Masculinity and Gender Equality

Executive summary

In both Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal, masculinities – understood as socially constructed roles, behaviours and expectations associated with being a man – continue to shape gender relations through norms about men’s roles as providers, decision makers and figures of authority. Such restrictive expectations can limit women’s economic opportunities and agency, contribute to environments in which gender-based violence can be tolerated, and place pressure on men and boys to meet narrow ideals of manhood. Understanding these norms is therefore essential to identify why gender inequalities persist and where change is possible.

This report analyses masculine norms in Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal through a single framework, implemented through distinct data collection methods in each country. In Côte d’Ivoire, the report draws on new household survey data to examine how restrictive masculinities are distributed across the population and how they relate to women’s economic empowerment and violence. In Senegal, it draws on qualitative interviews and a participatory workshop to explore how these norms are understood, reproduced and contested in everyday life. This combined approach makes it possible to identify common patterns across the two countries while recognising important differences in context and evidence.

Masculinities remain anchored in provision, authority and control

The report finds that restrictive masculinities remain widespread and strongly organised around expectations that men should provide financially, exercise authority and maintain control, while women are expected to carry primary responsibility for unpaid care and domestic work. In both countries, the male provider role remains central to adult male status and social recognition, helping legitimise men’s authority within households and communities. In Côte d’Ivoire, nearly all respondents (96%) agree that men should be the main providers, and more than 90% of men report feeling stressed at the prospect of not being able to provide.

Young people are at the centre of both social change and the tensions that accompany it. Younger generations may be more exposed to egalitarian ideas, but generational change is neither automatic nor uniform. In Côte d’Ivoire, young women aged 15 to 24 express the most progressive views, while men in the same age group remain more attached to restrictive norms. In Senegal, youth are generally perceived as more open to gender equality and positive masculinities. However, young men face pressure and difficulties meeting social expectations to succeed economically and socially while young women increasingly demand equality. In both countries, these dynamics can create tensions affecting social cohesion, family well-being and healthy, non-violent relationships if left unaddressed.

A further finding is that restrictive norms can persist because people misperceive what others believe. In Côte d’Ivoire, respondents systematically overestimate men’s conservatism and women’s progressiveness, suggesting that perceived social expectations do not always align with personal beliefs. In Senegal, stakeholders describe situations where people may privately support more equitable practices but hesitate to express them for fear of social judgement. This gap can sustain silence and conformity, but it can also point to areas where change may be more socially acceptable than decision makers assume.

Restrictive masculinities constrain women’s economic agency and increase the risk of violence

Women in Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal continue to face significant obstacles to their economic empowerment. Labour force participation gaps remain substantial, at around 15 percentage points in Côte d’Ivoire and nearly 30 percentage points in Senegal. Women who work are more likely to be in vulnerable forms of employment, with lower and less stable earnings and more limited access to social protection. While women’s economic participation is essential to sustain livelihoods and achieve nation-wide economic development goals, labour market participation does not automatically translate into actual economic empowerment.

Restrictive masculinities help explain the gaps in economic empowerment. In Côte d’Ivoire, women are less likely to work, participate in household decision making, or own and control productive assets where restrictive norms are stronger. They also carry a disproportionate burden of unpaid care and domestic work. In Senegal, qualitative evidence shows that women’s economic participation may be welcomed when it helps to meet household needs, but often remains conditional on women continuing to fulfil domestic responsibilities and not challenging men’s status as primary providers. Across both countries, norms around provision and authority shape not only whether women work, but also whether their work brings greater agency, recognition and control over resources.

The report also finds that gender-based violence remains widespread, recurrent and underreported in both countries, both within and beyond intimate relationships. Masculinities are especially relevant for understanding the perpetration of violence. Men who endorse restrictive norms are more likely to perpetrate violence, particularly if they perceive pressure to meet economic and sexual masculinity ideals. Overall, these norms sustain an environment in which violence may be tolerated, justified or treated as a private matter.

Weak accountability and social silence compound the problem. Shame, stigma, fear of retaliation, social pressure and limited trust in institutions discourage reporting and help keep violence hidden and unaddressed. Childhood exposure to violence reinforces these dynamics, as harmful norms and behaviours can be learned early and transmitted across generations. Ending gender-based violence therefore requires both stronger response systems and prevention efforts to challenge the norms that legitimise male dominance, control and the use of violence.

Promoting positive masculinities is key to advancing gender equality and social cohesion

The report underlines the importance of promoting positive, gender-equitable masculinities as a pathway towards greater gender equality. More inclusive and caring models of masculinity can support women’s economic agency, reduce tolerance of violence and improve men’s own well-being. Promoting positive masculinities is not a marginal or symbolic objective, but a practical entry point for linking women’s economic empowerment, violence prevention and inclusive development.

In pursuit of that objective, policymakers should aim to address restrictive norms and structural constraints together, engage men and boys as agents of change, tailor interventions to the local context, strengthen women’s economic agency beyond participation alone, and embed norm change within broader strategies to prevent violence and end perpetrator impunity. Using evidence on personal beliefs and perceived social expectations can help them to identify where reforms may be more feasible and where more sustained engagement is needed.

By applying a consistent framework across country contexts, this report establishes a baseline to inform policy dialogue, programme design and collective action aimed at addressing the social foundations of gender inequality.