This chapter describes the key insights and policy recommendations of the OECD Skills Strategy Assessment and Recommendations project for Thailand. It applies the OECD Skills Strategy Framework to assess the performance of Thailand’s skills system, describes the policy context, and presents the recommendations for the three priority areas for action: 1. Strengthening the skills of youth in initial education; 2. Fostering greater participation in adult learning; 3. Strengthening the governance of the skills system. Subsequent chapters describe each priority area in greater detail, highlighting the opportunities for improvement, good practices and recommendations for improvement.
OECD Skills Strategy Thailand
Assessment and Recommendations
Abstract
Skills1 are vital for enabling individuals and countries to thrive in an increasingly complex, interconnected and rapidly changing world. Countries where people develop strong skills, learn throughout their lives, and use their skills fully and effectively at work and in society, are more productive and innovative. They also enjoy higher levels of trust, better health outcomes and a higher quality of life (OECD, 2019[1]).
Strong skills policies play a critical role in ensuring societal well-being and inclusive and sustainable growth in Thailand
Thailand’s living standards have increased substantially in recent decades. However, there are signs of slowdown in the face of ongoing and emerging structural challenges. Recent years have seen little catch up in Thailand’s GDP per capita relative to the OECD (see Figure 1.1) (World Bank, 2025[2]). The key sectors of tourism and automobiles have been facing specific challenges, and changes in the global trading environment are a risk to the economic outlook. The economy grew by 2.5% in 2024, but lower growth is expected in 2025.
Progress in poverty reduction has slowed and inequalities remain. The average per capita consumption in the richest quintile’s households is nearly six times higher than in the poorest quintile. Spatial disparities are also pronounced, with average per capita consumption in Bangkok being over twice as high as in the rural areas of the North and Northeast regions. Low-income households remain concentrated in agriculture and self-employment, facing longstanding challenges, exposure to climate risks, and persistent vulnerability to poverty (World Bank Group, 2024[3]). Informal employment is also a major impediment for the country’s development, and it is estimated that it constitutes 65% of all employment in Thailand (ILO, 2022[4]).
Note: GDP per capita computed at 2021 USD PPP, OECD = 100.
Source: World Bank (2025[2]), World Development Indicators database, https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators.
Building a strong and adaptive skills system is essential to overcoming these challenges. By developing robust, labour market-relevant skills and ensuring their effective utilisation to boost innovation, productivity, and growth, Thailand can improve its economic performance and foster a more equitable and resilient society.
Megatrends are reshaping the skills needed to thrive in the workforce and society
Thailand is witnessing a significant demographic shift marked by a rapidly ageing population. The old-age dependency ratio, measuring the ratio of individuals aged 65 and above to those of working age (16‑64 years), is projected to more than double, rising from 21% to 48.8% between 2023 and 2053 (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division, 2024[5]). As the population ages, Thailand’s future economic growth will depend heavily on maximising workforce participation and, most importantly, achieving productivity gains. Effective skills policies are crucial in this context, as they can mitigate the impact of a shrinking workforce while supporting the need for sustained productivity.
Climate change and the green transition are expected to significantly impact Thailand’s skills system. The country's long coastlines, fragile agricultural systems, and susceptibility to extreme weather events make it particularly vulnerable. Over the past two decades, severe floods and tropical cyclones have caused the third-largest economic losses globally, averaging 0.8% of GDP (Eckstein, Künzel and Schäfer, 2021[6]). Future potential costs could be even higher, estimated to range between 10-20% of GDP (World Bank Group, 2023[7]). These environmental challenges affect consumer demand and production methods, thereby altering the skills required for work and living.
Thailand has committed to achieving net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2065, necessitating a focus on ensuring the green transition drives economic growth and enhances living standards (OECD, 2023[8]). This transition will drive a growing demand for green skills and sustainable technologies. As Thailand shifts towards greener industries and the number of green jobs increases, the importance of certain skills will rise. Ensuring access to relevant skills development will be crucial in supporting this transition and fostering economic resilience in the face of climate change.
New technologies and digital infrastructure are rapidly spreading in Thailand. This trend is also expected to have a significantly impact on Thailand's skills needs. Harnessing this wave of technological progress has the potential to offer great benefits for individuals, firms, and the country as a whole. However, to fully capitalise on these opportunities, a broad mix of skills is essential. These include cognitive skills (e.g. information-processing), socio-emotional skills (e.g. communication, teamwork), and metacognitive (e.g. regulation of one’s own thinking process) (OECD, 2023[9]). Critical thinking skills are equally important, allowing individuals to make informed decisions amidst vast amounts of information in a digital world (Cunningham et al., 2022[10]).
Skills development plays a crucial role in addressing the challenges of technological progress and the digital divide. As technology advances, labour markets are becoming increasingly polarised: highly skilled individuals are in greater demand as their expertise complements technology, while those with lower skill levels are more likely to work in jobs at risk of automation, face difficulties adapting to new technologies, and have fewer opportunities to upskill (OECD, 2019[1]). Expanding opportunities for skills development is essential to help workers transition from high-risk jobs to new, higher-quality roles.
As labour markets evolve in response to technological progress, particularly with the rapid rise of generative artificial intelligence (AI), Thailand must strike a balance between policies that support labour market flexibility – enabling smooth transitions across jobs – and those that support job stability, protecting vulnerable workers who cannot easily adapt.
Globalisation also has significant implications for skills development. A highly skilled workforce enables countries to engage in high-value activities at the higher end of global value chains (GVSc). For Thailand to strengthen its position as a high-value economy and a key player in GVCs, it will need to ensure its workforce possesses the skills needed to achieve productivity gains (OECD, 2023[11]).
Skills policies should be at the core of Thailand’s response to these trends
In light of the above trends, the Thai skills system will need to support the development and effective use of a diversified supply of skills to tackle the challenges and seize the opportunities of a rapidly changing world.
People will need to leave formal education not only equipped with the skills to meet current labour market and societal needs but also with the capacity and motivation to anticipate and adapt to future demands. Adults will require opportunities to upskill and reskill to enabling them to perform new tasks within their existing jobs, assume the duties of new roles, and adapt to new modes of work, consumption, and social participation. At the same time, firms will have to adopt more innovative and productive approaches to utilising their employees' skills. Strong governance structures will also be essential to ensure that these efforts are sustainable and impactful.
