The European Union Coordinated Plan on Artificial Intelligence is a strategic initiative developed by the European Commission and EU Member States to promote development, deployment and use of AI technologies across the European Union. Within this framework, this chapter looks at efforts to ensure that AI technologies work for people. It reflects first on how EU Member States are nurturing talent and improving the supply of skills to support a vibrant AI ecosystem. It then examines measures to equip people with the capabilities needed to benefit from AI technologies. It also reviews efforts to enhance AI-related skills in primary and secondary education, as well as structured AI programmes in academia. Finally, the chapter looks at AI-specific initiatives to promote broader participation in AI-related fields, including digital upskilling, and analyses measures to attract AI talent from academia and industry.
Progress in Implementing the European Union Coordinated Plan on Artificial Intelligence (Volume 1)
Abstract
The EU Coordinated Plan on AI is a strategic initiative to promote development, deployment and use of AI technologies across the European Union. It represents a joint commitment between the European Commission and EU Member States to maximise the impact of investments in AI, foster synergies and encourage co-operation across the European Union. The plan outlines a series of concrete actions to facilitate investment decisions, aligning AI policy in the European Union to remove fragmentation. It also aims to contribute to strengthening the global position of the European Union regarding the development and adoption of human centric, sustainable, secure, inclusive and trustworthy AI technologies and applications.
Within this framework, this chapter looks at efforts to ensure that AI technologies work for people. It reflects first on how EU Member States are nurturing talent and improving the supply of skills to support a vibrant AI ecosystem. It then examines measures to equip people with the capabilities needed to benefit from AI technologies. It also reviews efforts to enhance AI-related skills in primary and secondary education, as well as structured AI programmes in academia. Finally, the chapter looks at AI-specific initiatives to promote broader participation in AI-related fields, including digital upskilling, and analyses measures to attract AI talent from academia and industry.
The rapid advancement of AI is transforming industries and reshaping national economies. While AI holds significant potential to boost productivity and drive technological innovation, it also presents substantial challenges, particularly in disrupting traditional job roles and creating an increasing need for new skills.
For most professions, AI is reshaping job roles rather than replacing them entirely. As AI technologies are integrated into sectors such as manufacturing, healthcare and finance, many job functions are evolving to incorporate AI-driven tools. In customer service, for instance, workers are now using AI‑powered chatbots to manage client inquiries, while in manufacturing, employees are engaging with automated systems to improve operational efficiency (OECD, 2024[1]).
AI also creates new job opportunities, particularly in fields requiring advanced technical expertise. As demand for AI technologies grows, there is a heightened need for professionals skilled in machine learning, programming or data science. The challenge, however, lies in ensuring the workforce is prepared to fill these positions (OECD, 2024[1]).
Upskilling and reskilling across the EU workforce are key to addressing this challenge. Ensuring a strong foundation in AI from early education in primary schools through to higher education will be essential for preparing the next generation of workers. Moreover, lifelong learning and adaptive training programmes can help workers transition into new roles and maintain their relevance in a rapidly changing job market (OECD, 2024[2]).
There are significant disparities in AI skills penetration across countries (Figure 4.1). Among EU Member States, Germany and France stand out, respectively ranking third and seventh globally. Other countries such as Greece, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain also surpass the global average. However, most other EU countries fall below this benchmark. While some EU Member States are emerging as AI talent hubs, AI skills penetration in several states remains below global average. Most EU Member States are net attractors of AI talent, attracting more skilled professionals than they lose. However, countries such as Greece, Hungary and Italy face a net outflow of AI expertise.
Note: This chart shows the prevalence of workers with AI skills – as self-reported by LinkedIn members from 2016‑2024 – by country and against a global average benchmark. An AI skills penetration of 1.5 means that workers in that country are 1.5 times more likely to report AI skills than workers in the benchmark. Please see OECD.AI (2025[3]) for more information.
Source: OECD.AI (2025[4]), Cross-Country AI Skills Penetration (dataset group), https://oecd.ai/en/data?selectedArea=ai-jobs-and-skills&selectedVisualization=cross-country-ai-skills-penetration.
The EU Coordinated Plan on Artificial Intelligence, since its inception in 2018, has prioritised the persistent ICT and AI skills gap as a critical factor for fostering AI development and uptake across EU Member States (EC, 2018[5]). Recognising that a digitally skilled workforce is essential for leveraging the potential of AI, the plan calls for equipping citizens with broad computing skills, while nurturing specialised AI expertise in fields such as data modelling, architecture and semantics. The aim is to maintain the European Union’s competitive edge in AI research and innovation, while ensuring widespread access to AI benefits and preventing workforce polarisation. The 2021 update to the plan reinforced this vision, emphasising the need for lifelong learning and formal education reforms to cultivate digital and AI-specific skills (EC, 2021[6]).
