This chapter explores the links between social and emotional skills and key employment and non-economic outcomes. Using data from the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills, it compares the relative contributions of these skills to those of the cognitive abilities assessed in the survey. The chapter examines how social and emotional skills are linked to labour market participation, wages and occupational choices, including the sector (self-employment, public or private) and occupation in which adults are employed. In addition, it examines the associations of these skills with key outcomes relevant for individual and societal well-being: self-reported health, life satisfaction, volunteering and political efficacy, which is the belief in one’s ability to influence political affairs. The results provide insights into the economic returns of social and emotional skills across countries as well as their broader benefits for society.
Skills that Matter for Success and Well‑being in Adulthood
Abstract
Findings of the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills show that social and emotional skills – agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, extraversion and openness to experience – play a role in shaping adults’ success in the labour market and beyond. While cognitive skills such as literacy remain key determinants of labour market outcomes, social and emotional skills independently contribute to employment, wages, job satisfaction and occupational choices. In particular, extraversion and emotional stability show positive associations with employment status and job satisfaction, comparable in magnitude to those of literacy skills. Their associations with wages are weaker, but significant. These skills seem to matter across all countries, while the role of the other social and emotional skill domains in employment outcomes is more context-dependent.
Beyond their relevance for employment, social and emotional skills also play a role in shaping broader aspects of individual and societal well-being. Higher emotional stability and extraversion are consistently related to higher life satisfaction and better health, while openness is positively linked to volunteering and political efficacy – the belief in one’s ability to influence political affairs. These findings highlight the broader value of social and emotional skills for individuals and society.
Key findings include:
Adults with higher emotional stability and extraversion are more likely to be employed than unemployed or inactive. Conscientiousness is also positively associated with employment in about half of the countries. These associations tend to be stronger among adults with low literacy skills. In contrast, agreeableness and openness to experience play a more limited and context-dependent role for employment.
Emotional stability, extraversion, conscientiousness and openness to experience are positively associated with wages in many countries, while agreeableness shows a negative association in nine countries. Taken together, the five skill domains make a smaller contribution to the variation of wages (1.4%), compared to that of literacy skills (4.1%).
Extraverted individuals are generally more likely to be self-employed. Openness to experience is also positively linked to self-employment in many countries. In contrast, social and emotional skills appear to play a more limited role in determining whether individuals work in the private or public sectors.
Emotional stability and extraversion are positively related to the likelihood of being satisfied with one’s job. Agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience are relevant for job satisfaction only in some countries.
Emotional stability has strong and consistent positive associations with life satisfaction and self-reported health. Extraversion, agreeableness and conscientiousness are also positively linked to these outcomes in most countries. In contrast, openness to experience shows variable associations, limited to a few countries.
Extraversion and openness to experience have consistent positive associations with volunteering, comparable in strength to those of literacy skills. Emotional stability and agreeableness are positively linked to volunteering in several countries, while conscientiousness shows negative links in some countries.
Openness to experience, agreeableness and emotional stability are positively associated with adults’ beliefs about political efficacy in many countries.
In today’s knowledge-driven societies, cognitive skills remain essential foundations for success in work and life. Results from the two cycles of the Survey of Adult Skills indicate that literacy, numeracy and problem-solving skills are important determinants of adults’ employability, wages, life satisfaction, health and civic engagement (OECD, 2019[1]; 2024[2]). While cognitive skills have traditionally received more attention in policy and research, there is growing recognition that social and emotional skills are also critical in shaping key life outcomes (Edin et al., 2022[3]; Izadi and Tuhkuri, 2024[4]). As work becomes more dynamic and service-oriented, the abilities to navigate social environments and collaborate effectively emerge as key assets for workers across sectors and occupations. Beyond the workplace, skills related to emotional stability, empathy and open-mindedness play a vital role in supporting individuals’ well-being and active participation in society.
The 2023 Survey of Adult Skills assessed five broad domains of social and emotional skills – agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, extraversion and openness to experience. This chapter explores the links between these skills and key employment and non-economic outcomes. It analyses how these skills relate to labour market participation, wages and occupational choices, including whether individuals work in the public or private sector, are self-employed, or are concentrated in particular occupations. It also examines whether these relationships differ across socio-demographic groups, such as gender. In addition to objective indicators of labour market success, the chapter investigates the relationship between social and emotional skills and subjective well-being, health, political efficacy and civic engagement, offering a more holistic picture of how these skills matter for individuals and societies.
A vast body of research has examined the impacts of social and emotional skills on employment and well-being (Cabus, Napierala and Carretero, 2021[5]; Rammstedt et al., 2025[6]; Strickhouser, Zell and Krizan, 2017[7]). By leveraging data from the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills, this chapter offers a comparative analysis of how social and emotional skills relate to key outcomes in diverse country settings. Moreover, the chapter examines the relative importance of these skills in comparison to the cognitive skills assessed in the survey. It shows how social and emotional skills relate to diverse outcomes beyond their association with cognitive skills and educational attainment, and how these impacts vary across adults with different levels of proficiency in cognitive skills.