This OECD Skills Strategy aims to support Thailand in achieving this goal, equipping the country to navigate and thrive in an ever-evolving world.
In this OECD Skills Strategy project, the OECD worked collaboratively with the Royal Thai Government to identify skills policy priorities and develop tailored policy recommendations for strengthening the countries’ skills system.
The project started in September 2023 with a kick-off meeting with involved ministries and government agencies. Subsequently, the OECD conducted desk-based analysis on Thailand’s skills system, informed by a policy questionnaire completed by Thai officials. Virtual consultations were organised in September 2024 to test and refine a preliminary list of policy recommendations (see Annex 1.A for an overview of the phases of the project). With these activities, the project engaged representatives from government ministries and organisations, employer organisations, educational establishments, research institutions and other interested parties.
Through desk research and active engagement with stakeholders consulted during this OECD Skills Strategy project, three overarching priority areas were identified for this OECD Skills Strategy project with recommendations for each (see Figure 1.2 for an overview of the recommendations):
1. Strengthening the skills of youth in initial education (Chapter 2).
2. Fostering greater participation in adult learning (Chapter 3).
3. Strengthening the governance of the skills system (Chapter 4).
The 20 recommendations described in this report provide strategic policy directions for Thailand across these priority areas. The recommendations are accompanied by specific actions, translating these strategic policy directions into more concrete policy interventions (see the sections below for an overview of these specific actions and Annex 1.B for detailed descriptions).
The guidance contained in this report provides Thailand with a strong foundation on which to build its own strategy and implementation plan (see also Opportunity 1 in Priority area 3 – Strengthening the governance of the skills system). Additional efforts will be required by Thai stakeholders to sequence and prioritise policy actions and investments. In some instance, further work will also be needed to determine the most effective approaches for implementing the prioritised recommendations. To achieve these objectives, Thai stakeholders will need to sustain their productive collaboration to identify roles and responsibilities for the design and implementation of prioritised actions.
Note: See a description of the recommendations in the sections below and a detailed overview of the recommendations and specific actions can be found in Annex 1.B and Chapters 2-4.
The findings of this report are relevant beyond Thailand, as many OECD member countries face similar skills-related challenges. The analysis and recommendations can inform the development of effective strategies in diverse national contexts. The international good practices featured throughout the report offer further insights to support policy design and implementation across countries.
The report’s emphasis on reducing inequalities is particularly pertinent for OECD countries seeking to build more inclusive and adaptable skills systems. It highlights targeted measures to support disadvantaged groups, including financial and non-financial incentives for students from low-income households and improved access to adult learning through online and community-based initiatives.
In addition, the report offers guidance on strengthening governance arrangements for skills systems. Recommendations to enhance strategic capacity – namely, the ability to set clear priorities and translate them into coherent, high-impact actions – may be especially relevant for OECD countries aiming to improve policy coherence and implementation across government.
This section summarises the analysis of Thailand’s skills system performance, assessed across the three dimensions of the skills strategy framework (see Box 1.1): 1) Developing relevant skills, 2) Using skills effectively, and 3) Strengthening the governance of the skills system.
OECD Skills Strategy projects provide a strategic and comprehensive approach to assess countries’ skills challenges and opportunities and build more effective skills systems. The OECD collaborates with countries to develop policy responses tailored to each country’s specific skills challenges and needs. The foundation of this approach is the OECD Skills Strategy Framework (see Figure 1.3), the components of which are:
Developing relevant skills over the life course: To ensure that countries are able to adapt and thrive in a rapidly changing world, all people need access to opportunities to develop and maintain strong proficiency in a broad set of skills. This process is lifelong, starting in childhood and youth and continuing throughout adulthood. It is also “life-wide”, occurring both formally in schools and higher education and non-formally and informally in the home, community and workplaces.
Using skills effectively in work and society: Developing a strong and broad set of skills is just the first step. To ensure that countries and people gain the full economic and social value from investments in developing skills, people also need opportunities, encouragement and incentives to use their skills fully and effectively at work and in society.
Strengthening the governance of skills systems: Success in developing and using relevant skills requires strong governance arrangements to promote co‑ordination, co‑operation and collaboration across the whole of government; engage stakeholders throughout the policy cycle; build integrated information systems; and align and co‑ordinate financing arrangements.
Source: OECD (2019[1]), OECD Skills Strategy 2019: Skills to Shape a Better Future, https://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264313835-en.
Developing relevant skills
To ensure that countries are able to adapt and thrive in a rapidly changing world, all people need access to learning opportunities to develop and maintain strong proficiency in a broad set of skills. This process is lifelong and “life-wide”, occurring formally, non-formally and informally.
While access to education has improved significantly in recent decades, Thailand can further improve the quality of education
Gross enrolment rates have risen across all levels of education in Thailand over the past two decades. For instance, enrolment rates in secondary education increased from around 75% in 2000 to 100% in 2022, reaching the OECD average and exceeding the ASEAN average (World Bank, 2023[12]). Similar trends are observed in pre-primary and tertiary education, with primary education achieving universal or near-universal enrolment rates over the past two decades.
Thailand also has one of the highest enrolment rates in technical vocational education and training (TVET) programmes among Southeast Asian countries. In 2022, 14% of Thai secondary education students were enrolled in a TVET track, which is nearly double the ASEAN average of 8% (World Bank, 2024[13]).
Furthermore, since 1999, Thailand has been increasing its efforts to make the teaching profession more attractive. As a consequence of these efforts, Thailand has seen an increase in the supply of high-quality teachers (UNESCO, 2019[14]).
Despite these improvements, the quality of education remains a significant challenge. This is reflected in Thai students' performance in the 2022 PISA assessment, where Thailand ranked below several other countries in Southeast Asia (see Figure 1.4) (OECD, 2022[15]).
Source: OECD (2022[15]), Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) data and methodology, www.oecd.org/en/about/programmes/pisa/pisa-data.html.