Note: This chart displays the net migration flows of LinkedIn members with AI skills from 2019 to 2024. The size of the dark blue bars indicates the magnitude of a country’s AI talent gains/losses, respectively. The chart represents an average from 2019 to 2024 for a selection of countries with 100 000 LinkedIn members or more. Migration flows are normalised according to LinkedIn membership in the country of interest. Data downloads provide a snapshot in time. Caution is advised when comparing different versions of the data, as the AI-related concepts identified by the machine-learning algorithm may evolve over time. Please see OECD.AI (2025[3]) for more information.
Source: OECD.AI (2025[7]), Between-country AI Skills Migration, (dataset group), https://oecd.ai/en/data?selectedArea=ai-jobs-and-skills&selectedVisualization=between-country-ai-skills-migration; data from LinkedIn Economic Graph, last updated 2025-04-07.
The plan outlines several key actions for Member States to address skills gaps and prepare their workforces for AI-driven transformations:
Refine and implement the skills dimension in their national AI strategies, in collaboration with social partners, e.g. to:
promote the development of computational thinking of pupils, students and educators in formal, informal and non-formal education at all levels and support dedicated initiatives that encourage young people to choose AI subjects and related fields, such as robotics, as a career;
create outreach programmes for teachers on including AI in school, both in ICT skills and from a broader perspective;
increase the availability of training in AI, also by financing AI modules in humanities and social science master programmes, lifelong learning activities, training of judges, lawyers and public officials, as well as reskilling people from nontechnical backgrounds in the basics of AI and the implications of it for their field of work; and
test, assess and, if successful, support the implementation of educational AI technologies in primary and secondary education to facilitate individual learning requirements (e.g. cognitive, AI-based tutoring);
Exchange best practices on how to integrate AI into general education and other specialised programmes (such as healthcare, law, social sciences, business), and on promoting both broad and specialised knowledge on AI in lifelong learning;
Take measures and exchange best practices to increase inclusion and diversity, i.e. to facilitate balanced AI teams and attract talent in AI education, especially postgraduate studies, and training, as well as development of AI technologies; and
Make the best of the unique opportunity provided by the RRF to finance ambitious upskilling and reskilling initiatives as mentioned above.
This section discusses the actions by EU Member States to nurture talent and improve the supply of skills to enable a thriving AI ecosystem, in line with the EU Coordinated Plan on AI. Table 4.1 summarises key findings from the survey and complementary interviews.
Nearly all EU Member States have introduced measures to boost AI skills, equipping people with the capabilities needed to benefit from AI technologies
Twenty-five EU Member States reported 154 measures to boost AI skills (Table 4.2). Most focus on AI uptake in primary and secondary education, followed by support for adult upskilling and reskilling (broad AI skills development). Meanwhile, higher education programmes and policies to promote broader participation in development and use AI are also emerging, although they remain fewer in number. Finally, talent attraction stands out as the least common focus, especially outside academia, indicating room for further efforts to draw private sector AI professionals. Co‑ordinating these various endeavours will be essential to ensuring the EU workforce can adapt to AI-driven changes and support the region’s digital competitiveness over the long term.
Source: Data reported by EU Member States through the survey and interviews.
Source: Data reported by EU Member States through the survey and interviews.
Efforts of EU Member States to enhance AI-related skills in primary and secondary education focus on digital literacy, while AI-specific initiatives remain less common
EU Member States are taking diverse approaches to integrating AI into primary and secondary education. While most initiatives focus on enhancing digital literacy, some countries are introducing AI-specific curricula, teacher training and pilot programmes. Additionally, a few governments have begun to develop guidelines and recommendations to ensure the effective integration of AI into schools.
Fostering broader digital literacy, which may include AI-related components, is a policy priority for most EU Member States
More than half of EU Member States (14 of 27) have introduced digital literacy programmes in primary or secondary education that may include AI-related elements but are not AI-specific.
In Belgium, three initiatives stand out: Digital Wallonia 4 Edu introduces coding and robotics into school activities (Digital Wallonia, 2024[8]); e-classes provides interactive content and teacher training on the potential impact of AI (Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles, 2023[9]); and Smart Education @ Schools supports AI-driven classroom experiments (imec, 2024[10]). Similarly, in Czechia, the RRF-funded Innovation in Education programme trains teachers in digital technologies, including AI, under the EU Digital Competence Framework for Educators.
Germany directs resources towards infrastructure and pedagogy through the Digital Pact for Schools, allocating EUR 92 million for digital educational materials, and the Competence Centres for Digital and Digitally Supported Teaching in Schools and Further Education (BMBF, 2023[11]; BMBF, 2024[12]). In Denmark, Technology Comprehension in Traditional Subjects and Compulsory Training in Digital Skills initiatives integrate digital awareness, including for AI, into various subjects (Center for Folkeskole, 2024[13]; Danish Ministry of Children and Education, 2024[14]). Hungary fosters digital and AI skills through its Digital Culture Curriculum for students in Grades 5 and 11, complemented by teacher training efforts.
