This chapter examines the state of civil service reform in the Egyptian civil service. It discusses avenues to promote a high-performing civil service by aligning recruitment, learning and development, and performance management frameworks. The chapter also explores the role of human resource planning and capability in the Egyptian civil service. Drawing on OECD data and examples of good practice, it concludes with recommendations to support the ongoing civil service reform in Egypt.
OECD Public Governance Reviews: Egypt
Strengthening the Foundations for More Efficient and Effective Public Governance Reforms
Abstract
Civil service reform in Egypt is closely linked to the success of national reform priorities. A central challenge is to streamline a civil service that is bloated by the long-standing practice of providing government jobs regardless of whether or not they are needed (El Baradei, 2021[1]). Managing the public sector workforce in line with efforts to trim the public sector wage bill requires a sustained focus on designing and implementing robust people management frameworks to recruit, train and develop effective public servants. Frequent changes of ministers in charge of the administrative reform portfolio (seven between 2011 and 2019 according to El Baradei (2021[1])) and the large-scale move of thousands of civil servants to the New Administrative Capital (NAC), frame Egypt’s path to administrative reform and civil service development.
Egypt has an overwhelmingly young population –60% of the population under 30 years old – with a limited ability in the private sector to absorb youth employment aspirations. Moreover, with nearly three out of ten Egyptians classified as poor by the World Bank (2023[2]), aspects of public employment such as stability and relatively flexible working hours that enable public servants to take care of children/relatives – or supplement wages through other work – means that the Egyptian civil service remains a relatively attractive employer.
There is evidence that Egypt is on the right path to more strategic and professional civil service management, with national-level reform priorities emphasising the link between people management and broader administrative reform. The 2016 Civil Service Law upgrades and tightens the conceptual framework for many aspects of public employment, such as a more professional recruitment process and a modern, forward-looking performance management system. This chapter examines current practice in Egypt across three areas at the core of high-performing civil services: effective recruitment systems, modern learning and development pathways, and simple, relevant performance management systems. Underpinning each of these areas is a forward-looking human resources (HR) function. This chapter draws on OECD data and examples of good practice across each of these areas.
Size and shape of the Egyptian civil service
Public workforce
Public servants in Egypt are divided into two broad categories: the civil service and the broader public sector. The scope of this chapter is exclusively civil servants under the scope of the 81/2016 Civil Service Act. The Unified Public Finance Law No. 6/2022 regulates the public sector. Public administration provides more than 12% of total employment in Egypt and public spending represents more than 30% of total gross domestic product (OECD, 2020[3]).
CAOA reports it is currently working on the “e-profile” exercise which will determine the exact number of the civil servants in all public entities. Recent estimates put the approximate total number of public servants at five million (The Economist, 2019[4]; El Baradei, 2021[1]). Much commentary has focused on the number of public servants relative to the general population: just before the introduction of the new Civil Service Law in 2016, some sources estimated that Egypt had 1 public servant for every 13 citizens (AmCham Egypt, 2015[5]). Strengthening efforts in Egypt to collect comprehensive and accurate data on public service, such as the number of public servants, their location, roles and general demographics, is an important element that will underpin public service reform and general workforce planning.
Note: Data for Australia, Chile, Colombia and New Zealand are not available. Data for Korea and Switzerland are not included in the OECD average due to missing time series. Romania was included given its status as an accession country.
Source: OECD (n.d.[6]), OECD National Accounts Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/na-data-en; data for Iceland, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Switzerland, Türkiye and the United States: ILO (n.d.[7]), ILOSTAT (database), https://ilostat.ilo.org/ and national account data on public employment by sectors and sub-sectors.
The International Monetary Fund expects public expenditure on wages and other remunerations to rise sharply over the coming years (Figure 4.2). This places a premium on the strategic use of new hiring aligned with the objectives of the national reform agenda and a reinforced emphasis on the development of talent in the Egyptian civil service through targeted learning opportunities and robust performance management mechanisms. Egypt needs a skilled public service and a greater focus on the quality of the workforce rather than the quantity of employees.
In billions of Egyptian pounds
Note: Figures for 2022/23 onwards are projections.
Source: Based on IMF (2023[8]), IMF Country Report No. 23/2 – Arab Republic of Egypt, https://www.imf.org/-/media/Files/Publications/CR/2023/English/1EGYEA2023001.ashx
Main institutional actors for the civil service
CAOA is the central HR body for the Egyptian civil service. A recent report found that CAOA performs a combination of regulatory/watchdog, executive and support functions, combining the functions of a Civil Service Commission and Central Personnel Office (Srivastava, 2019[9]). Certain activities and responsibilities – such as learning and development – may be overseen by CAOA on a policy and planning level but are implemented and run by a range of other bodies or institutions. The Civil Service Council (CSC) is a body established under the chairmanship of the President of CAOA and includes other high-ranking officials and experts in the field of HR management and law. The CSC is responsible for advising the government on civil service matters and for proposing reforms to improve the performance of the civil service. Other relevant actors are described in Box 4.1.
In addition to CAOA, the following organisations and actors play a role in workforce development in Egypt:
Administrative Control Authority (ACA): As per Law No. 54 of 1964 and as amended by Law No. 207 of 2017, the ACA has the competence to develop and follow up the implementation of the National Anti-Corruption Strategy in partnership with other relevant bodies and agencies in the country. It investigates administrative, technical or financial errors and monitors the implementation of laws, decrees, regulations and bylaws. Since 2014, the ACA has issued three consecutive strategies, for 2014-18, 2019-22 and 2023-30. The main pillars of these strategies include the “development of an efficient and effective administrative body, provision of high-quality public services, and activating the mechanisms of transparency and integrity in government units”.
The Ministry of Finance (MoF): The ministry plays a role in public service management by controlling the size of the wage bill and government budget. CAOA conducts HR planning and decides on employee headcount. The MoF allocates the funding for these roles. Once the announcement of vacant jobs and the selection process for eligible candidates are complete, CAOA sends candidate names to the MoF to release the funds.
The Ministry of Communications and Information Technology (MCIT): Since 1999, a large part of the activities related to public administration reform efforts were focused on modernising the public service delivery using e-government information and communication technology (ICT) and the leading ministry at this period was the MCIT. The latter now focuses on national databases and services modernisation\reform, as well as atomisation activities in partnership with the Administrative Control Authority.
The Ministry of Local Development (MoLD): According to its foundational Presidential Decree No. 380 of 1999, with objectives and mandates issued by a subsequent presidential decree, the MoLD has the competence to promote and co‑ordinate decentralisation, civic engagement and local economic development, and build and develop a modern administration in the governorates. The MoLD works in close cooperation with CAOA and other Ministries to buffer and transfer different central PAR efforts at the local level.
Line ministries and departments: Public administration reform and civil service Law No. 81 of 2016 (known as the Civil Service Law) serves all ministries, departments, government agencies, local units and public authorities in Egypt: indeed, Article 2 of the Civil Service Law defines a “unit” as “the Ministry, Department, Government Agency, Governorate or public body”. Also, HR divisions in all Public Administration Units are important actors regarding implementation/compliance with the Civil Service Law and broader workforce development.
Source: OECD (2020[3]), “Supporting the capacity of the Central Agency of Organisation and Administration (CAOA) of Egypt”, OECD, Paris.
The public service workforce is at the core of Egypt’s ambitious reform agenda. With the 2016 Civil Service Law, Egypt has an upgraded legislative framework that can spur concrete actions to further upgrade people management capability across the government. One of the lessons learned from countries that have gone through comprehensive civil service reform programmes, such as Ireland, is the need for extensive consultation and communication about the reform’s objectives, expectations and responsibilities. The following sections outline four priority areas where Egypt can accelerate efforts already under way to improve people management capability. These areas were identified through extensive consultation with stakeholders during two OECD fact-finding missions to Cairo in 2022 and 2023:
Recruitment: A growing wage bill and limited room to increase the civil service workforce as expansively as in the past points to the need for recruitment systems and processes to “do more with less”. The aim is to streamline communication around government employment opportunities and ensure that job design and assessment methodologies emphasise competencies.