The findings offer insights for policymakers and employers seeking to design interventions and learning opportunities that not only improve labour-market performance but also promote social cohesion and individual well-being. The results, coupled with information from Chapter 4 on how population groups differ in social and emotional skills, can also inform the design of more targeted and inclusive policy interventions and more equitable and fulfilling work environments.
Social and emotional skills can influence how individuals access employment, progress in their careers and experience their working lives. For example, extraversion may enhance an individual’s ability to secure a job by improving performance in interviews or professional networking. Once employed, skills related to conscientiousness can support effective teamwork, higher productivity and better job performance – factors that are often rewarded with higher wages and promotion opportunities. Social and emotional skills may also affect the types of occupations and sectors individuals enter. Entrepreneurial success, for instance, often depends on creative imagination and openness to experience. Meanwhile, emotional stability can shape the quality of an individual’s work experience, influencing their job satisfaction and overall well-being at work.
This section explores the links between social and emotional skills and employment outcomes with data from the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills, comparing the relative contributions of these skills to those of adults’ literacy proficiency.
Social and emotional skills and employment status
Findings from the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills indicate that adults’ social and emotional skills are related to their employment status (Figure 3.1). In almost all participating countries and economies, individuals with higher emotional stability and extraversion are more likely to be employed than unemployed or inactive after accounting for other factors, including educational attainment and literacy proficiency. Exceptions from this pattern include Denmark, Finland and New Zealand, where extraversion is not significantly linked to employment status, and Israel, Korea and Singapore, where emotional stability does not show a significant association. Conscientiousness is also positively associated with the likelihood of being employed in about half of the participating countries. By contrast, openness to experience shows a positive link only in Croatia, England (United Kingdom), Israel, Latvia and Poland, and a negative link in Finland and Sweden. Agreeableness is negatively associated with having employment in New Zealand, Norway and Poland and not linked to employment status in the remaining countries and economies.
These patterns may reflect differences in how the skill domains are expressed and perceived in the labour market. Extraversion and emotional stability are often highly visible in interpersonal interactions, such as job interviews or networking situations. Extraverted individuals may come across as more energetic, persuasive and socially adept – qualities that can improve interview performance and increase access to job opportunities. Similarly, emotionally stable individuals may project composure and resilience, which can reassure employers of their reliability. Conscientiousness tends to be less directly observable during the hiring process and more visible in actual on-the-job performance. However, this skill domain can play a role in individuals’ ability to sustain job search efforts or remain employed once hired.
At the same time, the observed relationships may partly reflect the consequences, rather than the causes, of individuals’ employment status. For example, being unemployed or out of the labour force can have adverse effects on subjective well-being, daily routines and social interactions, which may in turn lower emotional stability, conscientiousness and extraversion. The analysis cannot disentangle the impact of the Big Five domains on employment status from the potential reverse effects of employment. Previous evidence suggests that both causal mechanisms are likely at play in the relationship between employment status and social and emotional skills (Boyce et al., 2015[8]; Engelhardt, 2017[9]; Uysal and Pohlmeier, 2011[10]).
Furthermore, the results suggest that social and emotional skills have meaningful associations with employment status, comparable in magnitude to those of cognitive skills. On average across OECD countries, a one-standard-deviation increase in literacy proficiency is associated with a 4-percentage-point higher likelihood of being employed, after accounting for other characteristics, including social and emotional skills and educational attainment. In comparison, increases in extraversion or emotional stability are each associated with approximately a 3-percentage-point higher likelihood of employment after controlling for education, literacy proficiency and other characteristics.
The analysis also indicates that the strength of the relationship between social and emotional skills and employment status varies across countries and economies. These cross-country differences may relate to different cultural norms around communication and self-presentation, which shape how social and emotional skills are expressed, perceived and rewarded on the labour market. They may also reflect differences in the signalling role of these skills and the extent to which employers rely on them relative to educational credentials. In countries where educational qualifications are not reliable indicators of individuals’ actual skills, employers may place greater weight on observable behaviours that reflect social and emotional competencies. In contexts where educational qualifications are indicative of the skills needed for occupations, employers may pay less attention to such traits.
Adjusted change in the likelihood of being employed related to a one-standard-deviation increase in skills
Note: Adults aged 25-65. The outcome is being employed as opposed to being unemployed or inactive. Estimates for the Big Five domains and literacy are obtained from two separate models, each controlling for gender, age, parental education, immigrant background, whether one lives with a partner and whether one has children. Estimates adjusted for years for education and other skills are obtained from one model, which includes the number of years of education attained, literacy proficiency and Big Five domain scores, in addition to the other controls. Darker colours denote differences that are statistically significant at the 5% level. Caution is required in interpreting results for Poland. See the Note for Poland in the Reader’s Guide in OECD (2024[2]).
Countries and economies are ranked in ascending order of the association of each skill domain with the likelihood of being employed, before accounting for education and other skills.
Source: OECD (2024[11]), Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) database, http://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/publicdataandanalysis/ (accessed on 11 August 2025).