Thailand spends 2.6% of its GDP on education, which is lower than the average across ASEAN countries (2.8%) and the OECD average (5%) (World Bank, 2023[16]). Despite the pressing need to improve education quality, public spending on education has declined in recent years (World Bank Group, 2023[7]), with households shouldering an increasing share of education costs. This underscores the need for greater investment to enhance education quality and better align it with labour market requirements.
Despite improvements, equitable access to high-quality education remains a challenge
While educational participation has generally improved over recent decades, significant barriers to equity remain, including gender inequality and regional disparities. Among children aged 3 to 4 years who are not attending early childhood and education (ECE) or are not developmentally on track, 65% are boys, indicating that male children are disproportionately falling behind.
Inter-regional differences in educational access and outcomes are also pronounced, with urban-rural divides playing a major role. The Northeast and Southern regions, which are more rural and have poverty rates nearly double the national average (World Bank Group, 2022[17]), face particularly stark challenges. Therefore, it is necessary to improve children's foundational skills in these regions in order to reduce educational inequities.
There is scope to strengthen adult skills and increase participation in education and training
Despite signs of progress, there remains room to increase educational attainment in Thailand. In 2022, 39% of adults aged 25 and over had completed upper secondary education, while 17% had attained a short-cycle tertiary qualification and 17% held a bachelor’s degree. Notably, Thailand stands out in the region for its relatively high share of adults with a master’s degree (2%) – exceeding the proportions observed in Viet Nam (0.7%), Indonesia (0.7%) and Malaysia (1.6%) (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2024[18]).
In addition, there are significant opportunities to strengthen foundational skills among Thai youth and adults (see Figure 3.2). For example, 65% of individuals report difficulties with basic literacy tasks, such as understanding short texts, drawing simple inferences, or integrating information. Similarly, 74% face challenges with basic digital skills, including navigating digital tools or using online information to solve simple problems. There is also room to further develop socio-emotional skills, with 30% of youth and adults indicating they do not view themselves as open, curious or imaginative (The World Bank Group, 2024[19]).
Participation in adult learning could enable Thai adults to develop the skills they need to thrive in an increasingly complex and competitive world of work. However, fewer than 10% of individuals aged 25 to 54 participated in formal and non-formal education and training in the first half of 2023, showing little improvement since 2013 (see Figure 1.5) (UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2024[18]). The issue is particularly acute in Thailand’s extensive informal sector, where opportunities for employer-provided training are limited, and skills recognition remains a significant challenge (OECD, 2024[20]).
Despite these challenges, it is positive that Thailand is already one of the highest spenders on adult learning among Southeast Asian countries and has announced plans to increase investment in adult learning (UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning, 2022[21]). This suggests that while there is still room to improve adult learning outcomes, Thailand is increasingly recognising the role of adult learning in fostering national growth.
Note: OECD Average excludes Japan, ASEAN excludes Malaysia and some years are missing for: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, and Singapore.
Source: UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2024[18]), SDG 4 Indicator Dashboard: Indicator 4.3.1, www.unesco.org/en/articles/world-education-statistics-2024.
Using skills effectively
To ensure that countries and people gain the full economic and social value from investments in developing skills, people also need opportunities, encouragement and incentives to use their skills fully and effectively at work and in society.
High employment rates are accompanied by high rates of skills imbalances
Thailand has maintained a notably low unemployment rates in recent years, demonstrating stability within a range of approximately 1-2% (OECD, 2023[8]). These low and stable rates indicate that the Thai economy has been successful in providing most adults with opportunities in the labour market.
However, Thailand faces significant skills imbalances, with large labour market surpluses and shortages. Thailand has an abundant surplus of physical skills, such as manual labour and technical trades, but has strong skills shortages in more specialised areas (OECD, 2022[22]). These skills shortages are strongest in production and technology knowledge, business processes, and communications skills.
Furthermore, Thailand experiences substantial over-qualification in the labour market. 34% of highly educated workers in Thailand are employed in low- or medium-skilled jobs, more than double the OECD average of 16.5% (OECD, 2021[23]). Despite a large share of over-qualified workers, there are still large shortages of graduates in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields (OECD, 2021[24]) (Prapatsorn Somsathan, 2022[25]). This would suggest that over-qualification is mainly the result of an oversupply of tertiary-educated workers in non-STEM career fields
More could be done to leverage high-skilled workers to drive innovation and growth
The presence of large numbers of over-qualified workers can serve as a strategic opportunity to enhance economic dynamism and improve job quality. By implementing targeted policies that stimulate innovation and promote high-value industries, economies can effectively harness the surplus of highly educated workers. Such measures not only create more rewarding and fulfilling employment opportunities but also contribute to a more competitive and resilient economic landscape, ensuring workforce capabilities align with evolving labour market demands.
Nevertheless, Thailand’s investment in research and development (R&D) and patent production remains below levels typically associated with its per-capita income2 (de Nicola, 2021[26]), This suggests considerable untapped potential to drive innovation, which in turn could increase demand for high-skilled workers and optimise the utilisation of their talents.
Enhancing TVET quality is needed to align graduate supply with demand
Thailand’s labour force requires more vocationally trained and specialised workers to meet the demands of the economy (OECD, 2021[23]). Although Thailand boasts relatively high levels of TVET enrolment compared to other ASEAN countries, the quality of TVET programmes could be further enhanced, since graduates’ skills often falling short of labour market needs and employer expectations. This could, in part, contribute to the low wages offered to TVET graduates, which remain insufficiently competitive to attract enough learners to meet demand (Office of the Prime Minister, 2023[27]). Furthermore, there is currently no formal mechanism for assessing the quality of many adult education programmes, including TVET.
Strengthening the governance of the skills system
Effective public governance of skills systems relies on a government's ability to co‑ordinate, guide, monitor, and communicate both across government departments, with regional and local authorities, and with external public and private stakeholders (OECD, 2019[1]).
Thailand has made progress towards promoting a whole-of-government approach to skills policy, but there remains room to further improve
Given the multifaceted nature of skills policies, responsibilities for skills span multiple ministries and agencies in Thailand. At the national level, several ministries have responsibilities for aspects of skills policy. These include the Ministry of Education (MOE), the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research, and Innovation (MHESI), and the Ministry of Labour (MOL). Several agencies also play key roles in the skills system, including the Office of the Permanent Secretary, the Office of the Education Council, and the Office of the Vocational Education Commission.