Lithuania has launched multiple initiatives under its digital transformation strategy, such as the Digital Transformation of Education (EdTech) (EUR 10 million from the RRF), the EdTech Center for teacher training and a digital entrepreneurship programme for students. In Luxembourg, the extracurricular Tech School provides training in coding and AI (Luxembourg Tech School, 2024[15]), while COPE sessions in Malta equip educators with knowledge on emerging digital trends, including AI integration. Portugal supports coding and problem-solving education through Ubbu Project and Happy Code. In the Slovak Republic, the DiTEdu programme modernises pedagogical methods with AI components.
In Finland, the Digital Vision for Higher Education (Digivisio 2030) programme aims to consolidate digital competence courses into a unified platform, with AI playing a key role in supporting guidance and counselling services for students (Digivisio, 2024[16]). Backed with EUR 30.1 million in RRF funding, Greece has launched the Supply of Robotics and STEM Equipment for Education programme, distributing digital equipment for hands-on AI learning in primary and secondary schools. This complements the Panhellenic Educational Robotics Competition, which promotes AI and science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) as integral parts of compulsory education (WRO Hellas, 2023[17]; Greece20, 2024[18]).
Romania is fostering the digitalisation of education through two initiatives. Robotics and Life, an optional subject at the lower secondary level (International Standard Classification of Education [ISCED] level 2), develops students’ transdisciplinary skills by combining physics, mathematics and informatics with hands-on robotics projects. Additionally, the Smart Labs initiative, funded through the National Recovery and Resilience Plan, equips all high schools with intelligent laboratories, enabling personalised learning and AI-driven educational tools.
In Ireland, the annual Discover funding call supports projects to broaden participation in STEM, support the development of key skills and increase awareness of the variety of career pathways available. Forty projects were funded in 2023, including the STEM Passport for Inclusion and OurKidsCode initiatives.
Slovenia has also introduced multiple initiatives, including Digital Competences and Basic Knowledge of Computer and Information Science (2023‑2026), Training for Children and Young People to Strengthen Digital Competences, and Training of Professional and Managerial Staff in Education, which all include modules on advanced digital technologies and AI (MIZS, 2022[19]; MIZS, 2023[20]; MIZS, 2024[21]; Slovenian Ministry of Digital Transformation, 2023[22]).
A smaller number of EU Member States are incorporating AI-specific content into primary and secondary curricula
While broader digital literacy is widely promoted, seven EU Member States have also reported AI-specific initiatives that integrate AI into school curricula:
The AI for Children programme (2023) in Czechia provides educators with AI-focused teaching materials and student engagement tools.
AI4Youth programme, launched by Poland in 2021, supports AI skills development among secondary school students, including a competition to create AI-driven solutions to societal challenges (Government of Poland, 2021[23]; AI4Youth, 2025[24]).
The 2024 revision of the national computer science curriculum in Lithuania introduces AI literacy, data ethics and neural networks.
In Malta, the Fair Artificial Intelligence Educator application, backed by EUR 775 000, leverages AI to enhance mathematics education for younger students.
The Component 7: Reform 1 (EUR 95.5 million from the RRF) embeds AI competencies within a broader overhaul of digital and media literacy in the Slovak Republic.
The Netherlands invests EUR 91 million (including EU financing) in the National Education Lab AI. This ten-year initiative unites educational institutions, technology companies and researchers to develop and test AI tools in primary, secondary and special education. It plans to disseminate these products in the education market (Radboud University, 2024[25]).
In Romania, Introduction to Machine Learning became an optional subject in upper secondary education in 2022, equipping students with foundational AI concepts and digital skills to support future careers in emerging technologies.
In Slovenia, the Pumice project (2022‑2023) developed AI-related educational content and examples across multiple school subjects, demonstrating the role of AI in chemistry, history, biology and the arts (Pumice, 2025[26]).
AI-specific teacher training programmes gain momentum in several EU Member States
Twelve EU Member States have reported targeted, AI-specific upskilling programmes for teachers. In Bulgaria, a Short-term Teacher Training Programme is run together with Prof. Dr. Assen Zlatarov University. It equips educators with augmented and virtual reality know-how, as well as familiarity with AI‑powered educational platforms, broadening classroom engagement methods. Lithuania operates Wizards (Vedliai, Teachers Lead Tech), which supports computer science teachers in Grades 1 to 8, offering toolkits, creative lesson ideas and hands-on workshops for integrating AI and computational thinking across different subjects. In Malta, the PAIDEIA project (2023) defines an AI competence framework and delivers hands-on sessions in responsible AI usage, enabling teachers to adapt their pedagogical practices to innovative learning technologies. In Poland, "Lesson: AI" (2025-2027) trainings provide primary and secondary school teachers with knowledge in AI basics to implement in their lessons.