Learning and development: Many institutional actors provide training across the Egyptian public service. There is likely an overlap in training scope and content, and the quality of training varies according to the trainings needs assessment of the entity. This could be further addressed through a streamlined by ensuring the learning and development offer is aligned with the national reform agenda and greater clarity on different providers’ core offerings (and value added). Further, the incentive structure around learning and development does not reflect its necessity. Learning can be better incorporated into growth opportunities and promotions, leadership selection, performance feedback and assessment and mobility systems.
Performance management: Egyptian civil servants are transitioning to a new performance management system. The previous system largely focused on a narrow range of subjective elements that were not necessarily reflective of actual job performance or ability. The new system is designed to emphasise competencies but evidence to date suggests a considerable degree of resistance from public servants and patchy implementation across the civil service. A substantive performance management system can enable the best employees to grow and do good work, and it is an essential aspect of any effective civil service.
HR management capability: Part of administrative reform in Egypt involves upgrading the capability of the HR function in the public service. This echoes the thrust of reform across the OECD, where many administrations are seeking to use the opportunities presented by new digital tools and training to reduce the amount of transactional and time-consuming functions in order to focus on activities that have higher value added, such as more proactive talent management or partnering with business units.
These four areas, outlined above, align with the principles of the OECD Recommendation on Public Service Leadership and Capability (Figure 4.3).
Source: OECD (2019[10]), Recommendation of the Council on Public Service Leadership and Capability, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0445.
Streamlining recruitment to emphasise targeted and competency-based assessment
Governments across the OECD struggle to attract certain types of skills, usually ones that are either rare or in demand by the private sector (or both). Common challenges include roles in the data, digital and information technology (IT) fields, as well as for management-level roles (OECD, 2021[11]). The Egyptian public service appears to be an attractive employer, with stability of tenure and good work-life balance highlighted by stakeholders during the OECD fact-finding missions as the main reasons that it is generally able to recruit without difficulty. However, three challenges suggest that Egypt should continue its efforts to improve how government recruitment is carried out.
First, to achieve the ambitions of the national reform agenda, people with new skills, ideas and backgrounds must be part of the conversation. That means greater efforts are needed to build a diverse candidate pool, especially featuring people with backgrounds or skillsets that are under-represented in public service. Second, with a growing public sector wage bill (Figure 4.2) potentially limiting room for a substantial increase in headcount in the public workforce in the coming years, Egypt will have to make sure that recruitment/selection processes test candidates for the right things, such as future-oriented and transversal competencies that will enable them to grown and learn throughout a varied career. Third, recruitment will have to take account of the need to demonstrate the appeal and value of a post in the NAC. This calls for an ongoing reflection on effective communication strategies, including through continued efforts to reach out to candidates from under-represented groups in the civil service.
The thrust of reforms related to recruitment since the introduction of the Civil Service Act in 2016 has been to establish a more structured framework for recruitment at different levels of the administration. CAOA has invested in purpose-built examination facilities as part of this reform agenda and is the lead actor in a mainly centralised recruitment system. CAOA has also invested in a centralised electronic system, with regular publications of job posts through media outlets, helping ensure greater outreach to candidates.
Civil service jobs in Egypt used to be advertised in national newspapers. Since 2016, all jobs covered by the Civil Service Law are centralised on the CAOA public jobs portal.1 This centralisation aims to improve transparency and reduce the potential for “wasta”, or appointments based on personal connections. Recruitment is broadly divided into two categories: recruitment for specialised, technical, clerical and artisan/assistant roles (Article 11) and recruitment for senior civil service positions (Article 19).
The Civil Service Law provides for the use of contract staff for in-demand roles (i.e. experts with “uncommon specialisation”, such as in the field of IT or investment). Such staff are hired for a period of three years and are not bound by salary caps. The use of contract staff for in-demand roles is common across the OECD and is a good example of flexibility in employment frameworks that can help attract specific skills to the civil service. Internships are possible, though the framework regulating them is less developed. However, the law also contains public employment provisions not typically found in OECD administrations. For example, Article 13 of the law states that spouses of some categories of employees (such as disabled employees or employees killed in military or security operations) can replace them if the employee dies or is incapacitated. Although the volume of these appointments is likely relatively low and although there is undoubtedly a well-intentioned social function behind these provisions, such provisions are nevertheless at odds with the principle of merit-based recruitment enshrined in public service legislation across the OECD (2023[12]).
CAOA has a key role in recruiting people for civil service. It effectively acts as the “gatekeeper” for new hiring. Hiring is predominately at the entry and senior levels, with levels in between filled through promotions and internal transfers. Recruitment is primarily position-based. CAOA reviews and approves/denies requests for new recruitment submitted by the HR units in line ministries and government bodies. The review process mostly ensures sufficient funding for the position and that the position aligns with the current organisational structure of the ministry requesting to hire. There is scope to upgrade this process to go beyond budgetary/organisational compliance and include a consideration of aligning new recruitment with in-demand skillsets or future skill needs. CAOA oversees the announcement, examination and appointment process: CAOA’s Central Selection Committee runs the examination and selection process through the Centre for Capability Assessment and Competition (CACC). The selection process for non-senior positions involves an electronic examination and all shortlisted candidates are then interviewed by a committee using randomly selected questions, on stage in front of an audience composed of the other candidates. This method is designed to highlight the transparency of the interview process.
The system is a little different for senior civil service positions. Senior leadership positions and permanent undersecretary positions are announced on the central portal, with individual ministries/bodies overseeing elements of the process. Applicants are mainly existing civil servants rather than external candidates: CAOA reports that the figure for internal applicants is 60-70%. Applicants fill out a template setting out their vision for managing the department. A senior civil service committee is formed in each ministry and is led by the head of the ministry. This committee evaluates the proposals and interviews applicants. There are four criteria for appointment, weighted equally: 25% for past experience, 25% for competencies, 25% for the proposal itself and 25% for relevant educational qualifications.
Improving career outreach to boost candidate quality
One aspect that stands out as particularly relevant for Egypt is better quantifying what skills and competencies are missing. Interviews with stakeholders in Cairo revealed that some ministries use “parallel” employment mechanisms to recruit dynamic and/or specialised staff funded through donor-provided technical assistance funding. This is done on a limited scale and mainly for certain required specialties. The advantages of these systems are seen to lie in a more streamlined recruitment process and potential for more exciting work with better pay. These observations align with the findings of El Baradei (2021[1]).
Use of different types of employment mechanisms can also be found in some OECD countries, where short-term contractual staff can be hired for specific, timebound needs with alternative pay scales and management frameworks than those of regular civil servants. The key is to ensure that these types of employment mechanisms are not simply used as workarounds for public employment systems unable to attract and recruit the right skills. Otherwise, there is a risk of lack of transparency, blurred lines of accountability and poor retention of institutional memory.
Unlike most OECD countries (Figure 4.4), CAOA notes that the civil service does not experience particular difficulties attracting specialist profiles, such as candidates with backgrounds in data, digital and ICT fields. However, without applicant/candidate data to support this, it would be reasonable to assume that some pockets of the civil service do struggle to attract people with the skills they need, especially in specialised or newly-emerging and senior civil service roles. As noted above, the history of Egypt’s public service was largely characterised by candidates gravitating automatically toward roles in the public service. Now, with skills across a wide variety of areas needed to help achieve the national reform agenda and support the move to the new capital, this points to the importance of the Egyptian public service continuing to develop a shift in mindset to identify and seek out different groups of candidates, including those who may not consider the public service a good fit for their skills and ambitions.
Note: N varies depending on the option, as some options were unknown by some OECD countries. Original survey question: “Does the central/federal administration experience particular challenges in attracting any of the following groups of applicants/skills?”STEM: science, technology, engineering and mathematics.