Thailand has established several mechanisms to promote co‑ordination and collaboration on skills-related matters across ministries and agencies. An example is the Education Council, which has 41 members – including representatives from six ministries, several non-governmental organisations and experts – and is tasked with developing and implementing educational policies, as well as fostering collaboration to advance education and human resource development. Another example is the National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Committee that brings together policymakers, public and private sector representatives, and experts, and is responsible for overseeing the implementation of the new NQF, ensuring that quality standards are maintained across occupations and training programmes.
Despite these efforts, there remains considerable scope to strengthen horizontal co‑ordination and collaboration in Thailand. As shown in Figure 1.6, government capacity to align conflicting objectives is below both OECD and ASEAN averages, highlighting the need for stronger inter-ministerial co‑ordination and more integrated policymaking.
Index value (1-10)
Note: Inter-ministerial co‑ordination refers to scores that countries are assigned by experts in response to the question “To what extent can the government co‑ordinate conflicting objectives into a coherent policy?”, including the extent to which a country “introduces horizontal forms of co‑ordination to mediate between different departments of the state administration”. Higher scores indicate better performance.
Source: Bertelsmann Stiftung (2022[28]), BTI Transformation Index, https://bti-project.org/en/index/governance.
Provincial and local authorities are also active players in Thailand’s skills system. These include Local Administration Organisations (LAOs), as well as Regional Education Offices and Provincial Labour Offices. Vertical co‑ordination remains challenging, as LAOs have limited representation in national bodies and minimal involvement in policy design. Bureaucratic complexity further hampers co‑ordination, delaying decisions and implementation.
Despite recent efforts towards engaging non-governmental stakeholders in skills policy, there is room to better involve labour market actors and civil society
Effective governance enables non-governmental stakeholders – ranging from educational institutions and employers to trade unions and NGOs – to leverage their strengths, knowledge, and networks to complement each other and achieve shared policy objectives (OECD, 2021[29]).
Thailand has made notable progress in establishing a legal framework for stakeholder consultation in the formulation of general policies. Additionally, several bodies that convene public and private actors have been established, such as the Skill Development Promotion Committee and the Education Council. In line with Thailand 4.0 (Thailand Board of Investment, n.d.[30]), which promotes an industry-led economic model, Thailand also established sector skills councils, such as industry-specific bodies to align training government programmes with industry needs.
In addition to involving labour market actors, Thailand has made efforts to engage with civil society organisations (CSOs), which offer important services such as formal and non-formal education, career guidance, community development, and other initiatives that support skills development, particularly in rural areas. However, civil society’s involvement in policy formulation in Thailand remains relatively limited compared to other ASEAN and OECD countries (see Figure 1.7).
Note: Civil society participation refers to scores that countries are assigned by experts in response to the question “To what extent does the political leadership enable the participation of civil society in the political process?”. Higher scores indicate better performance. Scores for OECD countries are taken from the Sustainable Governance Indicators (SGI) scores, where the relevant question is “Does the government consult with economic and social actors in the course of policy preparation?”
Source: Bertelsmann Stiftung (2022[31]), Sustainable Governance Indicators (SGI), www.sgi-network.org/2022/; Bertelsmann Stiftung (2022[28]), BTI Transformation Index, https://bti-project.org/en/index/governance.
Thailand has various tools and mechanisms for collecting and using skills information, but the coverage, standardisation, accessibility, and effective use of skills data can be improved
High-quality and comprehensive data play a crucial role in skills policy by enabling effective assessment and anticipation of skills needs, as well as the identification of policy priorities.
Various governmental bodies, such as the MOE, MOL, and the Office of Statistics, have responsibilities in collecting skills data in Thailand. Additionally, Thailand currently participates in several international tests and surveys. However, there remain gaps in data coverage. For instance, there are still notable gaps in the coverage and openness of governmental data, particularly in education indicators, where Thailand's coverage trails both ASEAN and OECD averages (Open Data Watch, 2022[32]).
Beyond coverage, Thailand has made progress in developing policies and guidelines for data management, such as the Digital Government Development Plan and Data Governance Framework 1.0. However, these efforts mainly focus on data access and sharing, neglecting the importance of standardised data collection. Skills assessment and anticipation (SAA) exercises, which are crucial for identifying future skills needs, are also fragmented and inconsistently applied. Additionally, while platforms like govchannel.go.th and the Open Government Data Centre provide access to government data, Thailand’s overall performance in data openness remains low (Open Data Watch, 2022[32]).
Thailand employs a strategic and comprehensive approach to policymaking, characterised by overarching strategies and policy plans that engage multiple ministries to ensure alignment of policy priorities. Central to this framework is the National Strategy 2018-2037 (Office of the Prime Minister, 2017[33]), developed by the Office of the National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) under the Office of the Prime Minister. This strategy serves as a high-level blueprint for guiding national policies across key areas such as national security, economic development, health, social development, and environmental sustainability. Notably, the strategy places a strong emphasis on human capital development, underscoring the critical importance of skills on Thailand’s policy agenda.
To operationalise the National Strategy, Thailand has established second-level plans, including the Thirteenth National Economic and Social Development Plan (Office of the Prime Minister, 2023[27]). This plan offers an in-depth analysis of Thailand’s economic and social conditions, and outlines specific objectives, measurable targets, and key milestones. A central priority of the plan is the development of human capital to meet the demands of the new global era, with a focus on cultivating a highly capable workforce that values lifelong learning and demonstrates adaptability.
Ministerial level plans, considered as ‘third-level plans’, are required to align with the overarching goals set forth in the National Strategy and Development Plan. For instance, the Higher Education Plan for Thailand’s Manpower Production and Development (2021-2027) (The Ministry of Higher Education, 2022[34]) outlines a comprehensive strategy for enhancing human capital and promoting lifelong learning, including pathways to higher education, vocational education and training (VET), as well as initiatives to support re-skilling and upskilling.