The Oide Technology in Education initiative in Ireland provides AI resources and training through an online AI hub, offering courses for teachers and school leaders on safe, ethical AI use in classrooms (Oide Technology in Education, 2024[27]). Czechia, Latvia and the Slovak Republic participate in the AI‑Empowered Teaching (AI-EmpaTe) project (2024‑2026), an international collaboration to enhance educators’ AI competencies through digital training modules. Similarly, the Erasmus+ K3 AI for and by Teachers (AI4T) initiative involved France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg and Slovenia. It trained teachers in AI for mathematics, science and modern English curricula between 2021 and 2024 (Government of Luxembourg, 2025[28]).
Competitions and challenges focused on AI remain relatively rare
Four EU Member States have introduced national AI competitions. The National Competition for AI (2021) in Austria engages students aged 14-19 in AI model development, data analytics and problem-solving challenges (BWKI, 2024[29]). Bulgaria hosted its first International Olympiad in Artificial Intelligence in 2024, bringing together 200 participants from 40 countries to work on AI applications. Greece launched the National Artificial Intelligence Competition (2024), which familiarises middle and high school students with machine learning, computer vision and natural language processing techniques (Athena, 2024[30]; PDTN, 2024[31]). The first Baltic AI Hackathon (2024) in Latvia brought together students across disciplines to explore AI applications in education, sustainability and public services (RTU, 2024[32]).
AI integration is further advanced through a few select pilot projects
A few countries have reported experimental projects or funding calls, with six EU Member States launching pilots to explore AI integration into classrooms.
In Austria, the AI School Package reserves EUR 250 000 for a 2024 trial, enables a group of schools to use generative AI tools under expert supervision. It generates best practices to inform teacher training and policy updates (BMBWF, 2024[33]). Since 2018, Spain has run the School of Computational Thinking and Artificial Intelligence. It experiments with AI-based lesson content and measuring how computational thinking can enhance learning outcomes (MEFPD, 2025[34]). Malta is implementing an AI for Education pilot (EUR 150 000, partly funded by the national AI strategy). It employs adaptive learning software to tailor lessons to individual strengths and identify potential gaps in student understanding. Italy has also launched the AI in Primary and Secondary School initiative under its 2024‑2026 AI strategy. The pilot programme is to introduce AI topics in 15 schools across Calabria, Lazio, Lombardy and Tuscany, focusing on the role of AI in personalised learning and digital skill development. In Poland, Our Second Language (2023) teaches programming skills in an AI-supported online environment, scaling nationwide after a pilot phase (NASK, 2023[35]). Slovenia recently launched Using Generative AI for Education (2024), a national funding call for content development aligned with AI use in primary and secondary schools (Slovenian Ministry of Education, 2024[36]).
Guidelines and recommendations on AI use in schools reflect growing government attention
Five EU Member States have issued or are developing national AI guidelines for education. In Bulgaria, AI Guidelines for the Education System (2024) address ethics, data protection and AI integration into classrooms. The expert group on AI in Denmark published recommendations in April 2024 on AI use in examinations and digital competences. In Finland, the National Agency for Education and Ministry of Education and Culture are drafting policies on AI accessibility and governance. Similarly, Ireland was developing AI Guidelines for Schools, expected for publication in 2025. Lastly, the web-based AI advisory service in Sweden provides guidance on AI risks and benefits in education (Skolverket, 2023[37]).
A growing cohort of EU Member States develops structured AI programmes in academia
Seven EU Member States report initiatives to create or expand master’s and doctoral-level AI courses, often with clear pathways to professional roles in data science, AI or machine learning. However, AI courses offered at universities and the number of AI graduates are not monitored systematically. Increased efforts are needed in this area.
In Italy, the Artificial Intelligence Observatory at Politecnico di Milano is tracking indicators linked to the National AI Strategy, including the number AI doctoral candidates and professors in AI. These indicators are monitored manually using the national database of teachers and researchers of the Ministry of University and Research (MUR, 2025[38]). Similar ad hoc research was conducted for selected EU Member States using national university databases (OECD, 2024[39]). It revealed a higher number of university AI courses than those reported in the survey for this study. This highlights a gap in national-level monitoring for this indicator and for indicators on AI graduates.
In Bulgaria, the GATE Institute Big Data Technologies master’s programme (2023) at Sofia University merges advanced data science with AI-focused modules, training graduates to handle analytics in both academic and industrial environments. Luxembourg co‑ordinates the European Master for High Performance Computing (EUMaster4HPC), launched in 2020 with EUR 7 million in EU funding. It aims to cultivate a specialised high-performance computing (HPC) workforce able to support the digital transformation of the European Union (EUMaster4HPC, 2024[40]). This two-year programme covers HPC fundamentals alongside mentorships and internships, including AI applications at scale.