Source: OECD (2020[13]), “Survey on public service leadership and capability”, Unpublished, OECD, Paris.
One way for Egypt to develop greater ability to attract the right skills is through greater use of proactive recruitment practices: deliberate practices such as strategies to guide recruitment efforts or flexibility to adjust pay for specific in-demand profiles (Figure 4.5). One feature of proactive recruitment practices in many OECD countries, such as the Czech Republic and Ireland, is the development of specific efforts to reach out to younger candidates. This is partly driven by shifting demographics in such countries, with a large cohort of public servants expected to retire in the coming years and the need to bring in young candidates with knowledge of new and emerging policy fields. With a particularly young population, proactive recruitment practices in Egypt could be targeted at young candidates, e.g., through the use of appealing job descriptions, amplification of employment opportunities on social media, and particularly through efforts to identify where younger candidates would be a good fit to fill skills gaps in the public service. Institutionally, the equal opportunities units at the central and local levels could be useful actors to mobilise toward such efforts, including reaching out to young candidates and people from backgrounds not traditionally represented in the public service.
Note: Data for Chile and Iceland not available. CRI, BRA and ROU are included given their status as accession countries.
Source: OECD (2020[13]), “Survey on public service leadership and capability”, Unpublished, OECD, Paris.
Improving selection and recruitment
Government recruitment processes have also been around for a long time, with many designed to emphasise standardisation of the treatment of candidates to achieve equality. While this is laudable, a recent trend has been upgrading recruitment processes to ensure that they are fit-for-purpose for an era characterised by continual global crises, increasing complexity and technicality of policy challenges, and the need to make compromises and seek consensus to gain buy-in from citizens. France and Spain, for example, have each begun to adjust the format of their long-standing concours to test a wider and more relevant range of competencies more closely linked to the day-to-day work of public servants. And in the United States, for example, the Office of Personnel Management recently issued guidance to federal hiring agencies reminding them of their obligation to scale back reliance upon educational qualifications as a substitute for competencies in hiring processes (U.S. OPM, 2021[14]).
The challenge for CAOA is to identify what competencies will be in high demand in the future in Egypt following the move to the NAC and further develop innovative ways to test candidates for those competencies by adjusting recruitment and selection systems. CAOA has the building blocks in place to further refine its assessment and selection tools. This includes a competency framework with 13 broad competency themes. Two areas of focus for CAOA could be further improving the range of competencies tested during recruitment and forming a more permanent committee to oversee senior-level appointments (see, for example, Box 4.2).
As shown in Figure 4.6, most OECD countries use a wide range of tools to test analytical and behavioural competencies. Based on evidence gathered to date, it appears that the current recruitment process in Egypt should continue to widen the range of tools in candidate assessment to ensure the assessment of analytical and behavioural competencies.
Note: CV: curriculum vitae. Original survey question: “How are the following criteria tested for applicants to the civil service?”.
Source: OECD (2020[13]), “Survey on public service leadership and capability”, Unpublished, OECD, Paris.
Analytical and behavioural competencies are hard to identify in the first place and tricky to test for in long-established recruitment systems. However, these types of competencies are at the heart of how public administrations across the OECD frame policy challenges and implement solutions. Many administrations describe these types of competencies in competency frameworks. Competency frameworks are guides or strategies that highlight the types of competencies required for specific roles, professions or hierarchical functions. CAOA has a competency framework with 13 competency themes. The institution uses the competency framework to develop electronic examinations for candidates. Nearly 80% of OECD countries also use competency frameworks in recruitment, with OECD data showing that vision and strategy, achieving results, public values/integrity, networking/collaboration, and employee/workforce development were the top five most-included competencies in competency frameworks across the OECD.
In Egypt, there is scope to expand the use of the competency framework as it is currently used in recruitment to develop a broader range of tools to assess candidates, especially for specific roles such as senior civil service positions. Figure 4.7 shows the range of tools used by OECD administrations. For example, Canada, France and Korea use group simulations to examine how candidates perform and interact with peers on assignments. Estonia takes into account 360-degree feedback when considering candidates for senior roles and 14 OECD countries also use psychological assessments when recruiting senior managers.
Note: n=33. Original survey question: “How are the competencies of senior-level public servants assessed during recruitment?”.
Source: OECD (2020[13]), “Survey on public service leadership and capability”, Unpublished, OECD, Paris.
Structurally, Egypt could build on existing efforts to better structure the senior-level appointment process by establishing a permanent committee to monitor and run recruitment for senior levels across the public service. This could complement existing leadership position committees established at the ministry level to cover individual leadership positions at the ministry level. As shown in Box 4.2, the Irish public service has established a body at arm’s length from the public service to oversee the recruitment process for senior candidates. The benefits of such committees are the range of external views and ability to draw on a wide range of expertise.
“[The Top-Level Appointments Committee (TLAC) was established in 1984. The committee’s function is to recommend candidates to Ministers and Government for the most senior positions in the civil service – at the assistant secretary level and upwards. By carrying out this function in an independent manner and by making its decisions strictly on the basis of the relative merit of the candidates for the positions concerned, TLAC aims to strengthen the management structure of the civil service] (Government of Ireland, 2018[15])”.
In 2012, the TLAC was restructured by the then-Minister for Public Expenditure and Reform to further ensure its independence and transparency. It now comprises nine external members, one of whom acts as chair, and seven members of the secretary general grade from within the civil service, thus maintaining a majority of non-civil servants. Recommendations for appointment are made by in-depth assessment interview panels following a shortlisting of eligible applications. Ministers and the government make the actual appointments.
During this period, the proportion of candidates from the civil service, public service and private sector who were recommended for appointment was tracked and reported. In 2012-19, the proportion of candidates recommended for appointment who came directly from the private sector varied from a high of 21% to a low of 5%. It is noteworthy that in 2021, for the second year in a row, no candidate from the private sector was recommended for appointment by the TLAC, although 30% of eligible candidates came from that sector. This did not occur between 2012 and 2019. Although a greater number of eligible applicants in 2021 came from outside the civil service (27% from the wider public service and 30% from the private sector), the success rate for civil servants securing a recommendation is far greater than for candidates outside the civil service. The TLAC notes in its most recent report that the overall standard of candidates presenting for interview during 2021 was impressive, as it has been in previous years. It is also worth noting that, according to the TLAC, while no recommendations for appointment during 2021 favoured candidates coming directly from the wider public service, a number of those recommended or called for final interview would have had private sector experience before joining the service.
The TLAC acknowledges the challenge of identifying the optimal mix of backgrounds in the upper echelons of the civil service. A greater variety of career backgrounds and experience should serve to broaden the service’s capacities. However, it is also necessary to have continuity, a strong corporate memory and specialised knowledge.
Source: Based on information provided to the OECD by the Irish Public Appointments Service.
Overhauling a multi-component and siloed learning and development ecosystem
Learning and development are two of the main mandates of CAOA. Notably, the institution is responsible for the creation of overall learning and development and training plans and strategies, whilst other government bodies report to CAOA when setting their own training plans. Financial allocations for these elements are also decided and given by CAOA.
An overall learning and development plan or strategy for the Egyptian public service is a difficult undertaking that has not fully come to fruition. Without a clear idea of the total workforce and accompanying data on roles, tasks, growth and demographics, as well as total workforce planning, the creation of such a plan is a challenge for any administration; ongoing efforts to collect data and create “e-profiles” of the workforce should help in this regard. CAOA is responsible for this but also has many other responsibilities and the resources dedicated to learning need to be increased.