To strengthen the use of skills in the workforce, Thailand has made investments in integrating new technologies across various industries. A key initiative is the 5-Year Investment Promotion Strategy for the New Economy (2023–2027), adopted in October 2022 as part of Thailand’s new Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) strategy. This strategy prioritises the promotion of high-technology, innovation, and green industries such as electric vehicles (OECD, 2023[8]). In parallel, Thailand has introduced measures to attract high-skilled foreign workers, leveraging visa programmes and tax incentives to strengthen its talent pool (OECD, 2023[8]).
In addition to its strategic frameworks, Thailand has enacted several key legislative documents that guide the structure of the skills system. The National Education Act B.E. 2545 (1999) was introduced to reform the country’s education system in order to respond better to domestic and global changes. The act promotes a more decentralised education, delegating increased responsibilities for education financing and administration to educational service areas (ESA), LAOs and schools (OECD/UNESCO, 2016[35]).
The Skills Development Promotion Act B.E. 2545 (A.D. 2002) offers various incentives to businesses to upskill their employees. It also established a Skill Development Fund, which offers loans to employees seeking training opportunities and to businesses organising skills development opportunities (Ministry of Labour, 2002[36]).
Complementing this, the Promotion of Non-Formal and Informal Education Act B.E. 2551 (Ministry of Education, 2008[37]) and the more recent Learning Promotion Act B.E. 2566 (Sawasdee Thailand, 2023[38]), promote lifelong learning through formal and non-formal education pathways as well as through informal learning. Additionally, the Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation Policy and Strategy (2024) and Vocational Act (2008) highlight the importance of providing and recognising work-based opportunities to foster a culture of lifelong learning (Office of National Higher Education Science Research and Innovation Policy Council (NXPO), 2024[39]).
Other important legislations include the Early Childhood Development Act B.E. 2562 (2019), the National Standard for Early Childhood Development Centre B.E. 2562 (2019), the National Educational Standards Act B.E. 2561 (2018), and the Persons with Disabilities Education Act B.E. 2551 of 3008. These legislative instruments collectively enhance the structure and accessibility of Thailand’s education and skills development system, emphasising inclusivity and lifelong learning.
Ensuring access to high quality, relevant and inclusive opportunities in initial education is central to helping Thai youth acquire strong basic skills and develop positive attitudes towards learning. Three opportunities to strengthen the skills of youth in initial education were selected based on input from the literature, desk research, a policy questionnaire and discussions in virtual workshops.
Opportunity 1: Increasing the quality and relevance of initial education
To strengthen the skills of youth in initial education, it is vital to improve the quality and relevance of skills development opportunities in Thailand. This will help young people acquire the skills needed to progress through education, engage in society, and improve their job prospects. Better initial education can also reduce poverty, boost social mobility, and drive innovation and productivity. See Table 1.1 for the recommendations and specific actions for increasing the quality and relevance of initial education.
Note: Full descriptions of the recommendations and specific actions can be found in Chapter 2 and Annex 1.B.
Recommendation 1: Strengthening the process for reviewing and implementing a new curriculum in initial education
Strengthening the process for reviewing and implementing a new curriculum in initial education can help Thailand ensure that students acquire the skills, knowledge, and competencies needed to thrive in a rapidly changing world of work. The curriculum reform process should actively involve key stakeholders in the education system, such as teachers, to reflect the realities of Thai classrooms and build support for effective implementation. In addition, providing sufficient time for training teachers and school staff can help ensure the successful rollout of the new curriculum.
Recommendation 2: Improving the relevance of TVET offers through high-quality work-based learning opportunities
Improving the relevance of TVET provision through high-quality work-based learning opportunities is essential to ensure that students in Thailand’s vocational track develop the skills needed to contribute effectively in the workplace and meet employer expectations. High quality work-based learning opportunities enable students to apply their learning in real-world settings, ease their transition from school to work, and support their job prospects. To achieve this, Thailand could leverage its large number of Micro-, Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (MSMEs) to expand work-based learning placements, establish training networks to improve access to quality equipment, and use SAA exercises more systematically to shape programme content.
Opportunity 2: Promoting the development of higher-level skills among youth
To support Thailand’s ambition of transitioning towards an innovation-based economy, promoting the development of higher-level skills among youth should be a key priority. Higher education systems play a vital role in nurturing these skills – whether transversal higher-order cognitive skills such as creativity and critical thinking, or specialised, industry-specific skills related to science and technology (e.g. AI, coding, data management). See Table 1.2 for the recommendations and specific actions for promoting the development of higher-level skills among youth.
Note: Full descriptions of the recommendations and specific actions can be found in Chapter 2 and Annex 1.B.
Recommendation 3: Promoting informed educational choices by increasing the supply of well-qualified guidance counsellors in schools
Promoting informed educational choices by increasing the supply of well-qualified guidance counsellors in schools can help ensure that Thai students choose higher education programmes aligned with their interests and abilities, while also reflecting the skills and qualifications in high demand in the labour market. This can help ensure that students’ investments in education are well-rewarded with strong employment prospects and fair remuneration, while also contributing to a reduction in skills mismatches in Thailand. To this end, Thailand could provide incentives for guidance counsellors to obtain formal qualifications, offer competitive benefits and support for practising professionals, and deliver career guidance training to teachers.
Recommendation 4: Increasing access to high-quality higher education in Thailand
Increasing access to high-quality higher education in Thailand can be achieved by strengthening quality assurance processes and promoting online and distance learning options. These measures would help to broaden access, boost tertiary attainment rates, and support the country’s internationalisation efforts. Online higher education, in particular, offers significant advantages, including more cost-efficient training solutions for higher education institutions (HEIs). To this end, Thailand could support HEIs in adopting more efficient and digitalised quality assurance processes, and establish robust internal and external quality assurance mechanisms specifically tailored to online and digital programmes. The government could also assist HEIs in expanding their offering of online courses and distance learning modalities, and support educators in delivering these through tailored pedagogical approaches and curricula.
Opportunity 3: Reducing inequalities in educational outcomes
In Thailand, inequalities in educational outcomes remain widespread, particularly among disadvantaged groups. Children from low-income households, rural areas, ethnic minorities, migrant backgrounds, as well as girls and students with disabilities, consistently face barriers that hinder access to high-quality and relevant skills development opportunities. Government representatives have identified geographic location and socio-economic status as the most significant contributors to these inequalities. By prioritising equity and inclusion in Thailand’s initial education system, all students are empowered to achieve their full potential, irrespective of their personal or social circumstances. See Table 1.3 for the recommendations and specific actions for reducing inequalities in educational outcomes.