Among the narrower Big Five facets, energy level and productiveness show the strongest association with employment status (Figure 3.2). After accounting for educational attainment and literacy proficiency, a one-standard-deviation increase in energy level corresponds to a 4-percentage-point higher likelihood of being employed, and a similar increase in productiveness corresponds to a 3-percentage-point increase, on average, across the OECD countries with available facet-level data. A lower tendency for depression is linked to somewhat higher chances of being employed, while a tendency for being organised is associated with slightly lower chances of being employed. The facets of aesthetic sensitivity, compassion and respectfulness show a weak negative association with the likelihood of employment after controlling for education and literacy.
These results may be due to productive, emotionally stable and energetic individuals being more capable of finding and retaining employment. They may also reflect a pattern of employed individuals being, on average, more energetic, productive and emotionally stable, compared to inactive or unemployed individuals.
Adjusted change in the likelihood of being employed related to a one-standard-deviation increase in the Big Five facets
Note: Adults aged 25-65, aggregated results across the OECD countries that used the BFI-2-S measure (see Chapter 1). The outcome is being employed as opposed to being unemployed or inactive. Estimates are obtained by controlling for gender, age, parental education, immigrant background, whether one lives with a partner, whether one has children – and in a second step – for years of education attained and literacy proficiency. (r) denotes reverse-coded sub-domains, where a positive score corresponds to a low tendency for anxiety, depression or emotional volatility (and thus higher emotional stability). Darker colours denote differences that are statistically significant at the 5% level.
Source: OECD (2024[11]), Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) database, http://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/publicdataandanalysis/ (accessed on 11 August 2025).
Additional analyses explored separately the impact of the Big Five domains and facets on the likelihood of being active in the labour market as opposed to being out of the labour force, and the probability of being employed versus unemployed. The results follow a similar pattern and are presented in Annex A.
Social and emotional skills matter more for employment among those with low literacy
The relevance of social and emotional skills for employability appears to be somewhat stronger for individuals lacking solid cognitive skills (Figure 3.3). In particular, the positive associations of extraversion, emotional stability and conscientiousness with the likelihood of being employed tend to be more pronounced among adults with lower literacy proficiency (at Level 1 or below). Across OECD countries, on average, each of these associations is about 2-percentage-point higher in this group than among adults with literacy proficiency at Levels 3 or above.
These findings suggest that social and emotional competencies may serve as compensatory assets in the labour market for individuals with limited literacy skills. More extraverted, conscientious and emotionally stable individuals may be more motivated and capable of securing employment even in the absence of strong literacy skills. Moreover, employers recruiting for low-skilled jobs may place particular value on these behaviours as indicators for reliability, adaptability or customer-facing potential. In contrast, for adults with strong literacy skills, social and emotional skills may offer lower added value, as employers can more confidently assess job readiness based on cognitive signals alone.
Agreeableness and openness to experience play a limited role in employment status, both for adults with low and high literacy skills. Exceptions are observed in New Zealand and Sweden, where agreeableness is not associated with the likelihood of being employed among adults with higher literacy proficiency, but has a significantly negative association for those with low literacy skills.
Social and emotional skills and wages
A vast body of literature shows that social and emotional skills are related to wages (Alderotti, Rapallini and Traverso, 2023[12]; Cabus, Napierala and Carretero, 2021[5]; Nyhus and Pons, 2005[13]). Overall, there is robust evidence of positive associations between wages and conscientiousness, emotional stability, extraversion and openness to experience, as well as a negative association between wages and agreeableness.
Results from the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills confirm these relationships in many, but not all, participating countries (Figure 3.4).1 Emotional stability is positively linked to wages in all countries and economies except Austria, Ireland, Israel, Latvia, Lithuania, Singapore and the Slovak Republic. Extraversion shows a positive association in 17 countries and is not related to wages in 11 countries. Conscientiousness has a positive link to wages in 10 countries and a negative link in Poland, while openness to experience is positively related to wages in 12 countries. Agreeableness has a negative association in nine countries.
Accounting for the mediating impacts of educational attainment and literacy proficiency reduces the associations between the Big Five domains and wages in some countries. This is especially the case for the domain of openness to experience. Emotional stability, extraversion and consciousness continue to have positive associations with wages after controlling for education and literacy skills in many countries. However, compared to the impact of literacy skills, their net effect on wages is small. While a one-standard-deviation increase in literacy proficiency is linked to a 9% increase in wages, across OECD countries on average, increases in emotional stability, extraversion and consciousness are linked to 2.8%, 2.6% and 1.9% increases in higher wages, respectively.
These relationships are well aligned with standard microeconomic theory. Conscientiousness and emotional stability are closely tied to behaviours that enhance productivity – such as reliability, persistence and stress management – which, according to theory, is rewarded through higher wages. Extraversion facilitates communication and teamwork – skills highly demanded in today’s service economies. In contrast, high agreeableness may be a disadvantage in wage negotiations and the competition for promotions.