Poland has taken a systemic approach with the Academy of Innovative Applications of Digital Technologies, a collaboration between five universities to establish second-cycle AI study programmes. Running from 2021 until 2027, the initiative is backed by EUR 12 million and integrates coursework, tutoring, information technology (IT) projects, internships and study visits to prepare specialists in AI, machine learning and cybersecurity (Government of Poland, 2025[41]; Government of Poland, 2025[42]).
In Malta, the Future Innovators Summer School and Future Innovators Plus initiative (2024) targets not only local students but also international participants, introducing AI-based innovation in a hands-on summer and winter bootcamp format. Although modestly funded at EUR 38 500 (with an additional EUR 15 000 for a Gozo Summer School), these programmes add experiential depth, bridging theoretical AI concepts with real-world projects. Similarly, in Romania, the Transylvanian Machine Learning Summer School (since 2018) provides AI education for researchers, focusing on deep learning and reinforcement learning. The programme fosters collaboration between academia and the private sector.
In Sweden, Wallenberg AI and Transformative Technologies Education Development Program positions itself as a key driver of AI capacity building in the country, striving to support 600 PhD students, post-doctoral students and professors (WASP-ED, 2025[43]). It promotes AI integration across Swedish universities, scaling up educational offerings and supporting faculty to keep pace with technological change. Meanwhile, in the Slovak Republic, the National IT Academy has produced innovative study materials and courses on neural networks and programming languages for AI, funded as part of a broader EUR 11.7 million investment. Although not all resources go directly to AI, this initiative underscores a clear commitment to modernising higher education in emerging digital fields.
EU Member States increasingly recognise the importance of fostering interdisciplinary approaches in AI study programmes
Fourteen initiatives across 12 EU Member States reportedly integrate AI into non-traditional fields, reflecting the technology’s expanding influence beyond computer science. Bulgaria’s GATE Institute Internship Programme provides practical AI and big data experience for students through interdisciplinary research projects (GATE, 2025[44]). In Czechia, prg.ai Minor (2020) collaborates with multiple Prague-based universities to provide AI electives and internships for students from diverse academic backgrounds, blending AI with fields such as economics and design. In Malta, the Master in Artificial Intelligence for Industry 4.0 at the Malta College of Arts, Science and Technology focuses on business and competitive AI applications, including predictive analytics and automation. Meanwhile, the Master of Science in AI targets working professionals, as well as those who recently completed their undergraduate degree.
Ireland has invested significantly in interdisciplinary AI training through the Research Ireland Centres for Research Training. These focus on machine learning, digitally enhanced reality, foundations of data science and AI applications in key sectors such as mobility, cybersecurity and agriculture. Between 2018 and 2023, the programme trained 78 PhD students, with EUR 26 million in funding. Its Human Capital Initiative and Springboard+ programmes also offer AI-focused reskilling courses, with EUR 15.58 million allocated for digital-related courses in the 2024/25 academic year. Furthermore, the country has issued AI and Academic Integrity Guidelines (2023) to provide a framework for handling generative AI in academic settings.
Spain has launched 15 sectoral Networks of Excellence. These interdisciplinary research groups, backed by EUR 32 million in RRF funding, cover a broad range of AI applications such as cognition, advanced algorithms, physics, social and environmental challenges and quantum computing.
In Greece, Pioneers for AI (2024) provides an online AI course tailored to science students, enriched with videos, exercises and interactive modules. The Netherlands hosts two notable interdisciplinary ventures: the Cultural AI Lab, which applies AI to humanities and social sciences (Cultural AI, 2024[45]) and the Netherlands AI Coalition (NL AIC) Training Platform, a repository of over 600 AI-related university programmes that span ICT, business, healthcare and social sciences (NL AIC, 2024[46]). Together with Microsoft, Portugal developed the AI Business School for Public Administration (2023). It merges AI with leadership and governance, focusing on ethical AI use in policymaking.
Sweden has strengthened its science, technology and society university offerings, with Uppsala University (2025[47]) and the University of Gothenburg (2025[48]) leading interdisciplinary research on the societal impact of AI. Latvia has also introduced the AI in Social Sciences course, designed to equip educators with AI fundamentals relevant to humanities and education (RTU, 2025[49]).
Italy has further expanded interdisciplinary AI education through the National Doctorate in Artificial Intelligence (PhD-AI.it), which unites 61 universities and research centres. This initiative structures its AI education into five federated PhD tracks, each focusing on a strategic AI application area such as healthcare, cybersecurity and industrial automation (Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, 2025[50]). Similarly, Finland has dedicated EUR 255 million to fund 1 000 new doctoral researchers from 2024 to 2027.
AI-specific initiatives to promote broader participation in AI-related fields remain scarce
One-third of EU Member States have reported programmes that aim to foster broader participation in AI-related fields, with varying degrees of specificity and scope. Some of these initiatives focus on boosting women’s participation in AI research, while others address imbalances in the broader STEM landscape. Additional measures promote workplace-level transformations for representations of underserved communities.