A document reflecting a learning and development plan is made available to ministries, containing nine “categories” under which training is intended to fall. These are:
1. Basic programmes (entry level).
2. Career path programmes.
3. Middle management programmes.
4. Leadership programmes.
5. New beginning (post-retirement) programmes.
6. National awareness programmes.
7. Women in state administrative machinery programmes.
8. Programmes for people with a disability.
9. Programmes for technical and crafts jobs.
Offerings across the public service are sent to all public entities. CAOA does not run all training, learning and development programmes or courses available across the Egyptian public service. The actual delivery of these is wide-ranging and somewhat unconnected in practice, as discussed more below. Given the size of the public service, this can be expected to an extent and efforts can continue to be undertaken to streamline the on-the-ground rollout of the strategy designed and implemented by CAOA.
Streamlining an operationally mixed and complex system
While formally, CAOA has authority over the field of learning and development, in practice, many ministries and other bodies can exercise their autonomy or preference over decisions relevant to their training needs. CAOA oversees any potential public service-wide learning strategy and administrative bodies can officially select from the offerings in that plan and send their requests and own plans to CAOA for approval. It determines the financial allocation to learning, though the MoF is responsible for the overall State Budget, from which the allocation for learning stems (as with all financial resources). Based on the needs assessment from each body, the MOF sets an umbrella envelope for the budget which in turn is managed and allocated by CAOA.. Many ministries also report depending on their own resources for additional training and, indeed, often run their own training centres, which are operationally independent.
While the Central Department for Capacity Building Policies and Plans at CAOA oversees learning and development offerings, OECD fact-finding revealed that there can be complexity and confusion across line ministries regarding the availability and delivery of offerings. There are several training/learning institutions within the Egyptian public sector realm. These include the National Institute for Governance and Sustainable Development, the National Training Academy (NTA), the Egyptian Anti-Corruption Academy and numerous training centres that exist within ministries.
There are also various private training operators or centres that offer additional contracted training. These have to be approved and accredited by CAOA (under Civil Service Law 81/2016). According to a count by CAOA in June 2024, there are 397 registered training centres, including public, private, and not for profit centres. CAOA reported that a list of accredited training institutions is available on the “KMT chatbot” (https://caoakemet.caoa.gov.eg) through which public employees can enquire. Nevertheless, the extremely large size of the public service, long-standing contracts or arrangements with private operators, and the extent of training needs requested and procured by ministries and administrative bodies warrants careful consideration by CAOA and related bodies. CAOA must approve each provider, by reviewing the place and buildings, equipment, programmes, and so on. There are several steps to the licensing requirements for training providers. A provider must apply electronically on CAOA’s website, and a committee from CAOA review the application based on several factors including the qualifications of trainers, programmes offered, and facilities. A license is then given to the centre to operate and provide learning or training.
CAOA must approve each provider, by reviewing the locations, buildings, equipment, programmes, etc. There are several steps and requirements in licensing training providers. A provider must apply electronically on CAOA website and a CAOA committee reviews the application based on several factors, including the qualifications of trainers, programmes offered and facilities. The centre is then given a license to operate and provide learning or training.
However, these are annually reviewed and the scope of the tasks – and mapping of what exists – is perhaps overwhelmingly large. Current turnover of accredited centres is reportedly 0% for public entities and 10% for private entities, though new providers are still added. Accreditation is valid for two years but can be renewed for private providers for a small fee. A review of all centres and courses offered is indeed a very large undertaking but one which would bring all training offerings under one coherent umbrella, ensuring that overlap and inefficiencies are reduced.
In OECD countries, extensive numbers of privately-run learning institutions functioning as public sector training services and multiple administration-run or -aligned institutes are unusual. Countries that do well at learning and development tend to have a clear strategy and defined roles for all partners, aligning to meet the administration’s learning needs and goals. Figure 4.8 below outlines the actors responsible for learning and development in the OECD.
Percentage of countries that responded to the survey question
Note: N=37. Original question: “Who is in charge of carrying out training and learning across the central/federal administration?”. More than one answer was possible.
Source: OECD (2020[13]), “Survey on public service leadership and capability”, Unpublished, OECD, Paris.
In addition to what has already been mentioned, numerous partnerships with international governments, development partners or organisations offer even more learning or training programmes and technical support. Examples of these co‑operations include international organisations such as the German development agency (GIZ), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and the OECD, among others. To improve clarity, further efforts could be undertaken to map, institutionalise and enhance the coordination and visibility of existing opportunities for training with international and development partners and domestic institutions, given the fragmented training offer in Egypt.
They illustrate the complexity in the breadth of the current learning system; the NTA alone reportedly has 150 programmes and 70 000 graduates along with 8 large new buildings in 6th of October City. Findings from OECD interviews revealed the need to regularise and expand the co‑ordination between CAOA and NTA. The NTA is a relevant player in this regard, with which CAOA could consider enhancing co‑ordination, given its work in the field and as part of institutionalising the overall learning strategy in Egypt. Currently, this co‑operation includes CAOA being invited to participate in NTA board meetings and the NTA providing CAOA with information on employees who have taken training so that it can use this information in their data and e-profiles for tracking information on training.
While training is carried out by a wide variety of accredited institutions, CAOA has been responsible, through its own training centres, for the specific training related to government employees, including those moving to the New Administrative Capital. This wide-reaching training focuses on technical skills needed to undertake digital working methods and new processes for work in the NAC. Certain workers were chosen to move based on their roles but also on their potential to train in digital technology. These workers are also being relied on to learn new ways of working that can lead to a cultural shift in the public service – an ambitious undertaking.
In order to formulate a strategic and effective learning and development plan, a mapping of the state of learning offerings must be undertaken to understand the current situation. Planning for training needs and skills gaps, and workforce data collection are urgent priorities. CAOA reports that considerable efforts are underway to map roles and job profiles, greatly aiding the overall undertaking.
Competency frameworks are useful and often essential tools for developing and managing employees and workforces. In public service, they play an even more important role in helping guide and strategise HR planning in a highly complex environment with a multitude of constraints, which can make employee growth and evaluation a multifaceted undertaking.
Countries that do well at the management and planning of the public service often have one or more competency frameworks,1 which are implemented into learning and development plans as well as performance management processes. This could mean, for example, using such frameworks to assess learning needs and design coursework, linking competencies to performance evaluations, or using them in making promotion decisions. Competencies are more than simply skills: in public service, they are a set of behaviours, attitudes and capabilities that make people effective public servants.
Competency frameworks are important to design and implement thoughtfully and, when used well, can be a highly valuable aspect of an overall workforce plan. OECD research in Egypt indicates that early work has been done to develop a competency framework in the Egyptian public service but that it is full design, publication and integration into processes is still ongoing. Fact-finding interviews indicate that there is a preliminary framework of 13 competencies, or in this case, “traits”, that apply to every public servant.
The document itself outlines some areas related to competency (for example, communication and decision-making), though it includes areas that are not traditionally utilised in good practices in OECD countries and the SIGMA Principles of Public Administration (OECD, 2023[12]). There is an opportunity to learn from such best practices in framework design (for example, the first area outlined is emotional balance, which appears to grade the emotional and mental well-being of employees, which are not competencies but rather a health matter and are unlikely to be equitably and fairly used or included in a matrix that is used for performance assessment). Further, research suggests that it has limited substantive use in either learning and development or performance management at this point. CAOA reports use of psychometric tests to assess the list of 13 traits, job-related competencies and intelligence quotient (IQ). These tests are given in the CACC for recruiting new hires, assessing the capabilities of nominees to leadership positions and identifying training needs. These tests are done in the Capability Assessment and Competition Centre, for recruiting new hires, assessing the capabilities of nominees to leadership positions, and to identify training needs.
Note: 1. Sometimes countries will have multiple or expanded frameworks tailored to levels of seniority and type of role.
Source: OECD (2021[11]), Public Employment and Management 2021: The Future of the Public Service, https://doi.org/10.1787/938f0d65-en; OECD (2023[12]), The Principles of Public Administration, https://www.sigmaweb.org/publications/Principles-of-Public-Administration-2023.pdf.