Adjusted change in the likelihood of being employed related to a one-standard-deviation increase in skills, by literacy proficiency level
Note: Adults aged 25-65. The outcome is being employed as opposed to being unemployed or inactive. The estimates are obtained from models that control for gender, age, parental education, immigrant background, whether one lives with a partner, whether one has children and years of education attained. Darker colours denote differences that are statistically significant at the 5% level. Caution is required in interpreting results for Poland. See the Note for Poland in the Reader’s Guide in OECD (2024[2]). Countries and economies are ranked in ascending order of the association of each Big Five domain with the likelihood of being employed among adults with proficiency at Level 1 and below.
Source: OECD (2024[2]), Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) database, http://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/publicdataandanalysis/ (accessed on 11 August 2025).
Adjusted change in hourly wages related to a one-standard-deviation increase in skills
Note: Employed adults aged 25-65. Estimates unadjusted for education and skills are obtained from two separate models, each controlling for gender, age, parental education, immigrant background, whether one lives with a partner and whether one has children. Estimates adjusted for years for education and other skills are obtained from one model, which includes the number of years of education attained, literacy proficiency and Big Five domain standardised scores, in addition to the other controls. Wages are gross hourly earnings for employed and self-employed individuals, including bonuses, in PPP-adjusted 2022 USD. Darker colours denote differences that are statistically significant at the 5% level. Caution is required in interpreting results for Poland. See the Note for Poland in the Reader’s Guide in OECD (2024[2]). Results for Korea are not presented (see Endnote 1).
Countries and economies are ranked in ascending order of the association of each Big Five domain with wages.
Source: OECD (2024[11]), Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) database, http://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/publicdataandanalysis/ (accessed on 11 August 2025).
At the same time, the association between social and emotional skills and wages may be mediated by occupational choice. Social and emotional skills play a role in the selection into occupations, and different occupations pay different wages and have different wage trajectories. For example, extraversion may facilitate entry into higher-paying management and leadership roles, while agreeableness may select individuals toward caring activities, which tend to offer below-average wages (Alderotti, Rapallini and Traverso, 2023[12]).
Figure 3.5 presents the joint contribution of the five social and emotional skill domains to the variation in wages and compares it to the contributions of other factors – literacy proficiency, years of education, job tenure, field of study and individual characteristics (i.e. gender, age, immigrant background, parental education, having children and living with a partner). The analysis decomposes the variance in wages into parts associated with, or “explained” by, differences between adults across each of these factors.
The results reveal that social and emotional skills have a small but statistically significant role in explaining the observed differences in wages between individuals. Across OECD countries, on average, the Big Five skill domains combined account for 1.5% of the variation in wages. This is comparable to the contribution of job tenure (1.3%) and field of study (2.6%), but smaller than the contribution of literacy proficiency (4.3%). Among the observed factors, educational attainment has the largest contribution to the variation in wages, accounting for 8.8%.
Variation in wages explained by each factor (social and emotional skills, literacy proficiency, educational attainment, field of study, job tenure, individual characteristics)
Note: Employed adults aged 25-65. Decomposition of the variance of wages into the contributions of the following factors: social and emotional skill domains, literacy skills, educational attainment, field of study, job tenure, and individual characteristics. Wages are gross hourly earnings for employed and self-employed individuals, including bonuses, in PPP-adjusted 2022 USD. Darker colours denote differences that are statistically significant at the 5% level. Caution is required in interpreting results for Poland. See the Note for Poland in the Reader’s Guide in OECD (2024[2]). Results for Korea are not presented (see Endnote 1).
Countries and economies are ranked in ascending order of the contribution of the Big Five domains to the variation in wages.
Source: OECD (2024[11]), Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) database, http://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/publicdataandanalysis/ (accessed on 11 August 2025).
The share in the variation of wages explained by social and emotional skills varies from 0.3% in Austria to 4.6% in Croatia. In some countries, this share is comparable to the contribution share of cognitive skills – notably, in Croatia (4.6% explained by social and emotional skills vs. 3.2% explained by literacy proficiency), the Netherlands (2.8% vs. 3.3%) and Italy (1.3% vs. 1.9%).
Among the Big Five facets, assertiveness shows the strongest association with wages (Figure 3.6). On average across the OECD countries with available data, a one-standard-deviation increase in this facet is linked to 4.8% higher wages before accounting for education and cognitive skills, and to 3.2% higher wages after considering these factors. Lower tendency for depression and stronger organisational skills are also positively related to wages. In the domain of openness, intellectual curiosity is linked to higher wages, while creative imagination is linked to lower wages. The latter finding may reflect the selection of creative individuals into artistic, cultural or non-profit occupations, which typically offer lower financial rewards.
Adjusted change in hourly wages related to a one-standard-deviation increase in the Big Five facets
Note: Employed adults aged 25-65; aggregated results across the OECD countries that used the BFI-2-S measure (see Chapter 1). Estimates are obtained by controlling for gender, age, parental education, immigrant background, whether one lives with a partner, whether one has children – and in a second step – for years of education attained and literacy proficiency. Wages are gross hourly earnings for employed and self-employed individuals, including bonuses, in PPP-adjusted 2022 USD. (r) denotes reverse-coded sub-domains, where a positive score corresponds to a low tendency for anxiety, depression or emotional volatility (and thus higher emotional stability). Darker colours denote differences that are statistically significant at the 5% level. Results for Korea are not presented (see Endnote 1).
