offered training in firms, following training in technical, practical or job-related skills and training in health, safety and security. Such courses usually focus on communication and feedback, conflict management or co-operation in a team, leadership and management skills.

Public policy increasingly supports this shift by linking funding for adult learning to broader employability outcomes that incorporate transversal skills alongside technical upskilling. For instance, instruments that encourage participation in workplace training such as Individual Learning Accounts (ILAs) or training vouchers give learners freedom to choose courses, but governments often pre-approve eligible courses that align with national priorities. Increasingly, these approved courses include SEL-focused content (OECD, 2025[26]). For example, France’s Compte Personnel de Formation (CPF) – personal training accounts that offer funds to employees to buy training offered by various providers – can fund courses in transversal skills, such as communication, teamwork and conflict management (CEDEFOP, 2023[27]).

Some countries use national skills frameworks to make SEL explicit in workforce programmes. An example is Canada’s Skills for Success model described in Box 5.3. Another example is the U.S. Department of Education’s Employability Skills Framework, which defines essential social and emotional skills for employability (e.g. critical thinking, interpersonal skills) and provides implementation toolkits for providers.4 In addition, sectoral representatives and apprenticeship systems are also beginning to specify SEL outcomes in occupational standards (OECD, 2024[28]). Formalising SEL in this way can encourage employers to pay more attention to the social and emotional skills development of their workers.

Yet provision remains uneven. Large firms are more likely to offer structured training than small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and training is often episodic rather than cumulative (EUROSTAT, 2020[29]). Additional results by the OECD show that large firms are more likely to offer training in management skills than SMEs, while differences in the provision of teamwork-focused training are small (OECD, 2021[25]). In addition, enterprises in the information and communication sector and the finance sector are more likely to offer training than enterprises in other industries (EUROSTAT, 2020[29]).

Key considerations

Promoting social and emotional skills in the workplace requires embedding these competencies into broader workforce development and adult learning strategies. Governments can play a key role by making SEL an explicit outcome of publicly funded workforce programmes. This means that where governments subsidise training – for example, through ILAs, training vouchers or employer subsidies – they should require providers to state SEL objectives and align them to a recognised framework. Integrating SEL into qualification standards and competency models can also help ensure that social and emotional skills are recognised as core outcomes alongside technical skills.

At the same time, strengthening SEL provision requires targeted support to overcome structural barriers, particularly for SMEs, which often lack the resources or expertise to design training programmes. Governments can invest in the development of off-the-shelf SEL curricula, facilitator guides and digital toolkits that SMEs can easily adopt without incurring high costs. In addition, governments can support sectoral or cluster-based training initiatives that enable employers to share access to SEL-focused programmes while benefiting from economies of scale. Such collaborative approaches would make it more feasible for smaller firms to provide high-quality learning opportunities.

References

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[1] Steponavičius, M., C. Gress-Wright and A. Linzarini (2023), “Social and emotional skills: Latest evidence on teachability and impact on life outcomes”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 304, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ba34f086-en.

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Notes

← 1.  See https://www.weforum.org/stories/2016/03/21st-century-skills-future-jobs-students/ (accessed 28 February 2025).

← 2.  See https://www.washington.edu/uaa/resilience-lab/ (accessed 19 August 2025).

← 3.  Examples include Teen Turn in Ireland (see https://teen-turn.com/, accessed 19 August 2025) and Women STEM Up (see https://women-stem-up.eu/, accessed 19 August 2025).

← 4.  See https://lincs.ed.gov/state-resources/federal-initiatives/employability-skills-framework (accessed 21 August 2025).