Defining the needs, aims and outcomes of learning and development systems
The development of the workforce and a strategic assessment of needed skills and competencies is required. Figure 4.9 illustrates the responsibility for creating and implementing learning and development strategies in central governments in OECD countries. It is most common for countries to have a central strategy, which is often in addition to more defined or specialised strategies within ministries, which are potentially unique to their needs. Mandates can sometimes be shared, though the delivery of training is more often the responsibility of a school of government or specific learning and development department.
Note: N=37. Original question: “Is there a learning and development strategy/plan for central/federal public servants?”. More than one answer was possible.
Source: OECD (2020[13]), “Survey on public service leadership and capability”, Unpublished, OECD, Paris.
The availability of accurate workforce data would enhance CAOA’s ability to plan and assess learning needs. According to CAOA, data for 3.5 million employees have been compiled, and the process is ongoing to increase this number. While this is a positive step forward, data for the full civil service are currently lacking, as discussed in this chapter. Without knowing the number of employees, their roles and the tasks required of those roles, planning and strategising for workforce development is a very difficult undertaking. Efforts are underway by CAOA to collect more data and better map the workforce and this can be viewed as an essential first stage in creating a foundation on which other strategies can be built.
Beyond basic workforce data, more advanced data that specifically tracks elements of learning and development can also significantly contribute to a stronger learning and development systems. CAOA is endeavouring to track the training taken by each employee and use this to create a better mapping of existing skills throughout the workforce and contribute to an assessment of skills needs in order to offer functional and effective training programmes. Data can also be tracked not just on the needed skills but on the training itself, including learning outcomes, performance impact, budgets, participation and more. Figure 4.10 below shows some examples of data collection efforts on learning and development across OECD countries.
Training needs assessment and the identification of skills gaps are other areas that deserve strategic attention in the Egyptian administration. Currently, the processes and policies in place to identify training needs are fragmented throughout the administration and require further institutionalisation. This requires enhancing the availability and quality of workforce data gathered and used to inform policies and programmes. Feedback from line managers and departmental requests are relied upon; however, these have not formally been systematised but rather “identified naturally”. A new website has been developed for ministries to enter their self-identified training needs to be included in CAOA’s overall training plan.
OECD evidence from its fact‑finding missions revealed that each ministry identifies its own training needs in different ways. For example, the Ministry of Trade and Industry reports the use of questionnaires sent to each department to indicate needs and has a method for individuals to indicate the training they think they need. The Ministry of Planning, Economic Development and International Cooperation (MPEDIC) also uses a survey but says that, due to limited resources, needs assessment is mostly done by asking department leadership directly. The MoF sets an annual plan informed by twice-annual feedback from medium and higher managerial staff. The Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energy has its own leadership training centre, wherein needs are assessed based on who is nominated for leadership programmes. The Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Communities uses a strategy in which it tries to keep training within the department, having colleagues train each other, though there is neither a formal system nor formal needs assessment related to this strategy.
Note: N=37. Original question: “Which indicators do you track regarding training and development?”.
Source: OECD (2020[13]), “Survey on public service leadership and capability”, Unpublished, OECD, Paris.
Areas of training needs are also, in large part, selected on the basis of priorities in administrative reforms. For example, the Prime Minister issued a decree stating that entity should establish six working units: strategic planning and policies; monitoring and evaluation; internal audit; HR; legal support; and digital transformation. Training plans for the move to the NAC were reportedly established based on these units.
An institutionalised central learning plan was launched in 2018 and is being implemented. It aims to streamline and improve the various forms of planning and deliver training across public entities. CAOA, however, could benefit from a more institutionalised and clear central learning development system and strategy. The aims and goals of training may be nearly impossible to concretely establish without a foundation of both reliable and coherent workforce data and a thorough analysis of skills gaps and learning needs. Because of this, these elements can be seen as urgent priority areas in any public service reform.
Indeed, these elements are themselves a foundation for evaluating the outcomes of training offerings. Impact assessment of learning plans is an essential component of an overall strategy, as it is important to understand when training is – and is not – working, for example to inform the redesign of strategies and offerings or to direct resources to especially useful programmes.
Outcomes assessment is currently being carried out by testing before and after certain training courses. For specialised leadership programmes, which can last up to two years, there is a performance change assessment before and after undertaking the programme, informed by feedback from senior leadership in ministries. However, an outcome assessment would be difficult to carry out without addressing the above-mentioned factors.
Creating and reinforcing a learning culture in the Egyptian public service
A learning culture – in which learning is expected, valued, habitual and “part of the job” for all staff – is an essential factor is successful learning and development systems. This can mean linking learning efforts and progress to promotion and career growth, considering it in feedback and assessment, giving employees a chance to take training they find fulfilling and use new skills on the job, ensuring that staff at all levels engage in career-long development (OECD, 2023[16]). Many of the structural elements and incentives – or lack of disincentives – required to nurture a learning culture are related to performance management processes. Elements of this are discussed in the next section of this chapter.
Another important element of creating a learning culture is offering quality, varied content that is targeted at the audience and tailored to the needs of learners. Because of this, consolidating the learning offerings and providers and improving quality control is essential. It is also important to offer learning in ways that reach learners and embrace available technology, such as through digital means.
Currently, CAOA is working on further establishing an improved online digital learning platform. During 2020, some learning transitioned to online platforms, as CAOA conducted many of the planned training using distant learning tools (via the Internet) in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. A full platform for online learning is being set up, where notably CAOA is currently developing a learning management system (LMS), which will facilitate and track the whole process of training planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation through an automated and connected system. In the future, CAOA plans to apply more e-learning for the transition to the NAC and, ideally, to link online learning with the LMS that tracks staff learning efforts.
When learning efforts of staff are rewarded, learning becomes viewed positively. However, learning is not always viewed positively in the Egyptian public sector workforce. Training being an integrated aspect of career growth, is done according to the training needs assessment (TNA) for all employees. Other training is optional and not always viewed as an expected part of the job or an integrated aspect of career growth, which adds complexities in terms of the willingness and incentives for public service employees to undertake training. Furthermore, in some cases, when training is not an integral part of career growth, there may be a risk of it being perceived as a punishment for “underperforming” employees and, often, only employees who receive weak feedback may be sent to training. Those who are higher-functioning or who are heavily relied on with high workloads may not be given the opportunities to further develop themselves, which may be something they would like to do and which would develop their skills.
A challenge, generally in workplaces and public administrations, is designing training programmes that align with the aims and careers of workers and the needs of the administration. Learning in any workplace should assist workers along their career path and motivate employees as they grow and take on new challenges and roles. Often, workplace learning can be done on the job in an informal way, such as through mentorship, giving people a chance to try new things or leadership tasks, and interacting on multifunctional teams. In the context of CAOA, learning should be encouraged and rewarded through growth and the intrinsic self-motivation of workers. Learning opportunities are to be ideally made available to all staff in an inclusive way and woven into the expectations of every public servant. Along this process, efforts in Egypt to continue to ensure equal opportunities for career growth and access to learning opportunities between men and women will be fundamental. For a more in-depth analysis and review of gender equality and mainstreaming in Egypt, please refer to Chapter 7 of this publication.
Delivering a substantial shift in performance management systems
Performance management of any workforce is an integral element of resource planning, crisis preparedness, resilience and general readiness as well as the ability to undertake both known and unexpected challenges, now and in the future. It allows organisations to hire the right number of the right types of people, plan for skills needs well in advance, identify and build skills internally, compete in the labour market and build pipelines of workers to fill essential roles. Performance management includes performance assessment and evaluation but it also encompasses other practices such as learning and development, promotion and growth, whole-of-workforce databases of skills and experience and planning for resource allocations now and in longer-term horizons (OECD, 2023[16]).