Note: Full descriptions of the recommendations and specific actions can be found in Chapter 2 and Annex 1.B.
Recommendation 5: Bridging regional gaps in educational outcomes through enhanced access to high-quality teaching
Bridging regional gaps in educational outcomes through enhanced access to high-quality teaching should be a priority for Thailand. Youth in underserved areas should be able to develop the skills and knowledge necessary to bridge the gap with their urban counterparts and thrive in an increasingly dynamic and competitive world of work. To this end, Thailand could provide specialised training teachers on multi-grade teaching methodologies as an interim solution to address teacher shortages in rural areas. Furthermore, Thailand could introduce incentives to attract and retain teachers and school administrative staff in rural areas, as well as strengthen the use of digital technologies to connect qualified teachers with rural schools.
Recommendation 6: Supporting students from low-income households to access initial education through financial and non-financial incentives
Supporting students from low-income households to access initial education through both financial and non-financial incentives can help to create a more equitable and inclusive educational system. Reducing cost barriers by providing adequate financial support can help children stay in school and reduce the risk of dropping out. Non-financial incentives, such as encouraging greater parental involvement in their children’s education, can help sustain student’s motivation and resilience in the face of financial hardship. To this end, Thailand could ensure that financial support for low-income students is well-targeted, promote active parental engagement, and implement awareness-raising initiatives specifically aimed at disadvantaged groups to inform them about available skills development opportunities.
Increasing participation in adult learning is essential to foster a lifelong learning culture and enabling Thailand to respond effectively to the challenges of a rapidly aging population and evolving global megatrends. Three opportunities to promote greater participation in adult learning were selected based on input from the literature, desk research, a policy questionnaire and discussions in virtual workshops.
Opportunity 1: Increasing the quality and labour market relevance of adult learning opportunities
To foster greater participation in adult learning, Thailand could make learning opportunities more attractive by ensuring they are high quality and aligned with current and future labour market needs. Adults and firms are more likely to invest time and resources in training when confident that it meets national and international standards. Moreover, training becomes especially worthwhile for adults when the skills acquired can be effectively applied in their current roles or future employment opportunities. See Table 1.4 for the recommendations and specific actions for increasing the quality and labour market relevance of adult learning opportunities.
Note: Full descriptions of the recommendations and specific actions can be found in Chapter 3 and Annex 1.B.
Recommendation 1: Improving internal and external quality assurance mechanisms for formal and non-formal adult learning
Improving internal and external quality assurance mechanisms for both formal and non-formal adult learning can help ensure that learners receive high-quality training, equipping them with in-demand skills that enhance employability, access to better jobs, and overall productivity. To this end, Thailand could extend quality assurance frameworks to cover adult learning providers, strengthen their capacity to carry out self-evaluations and act on findings, and consider introducing quality assurance labels to promote transparency and trust in adult learning provision.
Recommendation 2: Steering adult learning provision and choices towards areas of skills shortage
Steering adult learning provision and choices towards areas of skills shortage can help ensure that adult learners participate in training that is well aligned with Thailand’s labour market needs and national development goals. To this end, Thailand could use SAA tools more systematically to identify labour market needs, as well as disseminate information about skills shortages by introducing a government-approved list of critical skills and occupations. In addition, financial incentives could be introduced to encourage employers and adult learning providers to offer programmes in high-demand areas, while also supporting learners to make education and training choices aligned with labour market needs.
Opportunity 2: Addressing barriers to participation in adult learning
Fostering greater participation in adult learning requires addressing the diverse barriers that Thai adult learners face. These barriers may be situational – such as work and family obligations – or dispositional, including beliefs about being too old to learn or anxiety about returning to a classroom environment. Tackling these challenges through targeted financial and non-financial measures is essential to enabling adults to engage fully in learning opportunities. See Table 1.5 for the recommendations and specific actions for addressing barriers to participation in adult learning.
Note: Full descriptions of the recommendations and specific actions can be found in Chapter 3 and Annex 1.B.
Recommendation 3: Addressing time-related barriers through flexible adult learning opportunities
Addressing time-related barriers through flexible adult learning opportunities is especially important in Thailand, where adults are among the most overworked in the world and have little time for learning. Offering flexible adult learning opportunities in terms of place, time and modality can help adults to balance training with work and personal commitments. To this end, Thailand could raise awareness about existing flexible adult learning opportunities, including digital formats, to increase their take-up. Furthermore, Thailand could consider introducing time accounts or consider incorporating them into existing learning platforms such as the National Credit Bank System (NCBS) and promote the uptake of existing training leave policies and improve their effectiveness.
Recommendation 4: Increasing motivation to participate in adult learning through financial and non-financial incentives
Increasing motivation to participate in adult learning through financial and non-financial incentives can help overcome attitudinal barriers and foster a culture of lifelong learning. To this end, Thailand could launch a nation-wide campaign to raise awareness about the value of lifelong learning. Furthermore, introducing financial incentives – such as personal income tax deductions – could encourage individuals to pursue training, while payback clauses could help ensure returns on training investments made by employers and the government. To further empower adults to take ownership of their learning, Thailand could also explore individual learning schemes, such as training vouchers or learning accounts.
Opportunity 3: Increasing participation in adult learning among disadvantaged groups
It is important to provide additional, targeted support to disadvantaged groups in Thailand to ensure their full participation in adult learning and enable them to benefit from its outcomes. For groups such as informal economy workers, low-skilled and low-income adults, those from cultural minorities, and adults with disabilities, adult learning can help make up for limited educational opportunities earlier in life, support the development of skills needed in a changing labour market, and improve employment prospects. See Table 1.6 for the recommendations and specific actions for increasing participation in adult learning among disadvantaged groups.
Note: Full descriptions of the recommendations and specific actions can be found in Chapter 3 and Annex 1.B.