Few EU Member States have AI-specific initiatives to increase women’s representation
Only three EU Member States have dedicated initiatives to enhance women’s participation in AI fields. Germany launched the Funding Programme for Female AI Junior Scientists in 2019. It supports women-led AI research groups while factoring in work-life balance criteria to reduce barriers for women in academia. In 2023, the programme renewed its calls for applications to expand support (BMBF, 2019[51]). France launched Women in AI programmes, including a 2024 government-backed push to attract more women into AI studies and careers through networking events and mentorship (Fondation Inria, 2024[52]). Latvia introduced AI Essentials for Women (2024), a beginner-friendly course developed by Google.org and implemented by non-profit organisation Riga TechGirls. This initiative aims to equip women with AI-related skills to improve productivity and efficiency in their professional and personal lives (Riga TechGirls, 2025[53]).
A handful of EU Member States have reported initiatives to support women and girls in STEM more broadly
Four EU Member States have indicated broader initiatives that support women and girls in STEM, some of which include AI elements.
In Belgium, training centre Interface3 provides coding and digital training for women, enhancing their employability in technology-intensive sectors (Interface3, 2024[54]). The Women Award in Technology and Science grants EUR 10 000 annually to a science “ambassadress”, who organises workshops and outreach activities across Brussels to inspire young women to pursue STEM careers (Innoviris, 2024[55]).
Portugal has reported two initiatives addressing disparities between men and women in STEM. Technovation Girls introduces young participants (ages 8-18) to technology-based social problem-solving. Meanwhile, Engineers for a Day engages girls in hands-on engineering and ICT activities to break down gender stereotypes in technical professions.
Since 2016, Women Go Tech in Lithuania serves as a mentoring programme for women that has supported over 670 participants in transitioning to careers in IT and engineering. It aims to scale its impact across Central and Eastern Europe, with a goal of assisting 25 000 women by 2024.
Slovenia has launched a Requalification of Women in ICT Professions programme (2023) as part of its National Strategic Plan for the Digital Decade. This initiative provides training for women in digital and AI-related fields, with EUR 2.95 million in total funding, including EUR 22 000 allocated to AI training.
Some EU Member States have reported initiatives that extend beyond gender
Seven EU Member States have launched broader efforts beyond gender representation, focusing on fostering greater access to AI and digital opportunities.
An inclusive AI programme in France encourages development of diverse AI teams and responsible AI design to mitigate biases in algorithmic decision making.
In Lithuania, Digital Decade: No One Left Behind (2023) addresses digital exclusion among older citizens, providing community-based training on safe digital usage, fraud prevention and consumer rights in online services. The country has also launched a Digital Inclusion for Excluded Populations programme (2025‑2026), focusing on improving digital literacy for vulnerable communities through training and outreach activities.
In Belgium, #BeDigitalTogether (2024[56]) reduces barriers for under-represented groups in the technology sector, with a focus on older adults. Additionally, the Innoviris funding programmes on STEM promote digital literacy in disadvantaged communities, including Capital Digital, which provides coding lessons for children in less economically developed areas (Nooby.Tech, 2023[57]).
Three distinct initiatives in Germany promote workplace-level AI inclusion. AI Studios delivers workshops and interactive training to help employees and worker representatives engage with AI applications in professional settings (KI-Studios, 2024[58]). The Digital Work Society Think Tank, established in 2022 under the Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, examines AI-driven labour market shifts. It focuses on employee rights, digital transformation and socially responsible AI adoption (BMAS, 2024[59]). The Civic Innovation Platform, a key part of the country’s Civic Coding – AI Innovation Network for the Common Good, promotes participatory AI development and explores socially responsible applications of AI (CIP, 2025[60]).
In Spain, the emerging National Plan on Vulnerable Collectives includes a study on the impact of AI on marginalised groups and aims to create safeguards for AI-driven decision making.
In Latvia, research on AI systems and discrimination aspects (2024) is assessing the risks of algorithmic bias and the adequacy of national legal frameworks to prevent discrimination. The study covers multiple demographic groups, including gender, disability, race, ethnicity, social status and age, and will provide policy recommendations to mitigate AI-driven inequalities (Ombudsman of Latvia, 2024[61]).
Most EU Member States focus on broader digital upskilling, but AI-specific training is increasing
Efforts to enhance digital and AI-related workforce skills vary significantly across EU Member States. Many countries prioritise digital literacy, structured AI-specific training is being increasingly developed. Moreover, only a handful of EU Member States have launched initiatives to forecast AI-related labour demands, a crucial step in ensuring workforce preparedness for AI-driven transformations.
More than half of EU Member States have launched broader national digital skills strategies and digital upskilling initiatives, many of which incorporate AI-related elements
More than half of EU Member States (14 of 27) have introduced digital skills strategies or workforce development initiatives, often integrating AI components to address evolving technological demands.