In the public service, performance management becomes even more essential than in various other sectors due to many of the unique factors of this industry, such as: multiple competing constraints; a need for heightened responsiveness and high-stakes repercussions and outcomes of work and policy decisions; the frequency of decades-long careers inside administrations; and a need to compete for skilled workers with sometimes higher-paying sectors (OECD, 2021[11]). The public sector is a major employer in many countries and its management can be influential for the stability and success of whole economies. The average percentage of total employment in general government is around 18% in OECD countries (OECD, 2021[17]). Indeed, in Egypt, the public sector employs several million people, though its size is likely unjustifiably large and the result of an ever-bloating system that added workers in response to economic and social conditions.
Navigating a difficult but necessary organisational culture change
In 2019, MPEDIC Decree No. 63 issued new guidelines that cover some aspects of performance management, including performance assessment. These guidelines mandate twice-yearly performance reviews of all public servants and a structured rating system for these assessments should follow. The comparative advantages of the new appraisal system include: i) mandating the competent authority in all government agencies to develop – from fiscal year 2019/20 – an integrated system for evaluating employee performance in a way that ensures complete accuracy in measuring an employee’s performance and behaviour to reach the natural curve of performance; and ii) allowing, for the first time, employees to submit an objection to their performance evaluation results (the performance evaluation report is not considered final until the deadline for the grievance has passed or a decision has been made with the signature of the employee).
In addition, the organisational culture was – and still is – such that performance evaluations are normally high for nearly everyone. Stakeholders during OECD fact-finding interviews revealed that around 99% of people receive the highest or second-highest “grade”. This phenomenon is potentially due to a lack of structure, of properly designed incentives alongside the assessment system and of framework to follow and provide accountability for determining how assessments are done.
A financial bonus system is also tied to receiving a highly ranked assessment. In this system, receiving the bonus has become an expected part of the salary in many ways and having a performance assessment grade that is not at the highest level would keep many employees from receiving it. The bonus is viewed not as a reward for excellence but as the standard: indeed, not receiving it is viewed as a serious and potentially embarrassing or financially difficult punishment.
The shift to the new system in Egypt is already underway, with plans to be fully implemented. A greater challenge in achieving this is implementing the change into an organisation’s culture and actual ways of working. There is a strong need to focus on this shift and create processes and accountability to ensure that substantive performance management happens in practice. To this end, a true commitment to the shift through mandate action may be warranted. Managers in the position of conducting performance evaluations can be trained and held accountable and evaluated – substantively – for their ability to carry out the new way of working.
Twice a year, based on the guidelines issued by the Civil Service Law.
Two consecutive “excellent” appraisals: eligibility for elective promotion for specialised position.
Two consecutive “competent” appraisals: eligibility for a promotion by seniority.
Two consecutive “weak” appraisals: transfer for one year to another position of the same grade by the HR committee, after which supplemental pay is to be reduced by 50% for 6 months if performance does not improve, after which the service will be terminated upon the approval of the competent authority.
One “weak” appraisal: HR enrolment of the employee in the nearest training programme after co‑ordination with their direct supervisor.
Two consecutive “less than above average” appraisals for a leadership position: service termination.
Making performance assessment and promotion fair, substantive and transparent
Performance management depends on reliable, substantive and fair performance assessment. A substantive system would entail performance assessments that reflect actual performance but not only this. Effective performance management systems enable useful feedback, upwards and downwards, in the organisational hierarchy. They foster accountability in managers for ensuring staff development, treating it fairly and equitably, and also receiving feedback and engaging in development themselves. Figure 4.11 illustrates ways in which countries enforce employee development as an expected managerial task. Almost two‑thirds of countries provide training on this and employee development is also included in managerial competency frameworks. Other methods are fast emerging in the public sector, where developing workforce skills is a rapidly increasing priority.
In well-functioning public services, professional development and career growth opportunities are available and clear, and the organisation invests in the lifelong learning and growth of staff, enabling them to fill skills needs and to take on roles that reflect their potential and intrinsic motivation and interest. These systems also reduce disincentives for this; through such means and making sure new skills are rewarded and used on the job, reforms and organisational changes are carried out in practice and the most motivated and effective employees do not remain in too-junior positions or carry too much of the workload on account of being valuable where they are.
Ensuring these shifts in the Egyptian performance management system requires creating accountability for managers and decision-makers to foster and enable such changes. Employee development and substantive management of the ways of working and career progression of a team can be expected of managers and mandated. Fairness and objective performance assessment ought to be ensured, eliminating the ability for staff evaluation to be simply based on the relationships between managers and staff rather than on actual performance. Ensuring the integrity of managers in conducting reviews can be prioritised.
Note: N=36. Original question: “Is employee development reinforced as an expected managerial task through any of the following?”. KPI: key performance indicator.
Source: OECD (2020[13]), “Survey on public service leadership and capability”, Unpublished, OECD, Paris.
Further, effective performance evaluation often functions under defined and pre-considered frameworks that ensure the correct things are being assessed and that the processes are applied fairly and evenly across the workforce. This can mean applying a competency framework, setting objectives in advance (in conversation and collaboration with employees themselves), considering the outcomes and successes of tasks and projects, considering learning efforts and growth, and so on. Assessments in the Egyptian public service had often focused on non-performance-related factors (e.g. discipline, appearance and times of arrival and departure at the office), an area that new performance evaluation systems are addressing. While each organisational culture may have certain expectations or ways of doing things, actual performance and motivation can be assessed and rewarded at a more substantive level in order to contribute to overall and effective workforce strategies.
Promotion is another area to consider. Promotion based on merit, performance and potential is an essential component of a well-functioning workforce. In Egypt, a great deal of promotion, especially to management positions, is based on seniority. There are some specialised jobs for which promotion can be done based on performance; however, seniority – and not ability – determines the majority of growth and promotion opportunities.
This practice harms an overall workforce in two main ways by: i) leaving high-potential and effective employees in positions that do not take advantage of their abilities and motivations; and ii) filling essential managerial positions with workers who may not have the needed skills or abilities. It creates an environment in which the best performing and most able workers may not be filling the positions in which they would be most effective, leaving them unmotivated in other roles or perhaps causing them to leave the public service altogether to pursue their potential and motivation in another sector. The inverse of this means that important senior roles are mandated to be filled with employees with the most seniority, without as much consideration to the ability or will of the employee to act in a managerial role or the degree to which they have developed their skills and abilities in their career. It also means that there is, by nature, very little age diversity in management and potentially a large disconnect between workers of different age demographics.
Promotion – to management roles and otherwise – ideally functions in a way that creates intrinsic motivation within a workforce. Rewarding the best employees can be a focus that has a higher impact than penalising underperformers.
Building capacity in HR units
As part of overall reform efforts, the Egyptian government has established six new administrative units to be deployed in each ministry: internal control and governance; HR development, digital transformation; strategic planning; performance monitoring and evaluation; and legislative support (USAID, 2020[18]).
This is an encouraging sign: many of the reforms to civil service management discussed in this chapter – and indeed the broad thrust of reforms in this public governance review – depend on a well-resourced and capable HR function in government. Upgrading the role of HR units at the line ministry level is a strong way to make the most of CAOA’s centralised role and the knowledge of HR teams close to diverse business units across the government. OECD administrations are also reviewing how they structure their HR operations (Box 4.5). A common thread in such reforms is the opportunity to use new digital tools to reduce the amount of time spent on transactional, time-consuming and reactive activities. The goal is to upgrade the HR operating model – whether centralised, decentralised or a mix of both – to emphasise activities that have a greater impact on the civil service workforce. These types of activities include working with data and analytics, strategic workforce planning, talent management for the senior leadership group, succession planning and mobility.
HR business model
The UK civil service has been exploring how to best adapt its HR operating model to align with the future needs of the civil service. A diagnostic review of the current HR operating model identified the scope of improving HR business partners’ visibility, scope and effectiveness. HR business partners are specialist HR roles that work closely with line ministries and departments to identify operational and strategic challenges and develop and implement HR policy accordingly. The review identified a series of actions for central and decentralised HR bodies at the ministry level. Underpinning the review was the shift from transactional, reactive and time-consuming HR work to more strategic and value-added.