Source: OECD (2024[11]), Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) database, http://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/publicdataandanalysis/ (accessed on 11 August 2025).
Social and emotional skills and type of employment
Beyond influencing employability and wages, social and emotional skills may also shape broader career trajectories, including the sector and occupation in which individuals are employed. Chapter 2 showed that social and emotional skills influence field-of-study choices and career preferences. In addition, these skills can affect risk tolerance, motivation for autonomy and adaptability to organisational cultures – all of which may influence whether individuals become entrepreneurs or enter salaried employment, and whether they work in the public or private sector.
Results from the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills indicate that social and emotional skills are associated with the likelihood of being self-employed (Figure 3.7). Specifically, extraversion is positively related to the probability of self-employment in all countries and economies except England (United Kingdom), New Zealand and Norway. On average across the OECD, a one-standard-deviation increase in this domain is linked to a 2.5-percentage-point higher likelihood of being self-employed. Openness to experience is positively linked to the likelihood of self-employment in 15 countries and economies. The remaining Big Five domains show weaker and less consistent associations with entrepreneurship across the countries.
In contrast, social and emotional skills appear to play a more limited role in determining whether individuals work in the public sector. In 14 countries and economies, openness to experience has a weak positive association with the probability of working in the public sector compared to being in self-employment or the private sector. In Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, New Zealand and Poland, more agreeable adults are somewhat more likely to work in the public sector.
In addition, the results show that occupations differ markedly in the average levels of social and emotional skills among workers (Figure 3.8). For example, sales, marketing and development managers demonstrate a high level of extraversion across OECD countries, on average, while primary school and early childhood teachers have a high average level of agreeableness (Panel A of Figure 3.8). Administrative and specialised secretaries score high in conscientiousness, on average across the OECD, while manufacturing, mining, construction and distribution managers have high mean emotional stability (Panel B of Figure 3.8).
These occupational differences reflect both self-selection and employer selection processes. Individuals tend to choose occupations that align with their personality traits and behavioural tendencies. At the same time, employers actively select candidates whose social and emotional profiles fit job demands, such as sociability in customer-facing roles or emotional stability in high-pressure occupations. Over time, these selection dynamics reinforce and amplify skill differences between occupational groups.
These differences are also shaped by occupational cultures and task requirements, which can strengthen certain social and emotional skills while dampening others. For example, jobs involving teamwork, problem-solving and communication may foster openness and agreeableness, whereas repetitive or highly routine work may provide fewer opportunities for developing such traits. Moreover, occupational hierarchies and working conditions influence how these skills are expressed and rewarded – for instance, leadership roles may both require and cultivate higher levels of assertiveness.
From a policy perspective, understanding these occupational differences is essential for designing effective skills development and employment strategies. Policies aimed at strengthening workers’ skills should be sensitive to occupational contexts and the specific skill demands of different jobs. Integrating these dimensions into career guidance, training and lifelong learning initiatives can help individuals both identify and cultivate the skills most valued in their chosen occupations. At the same time, occupational sorting based on social and emotional skills can contribute to subtle forms of exclusion, where individuals are filtered out not for lack of competence but because their interpersonal style does not match occupational norms. Recognising the social and emotional profiles of occupations can help policymakers design targeted initiatives that broaden access to rewarding career paths and promote more inclusive labour markets.
Adjusted change in the likelihood for being employed in a particular sector related to a one-standard-deviation increase in skills
Note: Employed adults aged 25-65. The outcomes are being self-employed versus employed and being employed in the public sector versus self-employed or employed in the private sector. Estimates are obtained by controlling for age, parental education, immigrant background, whether one lives with a partner, whether one has children, years of education attained and literacy proficiency. Caution is required in interpreting results for Poland. See the Note for Poland in the Reader’s Guide in OECD (2024[2]).
Countries and economies are ranked in ascending order of the association of each Big Five domain with the likelihood of being self-employed.
Source: OECD (2024[11]), Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) database, http://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/publicdataandanalysis/ (accessed on 11 August 2025).
Average standardised scores in Big Five domains across occupations
Note: Employed adults aged 18-65; aggregated results across all participating countries and economies. Only occupations, for which there are at least 1 000 respondents in the database who report being employed in that occupation, are presented. Occupational categories at the 3-digit ISCO level are used.
Source: OECD (2024[11]), Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) database, http://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/publicdataandanalysis/ (accessed on 11 August 2025).
Social and emotional skills and job satisfaction
Job satisfaction is shaped not only by characteristics of the job and the workplace, but also by individuals’ social and emotional characteristics. In particular, emotional stability and extraversion are positively related to the likelihood of being satisfied with one’s job (Figure 3.9). These relationships hold across nearly all participating countries and economies, with the exception of Denmark and New Zealand, where extraversion is not significantly linked to job satisfaction.