In Austria, the Digital Skills Initiative, backed by EUR 6 million for 2024, ensures AI literacy is integrated into nationwide digital education (Digital Austria, 2023[62]). Bulgaria follows a dual-track approach, with Operation Digital Skills providing AI and digital literacy training for unemployed individuals, while Operation New Skills aims to upskill 40 000 employed workers in broader digital fields, including AI. In France, the programme Appel à manifestation d'intérêt « Compétences et métiers d'avenir » (EUR 200 million, 2021‑2025) seeks to train 400 000 individuals per year by 2030, covering all levels of digital education, from secondary school to PhD, with AI as a key focus (ANR, 2024[63]).
In Poland, the Digital Competence Development Programme (2022‑2031) establishes a digital education framework that includes a dedicated AI module, ensuring that teachers are equipped to integrate AI into classrooms (Government of Poland, 2025[64]; Kompetencje Cyfrowe, 2025[65]). The Reform of Higher Education for a Green and Resilient Transition to Society 5.0 in Slovenia embeds AI, blockchain and cybersecurity skills into national higher education curricula (MIZS, 2022[66]; MIZS, 2022[67]). In Croatia, the University of Zagreb Computing Centre’s ICT Education Programme provides self-paced courses on digital and AI skills as part of the country’s broader digital education infrastructure. Additionally, the country’s Labour Market and Social Protection Component allocates EUR 267 million in training vouchers for digital and AI-related skills.
In Belgium, the DigiSkills platform aggregates AI and digital skills courses across multiple industries, while Technocité provides digital training for creative and cultural sectors (DigiSkills, 2024[68]; Technocité, 2024[69]). In Czechia, the I’m in a Course initiative, led by the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, subsidises up to 82% of course fees to support digital retraining, including AI programming. In Denmark, the Digital Problem-Solving programme, initially designed for low-skilled adults, now also includes AI-related modules to enhance automation problem-solving skills (Danish Ministry of Children and Education, 2025[70]). Finland was developing the digital service bundle for continuous learning at the time of writing. It aims to provide a flexible, user-oriented service crossing administrative boundaries to support career and education choices, skills development and labour market alignment. AI is integrated into its services.
In Ireland, Skillnet Ireland offers digital reskilling in manufacturing, cybersecurity and healthcare. Additionally, state agency SOLAS Ireland launched the Skills to Advance programme, which is developing digital and AI micro-qualifications. The AP Digital and AMA Academy in Portugal trains public sector employees in AI-driven administrative functions. Latvia offers AI-related training courses in the reskilling and upskilling training programmes of the State Employment Agency (Ministry of Welfare of Latvia, 2020[71]). Additionally, the country’s Skills for Entrepreneurs initiative provides training for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to help them acquire digital competences (Ministry of Economics of Latvia, 2025[72]).
In Greece, ReGeneration (2021[73]), launched in 2020 under the Hellenic Ministry of Digital Governance and supported by Microsoft, focuses on youth digital upskilling, including AI-related content. The country has also introduced the Digital Academy for Citizens, a government-led initiative offering free online courses to enhance digital literacy, particularly for SMEs undergoing digital transformation (Jākobsone, 2021[74]). The Education and Employment Programme (2021‑2027) in Romania updates vocational training and teacher education to integrate AI, robotics and other emerging technologies, with a budget of approximately EUR 1.5 million.
AI-specific training upskilling and reskilling initiatives and continuous learning programmes on AI gain momentum across the European Union
Twelve EU Member States have reported AI-specific workforce training initiatives, reflecting the growing demand for AI skills across industries.
In Austria, the AI Radar programme supports AI adoption in the tourism sector through dedicated workshops and webinars, providing industry professionals with hands-on experience in AI applications (Austria Tourism, 2024[75]). Belgium has developed the Flanders AI Academy, which maps AI education opportunities, identifies unmet training needs and collaborates with universities to expand AI-focused courses (VAIA, 2021[76]). Bulgaria has introduced the AI Programmer Vocational Education programme in secondary schools and vocational institutions, with an initial cohort of 580 students enrolled in the 2023/24 academic year.
In Luxembourg, the Skillsbridges initiative, launched in 2024, offers AI courses ranging from 40 to 240 hours for business professionals and IT specialists (CNFPC, 2024[77]), while AI Competence for Sweden programme provides modular AI courses for working professionals seeking to integrate AI into their respective fields (AI Competence for Sweden, 2025[78]).
France has invested significantly in AI skills development through its AI Cluster initiative, which allocated EUR 560 million in 2023 to AI education and workforce training (ANR, 2024[63]). The programme, implemented across nine universities and grandes écoles higher education establishments, focuses on developing AI expertise and fostering interdisciplinary AI applications. The AI Challenge in Hungary, part of its national AI strategy, has reached over 4.5 million participants through AI literacy courses and assessments, with a second phase planned to expand participation. Croatia has also introduced AI workforce training. The AI Center Lipik offers intensive AI education alongside a start‑up incubation programme, while the Croatian Artificial Intelligence Association provides free introductory AI courses (AI Competence for Sweden, 2025[78]).