End-to-end review of recruitment
The UK civil service has launched an end-to-end review of how it carries out recruitment. Driven by many of the 2022 Institute for Government report findings on recruitment, the review is a comprehensive assessment of the available data on recruitment processes, such as time to hire across government departments. The review highlights that recruitment quality varies considerably across government depending on the role and department hiring processes. It maps a number of actions and recommendations across branding, attracting, recruitment/selection and onboarding processes. Some of the key findings focus on the need for better collaboration and connection across systems, a more user-friendly user experience for candidates going through recruitment processes and more support for recruiters and hiring managers.
Source: Information provided to the OECD by the UK Cabinet Office.
One way of conceptualising the future HR role in government is to be able to stay relevant, adapt to changing priorities and anticipate and respond to crises. Digitalisation, demographic shifts and the potential for remote working are all examples of trends that offer opportunities to reshape government workforces and workspaces, and Egypt is no exception. Each of these trends impacts public service (especially in Egypt, with its youthful population) and has a knock-on effect on the HR function, which is to hire, retain and develop staff with the skills and motivation to tackle these challenges.
The question for CAOA is how to best align its role as a central HR body with the operational autonomy and flexibility needed to empower HR units in line ministries. Getting this relationship right is vitally important: with effective communication structures and trust, HR units in line ministries can signal emerging workforce issues and develop proposals for how to implement the HR policy set by CAOA. Notably, the institution has been working on restructuring the HR function in terms of roles within CAOA (highlighted in a United Nations Development Programme report as a priority) (Srivastava, 2019[9]) as well as the functions of HR units in line ministries. This can improve internal co‑ordination and also enable a more targeted role for the HR departments in line ministries.
Building HR capacity involves emphasising three elements at the core of the OECD vision for future work in the public service: forward-looking, flexible and fulfilling public service (OECD, 2021[11]). This means HR functions taking on new roles and integrating new tools and ways of working along the way in order to transition to higher value-added roles, as outlined in Table 4.1:
Source: OECD (2021[11]), Public Employment and Management 2021: The Future of the Public Service, https://doi.org/10.1787/938f0d65-en.
A modern HR function has a clear mandate and the tools and resources to carry out a core number of high-value tasks. Box 4.6 highlights three types of HR roles that characterise high-performing public services. For Egypt, there are two main steps that could be taken to further enhance overall HR capability and ability to carry out such tasks: first, develop a shared vision of priority challenges and potential solutions by developing institutional co‑ordination frameworks horizontally (with other HR units) and vertically (with the CAOA and other relevant ministries); second, examine where opportunities afforded by shared service arrangements and/or new digital tools can free up time for HR staff in line ministries to spend more time on higher value-added HR activities.
Strategic workforce planning is the ability to understand the layout and intrinsic characteristics of government workforces and to deploy a range of policies and tools to develop that workforce in line with strategic vision and priorities. Good workforce planning requires a number of ingredients, such as a good understanding of the organisational operating model, transformation strategies and objectives, and the broader operating environment, including the socio-political context and the labour market. It depends on high-quality mapping of the current workforce in terms of numbers, skills, performance, potential and diversity of the workforce. Importantly, it also depends on input, engagement and ownership from the highest levels of management (not just HR).
Ability to gather and use workforce data
A future-proof HR function relies on governments’ lack of sophisticated and structured workforce data and advanced data analytical capability to generate insights on which to base new workforce policies. Administrative workforce data should be abundant in large organisations such as public service but are often not structured in ways that enable strategic analytics. Moreover, many HR departments grapple with legacy IT systems that lack interoperability and these limit opportunities for data analysis and presentation. Areas for necessary data collection are broad and include information about training and learning, mobility, turnover and worker demographics to ensure diversity. Employee surveys are another powerful data source that can be used to generate important insights about perceptions of employees and the overall motivation and engagement levels of staff. Making the most of the data may also mean investing in modern analytical and visualisation tools, and upskilling the HR workforce to integrate data into optimising organisational structures and processes.
Talent management
Talent management can be understood as the proactive use of strategies to adjust workforce management to the needs of specific groups in order to fulfil organisational objectives. It relates to the systematic attraction, identification, development, retention and deployment of talent within a particular organisation (OECD, 2021[19]). It includes learning and development, recognising that one of the core skills that will come to define high performance in public service in the future is the ability to learn continually. Talent management can bring greater dynamism to public sector careers and work experiences. With the right structure and support, a public sector career can involve multiple learning opportunities and ways to work in different roles across the public sector. With regard to building HR capability, talent management then becomes a case of identifying tools and support structures to help employee development, and building capability to intervene and provide greater direction to employee careers.
Source: OECD (2021[11]), Public Employment and Management 2021: The Future of the Public Service, https://doi.org/10.1787/938f0d65-en.
CAOA has a central department responsible for supporting all HR units in civil service entities. Notwithstanding, the civil service have both formal (i.e. exchange in official letters) and informal co‑ordination mechanisms among HR practitioners that somewhat enable a shared approach to tackling HR challenges across the government. CAOA’s convening power as the central HR body, mandate which is anchored in the Civil Service Law, is an asset that could be leveraged to build on this and create a more permanent or structured way for HR leaders and practitioners to share experience. These types of network are common across government: France brings together senior HR leaders through a 22-member body with representatives from the public and private sector, and researchers to examine HR trends and develop HR policy proposals. The aim is to produce a strategic HR planning document for the public service. The Office of Management and Budget in the United States runs a Federal HR Institute (FHRI) to continuously develop HR specialists from entry- through to senior-level positions. The FHRI curriculum is designed for the federal HR workforce to both advance individual growth and development and build organisational capacity and competency.
Professional exchange networks are a good way of building capability. A subsequent next step could be to draw on CAOA’s resources to develop a strategy for the professionalisation of HR in Egyptian civil service. As outlined in Box 4.7, the Australian Public Service Commission developed a dedicated strategy to frame its vision for what the HR function in government should look like and what it should do. The strategy acts as the basis for a range of upskilling and reskilling initiatives that Egypt could undertake, such as an HR mobility programme whereby HR professionals can experience working in a similar role in another government department in order to develop new skills and insights. Other administrations have targeted professionalisation efforts at specific aspects of HR capability, such as in Ireland, where the Department of Public Expenditure, National Development Plan Delivery and Reform developed a strategy for the professionalisation of HR professionals on ICT (Government of Ireland, 2018[15]).
In Australia, the Australian Public Service Commission has developed a strategy to guide the professionalisation of strategic HR skills across the public service. The anchoring principles of the strategy are to: i) share knowledge and practice through the creation of an HR professional network, disseminate knowledge and provide learning; ii) collaborate through shared activities; and iii) grow capability through development. With the overall objective of establishing a distinct HR profession, the key steps are set out in concrete activities:
1. Establish a reference group to guide, co-design and develop the professional stream.
2. Identify a head of the professional stream based on experience.
3. Develop an HR professionalisation strategy document.
4. Find resources to support the objectives of the strategy.
5. Establish a professional network of HR practitioners.
6. Develop links with professional bodies for education and professional development.
7. Identify standards and credentials for HR standards.
8. Identify professional HR capabilities (e.g. talent management, design capability).
9. Communicate the case for change.
10. Develop a baseline picture of the HR workforce.
11. Create an implementation plan.
Source: Australian Government (2019[20]), APS HR Professional Stream Strategy, https://www.apsc.gov.au/sites/default/files/2021-03/aps_hr_professional_stream_strategy.pdf.
Egypt has many of the building blocks in place to streamline the public service. Ongoing work to restructure various HR management roles within CAOA and in line ministries points to the ambition for public service transformation. Although the implications of the move to the NAC remain to be seen, the move itself provides an opportunity to upgrade the principles of HR management and provide tools, guidance and support to leaders, managers and staff across the public service in an effort to transform long-established practices and ways of working.