Recommendation 5: Improving access to adult learning opportunities among informal workers
Improving access to adult learning opportunities for informal workers is a pressing priority in Thailand, where informality remains widespread across many sectors. Adult learning can equip informal workers with the skills needed to adapt to a rapidly evolving labour market and support their transition into formal employment. To this end, Thailand could introduce targeted subsidies to support training in sectors with high levels of informality and implement outreach campaigns to raise awareness among informal workers about available learning opportunities and their benefits.
Recommendation 6: Expanding access to adult learning among disadvantaged groups through online learning and community-based approaches
Expanding access to adult learning for disadvantaged groups through online and community-based approaches can boost participation among those who need it most. Greater access can help individuals realise their potential, improve labour market outcomes, and promote equity and social cohesion. A key strategy to expand access for disadvantaged groups is to increase online learning options, complemented by connectivity support and digital literacy training in rural areas. Furthermore, increased funding and recognition for local structures – such as LAOs, community learning centres (CLCs), and Non-formal and Informal Education Centres (NFEs) – can help strengthen community-based approaches to reach disadvantaged adult learners more effectively.
Strengthening governance is essential to building a responsive and adaptive skills system. Given the cross-sectoral nature of skills policies, their effectiveness depends on effective co‑ordination of government efforts, meaningful engagement with non-governmental stakeholders, and the integration of comprehensive skills information systems. Four opportunities to strengthen the governance of the skills system were selected based on input from the literature, desk research, a policy questionnaire and discussions in virtual workshops.
Opportunity 1: Enhancing the strategic capacity to design and implement skills policy
Strategic capacity, in the context of this report, refers to a country's ability to set high-level goals and priorities for its skills system, and translate them into effective actions to achieve maximum impact. Drawing on insights from international best practices, Thailand could further strengthen its strategic capacity for effectively developing and implementing skills policy. In particular, Thailand should design a national strategy to strengthen the coherence of skills policy – building on findings of this OECD Skills Strategy for Thailand – and ensuring the effective implementation of existing skills-related strategies. See Table 1.7 for the recommendations and specific actions for enhancing the strategic capacity to design and implement skills policy.
Note: Full descriptions of the recommendations and specific actions can be found in Chapter 4 and Annex 1.B.
Recommendation 1: Developing a skills strategy to strengthen the coherence of skills policy
Developing a skills strategy to strengthen the coherence of skills policy is important for Thailand to address various challenges. The fragmentation of skills policy across multiple strategic documents risks creating gaps, overlaps, and conflicting objectives. Additionally, there is a lack of clearly assigned roles and responsibilities, which hinders the practical implementation of strategic objectives. To this end, Thailand could adopt a more integrated approach to skills policy by either developing a single national skills strategy or strengthening the alignment of existing strategies. Furthermore, Thailand could establish a formal mandate for the national skills strategy with clearly defined roles and responsibilities, and ensure the strategy is grounded in robust evidence and analysis.
Recommendation 2: Ensuring effective implementation of existing skills-related strategies
Ensuring effective implementation of existing skills-related strategies is important for Thailand to achieve its ambitious goals, aligning the implementation with lessons from international best practices. To this end, Thailand could secure a champion(s) that can promote broad awareness and support for the strategy(s). Moreover, Thailand could establish strong implementation practices that ensure effective achievement of strategic goals and establish mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating the strategy’s implementation.
Opportunity 2: Fostering a whole-of-government approach to skills policy making
Establishing mechanisms to facilitate ongoing collaboration and co‑ordination among governmental entities is crucial to ensure the long-term responsiveness and effectiveness of the country's skills system. In this context, it is important to ensure both horizontal co-ordination – i.e. between different governmental departments and agencies – and vertical co-ordination – i.e. between different levels of government, such as national and subnational levels. See Table 1.8 for the recommendations and specific actions for fostering a whole-of-government approach to skills policy making.
Note: Full descriptions of the recommendations and specific actions can be found in Chapter 4 and Annex 1.B.
Recommendation 3: Strengthening horizontal collaboration and co‑ordination among government ministries and agencies
Strengthening horizontal collaboration and co‑ordination among government ministries and agencies is important since responsibilities for skills policies are shared across multiple ministries and agencies. Effective co‑ordination through strong formal and informal mechanisms is crucial to enhance ongoing alignment of goals and activities, addressing any gaps, overlaps, and fostering synergies. To this end, to strengthen and complement existing co‑ordination bodies – such as the Education Council and National Qualifications Framework (NQF) Committee – Thailand could establish a dedicated inter-ministerial co‑ordination body for skills policy and ensure that it is established in line with international best practice. Moreover, Thailand could leverage informal co‑ordination and collaboration mechanisms to better support a whole-of-government approach to skills.
Recommendation 4: Strengthening vertical collaboration and co‑ordination between the national, provincial, and local levels
Strengthening vertical collaboration and co‑ordination between the national, provincial, and local levels is crucial for Thailand because of the important role that subnational authorities and ministerial offices play in the skills system. To this end, Thailand could strengthen subnational skills policy capacity through pilot programmes, direct engagement, and targeted support. Furthermore, Thailand could identify provincial skills development co‑ordinators and establish a collaborative network to foster collaboration and peer learning across LAOs. The voice of subnational authorities could also be amplified in national skills policy discussions through the network of provincial skills development co‑ordinators.
Opportunity 3: Strengthening stakeholder engagement in skills policy making
Strengthening engagement with non-governmental stakeholders, such as employers, unions, and training providers, is essential for enhancing the governance of Thailand’s skills system. Their expertise and diverse perspectives help to ensure that skills policies are responsive to both societal and economic objectives, fostering more effective and inclusive policy development. See Table 1.9 for the recommendations and specific actions for strengthening stakeholder engagement in skills policy making.
Note: Full descriptions of the recommendations and specific actions can be found in Chapter 4 and Annex 1.B.
Recommendation 5: Strengthening mechanisms and capacity for effective stakeholder engagement
Strengthening mechanisms and capacity for effective stakeholder engagement is key for effective governance of the skills system in Thailand. Stakeholders offer valuable expertise and diverse perspectives that are crucial for shaping skills policies that align with both societal and economic objectives. While Thailand has established methods for stakeholder engagement, such as dedicated bodies and legal frameworks, more could be done to refine and expand these efforts. To this end, Thailand could strengthen the effectiveness of existing stakeholder engagement bodies and further improve sectoral stakeholder engagement mechanisms through existing and emerging structures. Additionally, Thailand could enhance stakeholder engagement by adopting additional tools and strengthening capacity-building efforts.