The strength of these associations is comparable to that of literacy proficiency: a one-standard-deviation increase in emotional stability is associated with a 6-percentage-point higher likelihood of job satisfaction, while a similar increase in extraversion corresponds to a 4-percentage-point increase. For comparison, a one-standard-deviation rise in literacy proficiency is linked to a 4-percentage-point higher likelihood of being satisfied at work. After accounting for wages, employment sector and occupation, the relationship between literacy skills and job satisfaction is no longer significant across the participating countries, while the associations with emotional stability and extraversion persist, albeit weaker, in most countries. This suggests that job characteristics fully mediate the link between literacy and satisfaction with one’s job, whereas the Big Five domains maintain an independent association.
Agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience are relevant only in some country contexts. Agreeableness is positively related to the probability of high job satisfaction in 14 countries and economies. Conscientiousness shows a positive association in ten countries. Openness has a positive link to job satisfaction in Latvia and Poland, and a negative one in Denmark, Germany, Finland, France, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland.
Job satisfaction is often understood through the lens of person-environment fit: individuals are more likely to be satisfied when their personality aligns well with the work environment and job demands (Kristof‐Brown, Zimmerman and Johnson, 2005[14]). An alternative explanation suggests that social and emotional skills contribute to job satisfaction by supporting individuals’ ability to regulate their emotions and behaviours in the workplace (Bakker and de Vries, 2020[15]; Kang and Malvaso, 2023[16]). The consistent positive associations between emotional stability and extraversion and job satisfaction across a wide range of countries and occupations support this perspective. These skills may enhance individuals’ capacity to navigate interpersonal situations and manage workplace stress, thereby contributing to higher levels of satisfaction regardless of specific job or country context.
Adjusted change in the likelihood of reporting a positive outcome related to a one-standard-deviation increase in skills
Note: Employed adults aged 25-65. The definition of job satisfaction is described in Box 3.3. Estimates are obtained by controlling for age, parental education, immigrant background, whether one lives with a partner, whether one has children, years of education attained and literacy proficiency and – in a second step – for wages, employment sector (self-employment, private or public sector) and occupation. An adjustment for wages, employment sector and occupation is not presented for Korea (see Endnote 1). Caution is required in interpreting results for Poland. See the Note for Poland in the Reader’s Guide in OECD (2024[2]).
Countries and economies are ranked in ascending order of the association of each Big Five domain with the likelihood of high job satisfaction, before accounting for wages, employment sector and occupation.
Source: OECD (2024[11]), Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) database, http://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/publicdataandanalysis/ (accessed on 11 August 2025).
Beyond their relevance for education and employment, social and emotional skills also play a role in shaping broader aspects of individuals’ well-being. This section examines how these skills are associated with a range of key non-economic outcomes: self-reported health, life satisfaction, volunteering and political efficacy – the belief in one’s ability to influence political decision-making (see Box 3.3).
These outcomes reflect both personal and collective aspects of well-being. Good health and life satisfaction are foundational for individual flourishing, while they also support a productive workforce, reduce demands on public services, and enhance collective resilience. Civic engagement and political efficacy are essential for inclusive and well-functioning societies. Understanding how social and emotional skills relate to these domains provides insights into the broader value of these skills for individuals and societies.
The 2023 Survey of Adult Skills collects information on adults’ job satisfaction, life satisfaction, self-reported health, participation in voluntary activities and beliefs about political efficacy. This chapter investigates how social and emotional skills, as measured by the Big Five framework, are linked to the likelihood of reporting a positive outcome across each of these domains. A positive outcome is defined as follows:
Job satisfaction is based on the question “All things considered, how satisfied are you with your current work?”. Responses vary from 1 (extremely satisfied) to 5 (extremely dissatisfied), with responses of 1 and 2 being defined as high job satisfaction in this report. Some 65% of respondents report high job satisfaction across OECD countries on average.
Life satisfaction is based on a general question about satisfaction with one’s life as a whole. Responses are on a scale from 0 (extremely dissatisfied) to 10 (extremely satisfied). High life satisfaction is defined as 7 or higher for this report, with 75% meeting this criterion on average across participating OECD countries and economies.
Self-reported health refers to respondents’ ratings of their health on a five-point Likert scale (excellent, very good, good, fair or poor). Scores of “very good” or “excellent” are categorised as a “positive” health outcome and account for 41% on average.
Voluntary work refers to participation in voluntary activities, including unpaid work for a charity, political party, trade union or other non-profit organisation. Answer options are recorded on a five-point scale reflecting increasing frequency (never, less than once a month, less than once a week but at least once a month, at least once a week but not every day, or every day). For this report, any volunteering activity in the past year is categorised as a positive outcome, accounting for 32% on average.
Political efficacy is based on a question about the extent to which adults feel that people “like them” have a say in what the government does. Responses range from 0 to 10. Responses of 7 or higher are categorised as “positive” and 19% of adults, on average, meet this criterion.