In Romania, the AI Education Council, established under the Romanian Committee for Artificial Intelligence in 2018, aims to guide national AI skills development, education and training. Spain has launched a National AI Skills Development Programme, investing an estimated EUR 30 million in AI training, degree programmes and public-private partnerships. The Polish Development Fund has launched AI training workshops for business leaders in Poland, equipping companies with the skills to integrate AI into operations. At the same time, it offers a free AI literacy course for the general population (PFR, 2024[79]).
In Portugal, two training programmes for public sector employees – the INA Training Program and Program in Data Science and Artificial Intelligence in Public Administration – aim to cultivate AI, blockchain and data science expertise within government institutions.
Efforts to forecast the impact of AI on the labour market remain limited
Four EU Member States have begun systematically examining the impact of AI on labour market trends. In Germany, the AI Observatory, housed within the Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, monitors the economic, social and regulatory implications of AI (KI-Observatorium, 2025[80]). LaborIA (2025[81]) in France examines how AI drives the need for reskilling and explores how workforce structures adapt to automation. In the Netherlands, the NL AIC Human Capital working group liaises with universities and industry partners, aiming to bridge AI skill shortages by designing targeted development strategies (NL AIC, 2024[82]). Meanwhile, Sweden relies on analyses from the Higher Education Authority (UKÄ) and the National Agency for Higher Vocational Education (MYH) to forecast AI‑related staffing requirements (Regeringen, 2023[83]).
Most AI talent attraction efforts focus on academia, while industry-focused initiatives remain scarce
EU Member States primarily concentrate on attracting AI talent into universities and research institutions. 12 initiatives across seven countries are dedicated to bringing international AI researchers, doctoral candidates and academic professionals to the European Union. These efforts reflect a broader strategy to strengthen AI research capabilities in the European Union and position the region as a hub for AI innovation. However, initiatives aimed at attracting AI talent beyond academia remain scarce, with only Finland and Slovenia reporting structured efforts to recruit AI professionals for private sector roles or non-academic settings.
EU Member States focus on attracting academic talent
Seven EU Member States have reported dedicated programmes aimed at attracting and retaining top-tier AI researchers and students in academia.
Bulgaria has introduced the Institute for Computer Science, Artificial Intelligence and Technology research programmes. They host over 20 international researchers working on robotics, machine learning and computer vision. The programmes also offer competitive internship opportunities for students worldwide, fostering international talent attraction.
Germany builds on its national AI strategy by funding the Konrad Zuse Schools of Excellence in Artificial Intelligence, which offer English-language master’s and PhD programmes specifically geared towards high-calibre international students (DAAD, 2024[84]). Alongside this, Germany greatly surpassed its target of creating 100 new AI professorships by 2025, reaching 150 posts by 2023 through ventures like the Alexander von Humboldt Professorship for AI and AI competence centres (BMBF, 2022[85]; OECD, 2024[39]).
Spain has introduced three large-scale initiatives to lure and nurture AI talent. The Artificial Intelligence Training Programme, backed by EUR 30 million, subsidises up to 80% of tuition fees for around 8 000 AI students in public and private universities. Meanwhile, the Programme for Training in Artificial Intelligence awards 374 long-term research scholarships in HPC, cybersecurity, biotech and robotics, backed by EUR 120 million. The State Programme for Developing, Attracting and Retaining Talent adds EUR 10 million specifically for AI and semiconductor researchers.
Denmark is reinforcing its IT education landscape through the Strengthen and Retain Specialised IT Talent and Skills initiative. This strategy enhances continuing education in IT fields and expands professional master’s programmes, with a focus on retaining international students in the Danish job market. EUR 4 million (DKK 30 million) has been allocated to this effort. The Pathfinder MDIA Digital Scholarship grant (EUR 120 000) in Malta supports postgraduate and PhD candidates researching emerging technologies, including AI, quantum computing and machine learning. Meanwhile, the Science+Training Programme in Portugal, backed by EUR 45 million from the RRF, fosters AI researcher retention and talent acquisition through knowledge transfer arrangements and recruitment calls.
In Slovenia, the COFUND SMASH project (2023‑2028), led by the University of Nova Gorica, aims to attract 50 top-tier post-doctoral researchers from around the world to work on AI, machine learning and HPC. The total eligible costs for SMASH amount to EUR 9.95 million, with EUR 5.18 million coming from national funds (SMASH, 2024[86]).
Only one EU Member State has a specific measure to attract AI talent beyond academia
Despite the growing demand for AI specialists in the private sector, only Finland has reported a structured initiative to attract AI professionals outside academia. The Talent Boost programme, co‑ordinated by the Work in Finland initiative (Business Finland), provides structured recruitment and relocation services for international AI professionals. This programme directly supports private sector companies in hiring AI talent, aiming to bolster the country’s competitiveness in the AI job market.
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