The following recommendations build on the substantive analysis of this chapter and reflect good practices across OECD administrations. Although the recommendations are divided into “pillars”, they should be seen as a cohesive whole: efforts to improve learning and development, for example, can also help attract and recruit the right skills. Equally, the implementation of the new performance management system can help raise standards overall. These recommendations can each be developed into several parts that make up a larger, contextual and detailed strategy for their implementation through the next stages of work focused on implementation and reform.
Produce an annual report on the state of the civil service
CAOA could lead the development of an annual report setting out a vision for workforce development, analysing trends in the civil service and defining goals and measurement frameworks.
CAOA could contribute to the report by producing insights into workforce trends.
Streamline recruitment processes
CAOA to identify a short list of priority skills gaps to be addressed using recruitment of candidates from outside the civil service
CAOA could explore using a wider range of assessment mechanisms in recruitment processes to better target key competencies and skills
In addition to the existing committees established to recruit for senior-level positions at Ministry level, CAOA could establish a permanent committee or group that meets regularly to monitor senior-level recruitment trends and capability gaps across the public service. This group could support existing committees in an advisory role, e.g. through helping define expectations and candidate requirements for senior-level positions.
CAOA could develop a more proactive approach to promoting career opportunities in the civil service for specific in-demand and value-added roles, especially in view of moving to the NAC.
Streamline learning and development
Continue to develop a learning and development plan for the entirety of the public service. Co‑operate with ministries and other administrative bodies to inform them of this plan and create clear spheres of responsibility.
Improve the collection and use of workforce data that can inform learning and development strategies (for instance, through skills needs analysis, employee surveys, data collection on learning outcomes and participation, etc).
Continue to map and consolidate learning and development providers to establish a full picture of all learning offerings and continue to create strategies with this “big picture” in mind. Maintain, regularly update and disseminate the list of accredited learning centres and their curriculum, which can be made broadly available.
Further enhance the competency framework to be implemented in learning and development strategies as well as performance management processes.
When planning and assessing learning offerings, ensure that they can reach all staff by conducting barrier analysis of opportunities, tracking the demographics of training uptake and adjusting plans as necessary. Building on the recent creation of the equal opportunities unit, further efforts should explore concrete avenues to involve under-represented and disadvantaged groups in recruitment processes to enhance the diversity of the Egyptian civil service.
Systematise and define skills needs assessment and learning outcomes evaluation processes.
Work on creating a learning culture by reducing disincentives to learning and creating effective non-financial incentive structures, such as linking learning and development to performance management.
Continue to institutionalize learning opportunities, scaling them to maximise reach across the public service, while ensuring diversity of delivery on various of topics and skills.
Focus training and learning opportunities on topics that include competencies and capabilities (i.e. strategic planning, workforce planning, monitoring and evaluation, impact assessment, among others, management skills) for a future fit-for-purpose civil service.
Continue progress to develop and enhance a full and substantive online learning platform.
Realign and redesign performance management systems and processes
Continue efforts to undertake a substantive shift – in policy and action – to a new system of performance evaluation. Ensure managerial accountability systems are in place to enable this transition and use the new performance assessment framework that contributes to fair and transparent evaluation based on substantive elements of actual performance.
Reconsider the use of any financial compensation or bonus related to performance assessment. A financial bonus system based on performance evaluations can function to create an expectation of a high-performance rating or the use of a lower rating as a punishment rather than an opportunity for growth.
Continue progress in making promotion and career growth decisions systematically (broadly) based on merit, ability and performance rather than on seniority.
Further implement mechanisms that allow for the lifelong development of managers and leadership. This includes putting in place transparent mechanisms that allow for performance evaluation of managers and leadership. Further, mechanisms that enable them to receive feedback on their own performance from all levels (e.g. 360-degree evaluations, leadership coaching) can be implemented. Ensure that managerial staff engage in learning and development opportunities.
Increase the relevancy and value of learning and development opportunities and ensure that all staff undertakes such opportunities.
Increase data collection and the use of data that do exist to enable heightened workforce performance management strategies (for example, a full and comprehensive survey of central government employees).
Continue work towards the development of a performance management and career growth system that fosters a workforce that reflects the population, particularly at decision-making levels.
Continue to upgrade the HR function
CAOA could review where upskilling and reskilling in the HR function could help support a shift to higher value-added activities.
CAOA could create and support an HR community of practice to discuss common challenges and develop shared solutions.
CAOA could explore where digital tools can free up time for HR officers to work more strategically.
Pilot the creation/implementation of new HR roles, such as talent management, data analytics or business partnerships. CAOA could lead a stocktaking exercise of HR activities with a view to identifying tasks to save time, increase effectiveness and improve user experience.
References
[5] AmCham Egypt (2015), “Pros and cons of the civil service law debated”, American Chamber of Commerce in Egypt, https://www.amcham.org.eg/publications/business-monthly/issues/237/September-2015/3334/pros-and-cons-of-the-civil-service-law-debated.
[20] Australian Government (2019), APS HR Professional Stream Strategy, https://www.apsc.gov.au/sites/default/files/2021-03/aps_hr_professional_stream_strategy.pdf.
[1] El Baradei, L. (2021), “Public administration in Egypt after the Arab spring”, in Public Administration in Conflict Affected Countries, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74966-8_3.
[15] Government of Ireland (2018), The Civil Service ICT HR Professionalisation Strategy, Department of Public Expenditure and Reform, https://ictstrategy.per.gov.ie/ictstrategy/files/Civil%20Service%20ICT%20Professionalisation%20Strategy%20-%20January%202018.pdf.
[7] ILO (n.d.), ILOSTAT (database), International Labour Organization, https://ilostat.ilo.org/.
[8] IMF (2023), IMF Country Report No. 23/2 – Arab Republic of Egypt, International Monetary Fund, https://www.imf.org/-/media/Files/Publications/CR/2023/English/1EGYEA2023001.ashx.
[16] OECD (2023), Public Employment and Management 2023: Towards a More Flexible Public Service, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5b378e11-en.
[12] OECD (2023), The Principles of Public Administration, OECD, Paris, https://www.sigmaweb.org/publications/Principles-of-Public-Administration-2023.pdf.
[19] OECD (2021), Ageing and Talent Management in European Public Administrations, OECD, Paris, https://web-archive.oecd.org/2021-10-18/613673-ageing-and-talent-management-in-european-public-administrations.htm.
[17] OECD (2021), Government at a Glance 2021, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1c258f55-en.
[11] OECD (2021), Public Employment and Management 2021: The Future of the Public Service, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/938f0d65-en.
[3] OECD (2020), “Supporting the capacity of the Central Agency of Organisation and Administration (CAOA) of Egypt”, OECD, Paris.
[13] OECD (2020), “Survey on public service leadership and capability”, Unpublished, OECD, Paris.
[10] OECD (2019), Recommendation of the Council on Public Service Leadership and Capability, OECD/LEGAL/0445, OECD, Paris, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0445.
[6] OECD (n.d.), OECD National Accounts Statistics (database), OECD, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/na-data-en.
[9] Srivastava, V. (2019), UNDP Technical Assistance for Strengthening Public Sector Performance Management in Egypt.
[4] The Economist (2019), “Millions of retiring Arab civil servants need not be replaced”, https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2019/03/28/millions-of-retiring-arab-civil-servants-need-not-be-replaced.
[14] U.S. OPM (2021), Memorandum for Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies, United States Office of Personnel Management, https://www.chcoc.gov/content/updated-interim-guidance-eo-13932-modernizing-and-reforming-assessment-and-hiring-federal.
[18] USAID (2020), Egypt Economic Governance Activity Quarterly Report for FY 2020 Q4, United States Agency for International Development, https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00X71P.pdf.
[2] World Bank (2023), Macro Poverty Outlook: Arab Republic of Egypt, World Bank, Washington, DC, https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/65cf93926fdb3ea23b72f277fc249a72-0500042021/related/mpo-egy.pdf.
← 1. For more information, see http://jobs.gov.eg/.