Life satisfaction and self-reported health
Results from the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills indicate that the Big Five skill domains are associated with individuals’ overall life satisfaction – in many cases more strongly than cognitive skills (Figure 3.10). Emotional stability has a strong and consistent positive association with life satisfaction, after accounting for factors such as cognitive skills and educational attainment. On average across the OECD, a one-standard-deviation increase in this domain corresponds to a 9-percentage-point higher likelihood of being satisfied with one’s life. Extraversion is also positively linked to life satisfaction in all countries, with an average increase of 3 percentage points for a one-standard-deviation difference. For comparison, literacy proficiency shows a positive association in 19 of the 29 countries, with a one-standard-deviation increase corresponding to an average 3-percentage-point higher probability of being satisfied.
Agreeableness and conscientiousness show positive associations with life satisfaction in most countries – agreeableness in 20 countries and conscientiousness in 16. However, these associations are somewhat weaker in magnitude compared to those of the other domains. Openness to experience appears to play a role in only a few countries, showing a positive association with life satisfaction in Israel, Lithuania and Singapore but a negative association in France, Germany and Sweden.
These findings are consistent with theoretical expectations and supported by previous studies. Psychological theory suggests that overall life satisfaction builds up in a bottom-up manner, through the accumulation of various life events and experiences, but is also determined – in a top-down way – by dispositional tendencies such as social and emotional skills (Diener, 1984[17]; Erdogan et al., 2012[18]; Malvaso and Kang, 2022[19]). In particular, emotional stability has been repeatedly linked to higher levels of life satisfaction in empirical studies (Malvaso and Kang, 2022[19]; Wimmelmann et al., 2020[20]). This is also observed in studies using informant reports (e.g. by peers, partners or family members), which help to account for potential self-report biases, such as response styles or mood fluctuations affecting both self-reported Big Five traits and life satisfaction (Mõttus et al., 2024[21]).
Social and emotional skills also play a role in adults’ health (Figure 3.11). The pattern of these associations is similar to that observed for life satisfaction. Emotional stability shows the strongest positive relationship with the likelihood of reporting good health, followed by extraversion. Agreeableness and conscientiousness have moderate positive associations across the majority of countries. Openness to experience appears to play a limited role. These relationships are estimated after adjusting for a range of socio-demographic factors, literacy proficiency and educational attainment.
Social and emotional skills appear to be more strongly associated with reported health than literacy skills. On average across OECD countries, a one-standard-deviation increase in emotional stability is associated with a 9-percentage-point higher likelihood of reporting good health. A similar increase in extraversion corresponds to a 5-percentage-point increase. By contrast, a one-standard-deviation difference in literacy proficiency is associated with a 4-percentage-point increase in the probability of reporting good health.
The associations of the Big Five domains with adults’ health are broadly consistent across the countries, suggesting that similar mechanisms underlie these relationships across different contexts. Previous findings suggest that these patterns likely reflect how social and emotional skills shape individuals’ behaviours, coping strategies and access to social resources. In particular, high emotional stability and high conscientiousness have been linked to a lower tendency for health-impairing behaviours such as substance use. Emotional stability and extraversion have been linked to lower risks of psychopathologies, including negative affect and various mental health disorders. These domains are also positively linked to environmental resources such as stronger social support networks (Atherton et al., 2014[22]; Hudek-Knežević and Kardum, 2009[23]; Strickhouser, Zell and Krizan, 2017[7]).
Adjusted change in the likelihood of reporting a positive outcome related to a one-standard-deviation increase in skills
Note: Adults aged 25-65. The definition of life satisfaction is described in Box 3.3. Estimates are obtained by controlling for age, parental education, immigrant background, whether one lives with a partner, whether one has children, years of education attained and literacy proficiency. Caution is required in interpreting results for Poland. See the Note for Poland in the Reader’s Guide in OECD (2024[2]).
Countries and economies are ranked in ascending order of the association of each Big Five domain with the likelihood of high life satisfaction.
Source: OECD (2024[24]), Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) database, http://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/publicdataandanalysis/ (accessed on 11 August 2025).
Adjusted change in the likelihood of reporting a positive outcome related to a one-standard-deviation increase in skills
Note: Adults aged 25-65. The definition of self-reported health is described in Box 3.3. Estimates are obtained by controlling for age, parental education, immigrant background, whether one lives with a partner, whether one has children, years of education attained and literacy proficiency. Caution is required in interpreting results for Poland. See the Note for Poland in the Reader’s Guide in OECD (2024[2]).
Countries and economies are ranked in ascending order of the association of each Big Five domain with the likelihood of reporting good health.
Source: OECD (2024[24]), Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) database, http://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/publicdataandanalysis/ (accessed on 11 August 2025).
While the results of the 2023 Survey of Adult Skills are based on cross-sectional data and do not establish causality, they are consistent with findings from longitudinal studies showing that adults’ social and emotional skills can have lasting effects on their health (Hampson et al., 2015[25]; Hengartner et al., 2016[26]). Thus, social and emotional skills could be an important lever for promoting adult health and well-being, complementing more traditional policy approaches focused on healthcare access and education.