Recommendation 6: Strengthening engagement with hard-to-reach non-governmental stakeholders
Strengthening engagement with hard-to-reach non-governmental stakeholders – including SMEs, minority communities, civil society organisations (CSOs), and actors in the informal economy – is important for enhancing the governance of the skills system. These actors have an important stake in skills policy discussions but may be under-represented in existing fora. To this end, Thailand could diversify engagement methods to make participation accessible to hard-to-reach groups. Furthermore, Thailand could leverage provincial and local authorities to support localised engagement and support and strengthen representative advisory bodies and umbrella organisations.
Opportunity 4: Improving skills information systems
Enhancing the availability and effective use of skills information is essential for strengthening the governance of Thailand's skills system. High-quality data is crucial for accurately assessing current skills needs, anticipating future needs, formulating evidence-based policies, and assessing the impacts of these policies. See Table 1.10 for the recommendations and specific actions for improving skills information systems.
Note: Full descriptions of the recommendations and specific actions can be found in Chapter 4 and Annex 1.B.
Recommendation 7: Improving the collection and use of skills data to inform skills policy
Improving the collection and use of skills data to inform policy should be a priority for Thailand. This will be crucial for designing effective, evidence-based skills policies and guiding education, training, and career choices. Achieving this requires collaboration to identify data needs and implement technologies that support data sharing and utilisation. To this end, Thailand could develop a comprehensive skills data framework, based on an assessment of user needs, and align data collection standards while enhancing technical infrastructure, building on existing governmental initiatives. Additionally, Thailand could strengthen co‑ordination in skills data collection by establishing a cross-ministerial forum.
Recommendation 8: Enhancing the co‑ordination and delivery of skills information and guidance services
Enhancing the co‑ordination and delivery of skills information and guidance services is important to improve accessibility and meet diverse user needs. Providing accessible and actionable skills information empowers individuals to make informed choices that align with their goals and abilities, while also enabling policy makers and stakeholders to design evidence-based policies that respond to current and future labour market needs. This information can be delivered through in-person guidance, as well as online portals and digital services that connect users to relevant opportunities. To improve skills information and guidance services, Thailand could establish a comprehensive and integrated online platform for skills information. Moreover, it could strengthen co‑ordination and collaboration across the guidance system, as well as enhance the capacity and inclusivity of in-person guidance services.
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The OECD Skills Strategy Thailand project consisted of several phases: Scoping and assessment; recommendations; and publication and launch.
Scoping and assessment phase
The objective of the scoping phase was to introduce the project to a broad group of government representatives and stakeholders in Thailand, and to discuss with them the overarching priority areas, key goals, timelines and outputs.
A virtual working group meeting was organised for the OECD Skills Strategy project in September 2023. The meeting convened government officials and senior officials from several relevant ministries, such as the Ministry of Education (MOE), the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research, and Innovation (MHESI), and the Ministry of Labour (MOL), among others, as well as key government agencies, such as the Office of the Vocational Education Commission (OVEC) and the Office of the Education Council (OEC). The objective of the seminar was to present a high-level assessment of the performance of the skills system in Thailand using the OECD Skills Strategy dashboard and other research to help focus discussions on policy priorities, and to agree on the priority areas to be covered.
The OECD also developed a questionnaire to identify relevant stakeholders, literature, statistics, policies, and practices, which was completed by the group of experts who were identified for the project. Responses to this questionnaire, along with desk-based research, informed the assessment and recommendations as presented during the recommendation phase.
Recommendations phase
The objective of the recommendations phase was to test recommendations with government officials and stakeholders, identify good practices, and develop final recommendations.
Virtual workshops on the recommendations and their implementation were organised in September 2024. The workshops included multiple discussion sessions that convened government officials and stakeholders to discuss and refine a draft set of recommendations identified for Thailand, identify key considerations for implementation, and discuss good practices in Thailand and elsewhere. The workshops also helped raise awareness and visibility of the project and the overarching priority areas, facilitate cross-sectoral dialogue on potential solutions, and provide insights for the final report.
Publication and launch
In this phase, the final report was published and findings of the project were disseminated.
A public event to launch the report was held to raise public awareness and develop a broad base of support for future action in improving the skills system in Thailand.
This annex presents the OECD’s recommendations for Thailand arising from this project. These recommendations and the analysis, evidence and international examples that support them can be found in Chapters 2‑4 of the full report.
As described above, further work is required by Thai stakeholders to sequence and prioritise the implementation of these recommendations. In some cases, additional work will be needed to determine how the recommendations can best be implemented. Thai stakeholders will need to continue their fruitful collaboration to identify who will have leadership and responsibility for design and implementation of prioritised actions. The OECD stands ready to support Thailand with these next steps.
Opportunity 1: Increasing the quality and relevance of initial education
Opportunity 2: Promoting the development of higher-level skills among youth
Opportunity 3: Reducing inequalities in educational outcomes
Opportunity 1: Improving the quality and labour market relevance of adult learning opportunities
Opportunity 2: Reducing barriers to participation in adult learning opportunities
Opportunity 3: Increasing participation in adult learning among disadvantaged groups
Opportunity 1: Enhancing the strategic capacity to design and implement skills policy
Opportunity 2: Fostering a whole-of-government approach to skills policy making
Opportunity 3: Strengthening stakeholder engagement in skills policy making
Opportunity 4: Improving skills information systems
← 1. The OECD Skills Strategy 2019 (2019[1]) identifies a broad range of skills, including: i) foundational skills (e.g. literacy, numeracy and digital literacy); ii) transversal cognitive and meta-cognitive skills (e.g. critical thinking, complex problem solving and self-regulation); iii) social and emotional skills (e.g. responsibility, empathy and self-efficacy); and iv) professional, technical and specialised knowledge and skills needed to meet the demands of specific occupations.
← 2. As estimated using a sample of over 60 countries, including all ASEAN countries, as well as developed countries such as the United States.