Civil engagement and political efficacy
The 2023 Survey of Adult Skills provides information on adults’ beliefs about political efficacy – their confidence in their ability to influence political affairs – as well as their engagement in volunteering activities, including unpaid work for a charity, political party, trade union or other non-profit organisation (see Box 3.3). In most countries, statistically significant associations are observed between adults’ social and emotional skills and their participation in voluntary activities (Figure 3.12), whereas these skills appear to play a more limited role in shaping beliefs about political efficacy (Figure 3.13).
In most countries and economies, higher levels of extraversion and openness to experience are associated with a higher probability of volunteering, net of their associations with other factors, such as cognitive skills and educational attainment (Figure 3.12). These relationships are similar in magnitude to those of literacy proficiency. On average across the OECD, a one-standard-deviation increase in extraversion is linked to a 4-percentage-point higher probability for volunteering, while a similar change in openness corresponds to an increase of 3 percentage points. Meanwhile, a one-standard-deviation increase in literacy is linked to a 3-percentage-point higher likelihood for volunteering, on average across OECD countries.
Agreeableness and emotional stability play a role in only some countries. Higher emotional stability is linked to somewhat higher chances of volunteering in Austria, Germany, Israel, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal and Spain. Agreeableness has a weak to moderate positive association in eleven countries. In contrast, conscientiousness is negatively associated with volunteering in eight countries but has a positive association in Korea.
Voluntary activities typically take place in social settings, are oriented toward political, social or cultural causes, and require a degree of personal initiative and intrinsic motivation. Extraverted individuals tend to be more sociable, energetic and drawn to group activities, which may explain their higher likelihood to volunteer. Similarly, openness to experience is associated with curiosity, broad interests, and a willingness to explore new ideas and environments, all of which may encourage participation in volunteering activities. Agreeable individuals may be more likely to volunteer as an act of benevolence and care for others, while those with high emotional stability may be better equipped to master potential challenges in voluntary work, such as public speaking or dealing with conflict (Ackermann, 2019[27]). In contrast, conscientious individuals are typically more efficient and pragmatic, which may lead them to prioritise work and family responsibilities over voluntary activities with no immediate rewards.
Country differences in these associations may relate to the availability of opportunities for volunteering, the strength of civil society, or prevailing cultural norms that value civic participation. For example, in countries where volunteering is less institutionalised, less visible or less socially expected, individuals may have fewer pathways or incentives to participate, independent of their social and emotional skills.
Adjusted change in the likelihood of reporting a positive outcome related to a one-standard-deviation increase in skills
Note: Adults aged 25-65. The definition of volunteering is described in Box 3.3. Estimates are obtained by controlling for age, parental education, immigrant background, whether one lives with a partner, whether one has children, years of education attained and literacy proficiency. Caution is required in interpreting results for Poland. See the Note for Poland in the Reader’s Guide in OECD (2024[2]).
Countries and economies are ranked in ascending order of the association of each Big Five domain with the likelihood to volunteer.
Source: OECD (2024[24]), Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) database, http://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/publicdataandanalysis/ (accessed on 11 August 2025).
Adjusted change in the likelihood of reporting a positive outcome related to a one-standard-deviation increase in skills
Note: Adults aged 25-65. The definition of political efficacy is described in Box 3.3. Estimates are obtained by controlling for age, parental education, immigrant background, whether one lives with a partner, whether one has children, years of education attained and literacy proficiency. Caution is required in interpreting results for Poland. See the Note for Poland in the Reader’s Guide in OECD (2024[2]).
Countries and economies are ranked in ascending order of the association of each Big Five domain with the likelihood of political efficacy.
Source: OECD (2024[24]), Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) database, http://www.oecd.org/skills/piaac/publicdataandanalysis/ (accessed on 11 August 2025).
Figure 3.13 indicates that the associations between adults’ social and emotional skills and their beliefs about political efficacy are more limited and context-dependent. In most countries and economies, adults who are more open to new experiences are somewhat more likely to believe they can influence political affairs, other factors being held constant. Such adults tend to be more curious and interested in abstract ideas – qualities that may reinforce engagement with political topics, greater awareness of democratic processes and the belief that one’s voice matters in political life. In half of the countries and economies, higher agreeableness is also linked to political efficacy. This skill domain, characterised by empathy and cooperation, may enhance individuals' connection to their communities and sense of social responsibility. About one-third of the countries exhibit a positive association between emotional stability and political efficacy.
In contrast, extraversion plays a role in a few countries: it has a weak positive relationship with political efficacy in Israel, Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland and Switzerland, and a negative association in Czechia. Conscientiousness is negatively linked to political efficacy in Lithuania, Poland and the Slovak Republic.
For comparison, literacy shows very different associations with political efficacy across countries. Ten countries exhibit moderate to strong positive relationships between adults’ literacy proficiency and beliefs about political efficacy, while six countries have negative associations.
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← 1. In the course of the analysis, some inconsistencies have been detected in the wage data from Korea, notably some implausibly high values at the top of the distribution. Pending further investigations on the data, results for Korea have been excluded from the analysis on wages presented in this report.