Is the Last Mile the Longest? Economic Gains from Gender Equality in Nordic Countries

Annex A. Additional tables and figures

The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities. The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.

Figure A A.1. Men's employment has been declining slowly for decades

Male employment rate, 15-64 year-olds, 1960-2016, selected OECD countries

Note: Dashed lines reflect estimated data points (see Annex B).

Source: OECD Employment Database (http://www.oecd.org/employment/emp/onlineoecdemploymentdatabase.htm), and OECD estimates based on data from the OECD Annual Labour Force Statistics Database (http://stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?queryid=451), Eurostat (http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database), and national statistical offices (see Annex B).

Figure A A.2. Men's average working hours have decreased, especially in Denmark and Iceland

Male average usual weekly working hours, all ages, 1975-2016, selected OECD countries

Note: Data refer to average usual weekly working hours in the main job, and cover all employed (both employees and self-employed) of all ages. Data for the United States refer to dependent employees, only. Dashed lines reflect estimated data points (see Annex B for details).

Source: OECD Employment Database (http://www.oecd.org/employment/emp/onlineoecdemploymentdatabase.htm), and OECD estimates based on data from the OECD Annual Labour Force Statistics Database (http://stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?queryid=451), Eurostat (http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database), and national statistical offices (see Annex B).

Figure A A.3. All of the Nordic countries have seen large increases in GDP per capita over the past 50 years or so

GDP per capita, constant prices, constant PPPs, OECD base year (USD 2010), 1960-2016

Source: OECD National Accounts Database (www.oecd.org/employment/emp/onlineoecdemploymentdatabase.htm), and Statistics Norway (https://www.ssb.no/en/) for Norway.

Table A A.1. In the Nordic countries, gender employment gaps tend to fall around the time of economic crises but widen again during the recovery

Employment rates in the Nordic countries around the time of the early-1990s economic crisis (Finland and Sweden) and the Great Recession (Denmark, Iceland and Norway), 15-64 year-olds, by gender

		1989	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998
Finland	Male	78.4	77.9	73.0	67.3	63.1	62.6	64.8	66.0	66.6	68.2
	Female	71.4	71.5	68.4	63.8	59.7	58.7	59.0	59.5	60.4	61.3
	Gender gap	7.1	6.4	4.6	3.5	3.4	3.8	5.8	6.5	6.2	6.8
Sweden	Male	85.1	85.2	82.7	78.2	73.1	72.2	73.5	73.2	72.4	73.6
	Female	80.7	81.0	79.3	76.2	72.1	70.7	70.9	69.9	68.9	69.4
	Gender gap	4.4	4.3	3.4	1.9	1.0	1.6	2.6	3.3	3.5	4.2
		2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016
Denmark	Male	80.8	81.6	78.0	75.6	75.9	75.2	75.0	75.8	76.6	77.7
	Female	73.2	74.1	72.7	71.1	70.4	70.0	70.0	69.8	70.4	72.0
	Gender gap	7.6	7.5	5.3	4.5	5.5	5.2	5.0	6.0	6.2	5.7
Iceland	Male	89.5	87.8	80.6	80.6	80.8	81.9	83.7	84.4	86.6	89.0
	Female	81.7	80.3	77.2	77.0	77.3	78.5	79.9	80.0	81.8	83.4
	Gender gap	7.8	7.5	3.4	3.6	3.5	3.4	3.7	4.4	4.8	5.6
Norway	Male	79.7	80.6	78.4	77.4	77.2	77.7	77.4	77.1	76.6	75.8
	Female	74.0	75.4	74.4	73.3	73.4	73.8	73.5	73.4	73.0	72.8
	Gender gap	5.6	5.2	4.0	4.1	3.8	3.9	3.9	3.7	3.6	3.0

Source: OECD Employment Database (www.oecd.org/employment/emp/onlineoecdemploymentdatabase.htm).

Table A A.2. Except for in Iceland, gender working hours gaps in the Nordic countries have changed little around the times of recession

Average usual weekly working hours in the Nordic countries around the time of the early-1990s economic crisis (Finland and Sweden) and the Great Recession (Denmark, Iceland and Norway), all ages, total employment, by gender

		1989	1990	1991	1992	1993	1994	1995	1996	1997	1998
Finland	Male	..	42.2*	41.2*	42.0*	41.8*	42.5*	42.4*	42.8*	42.5*	42.0*
	Female	..	36.8*	36.9*	37.1*	36.2*	37.2*	36.9*	37.3*	37.1*	36.8*
	Gender gap	..	5.3*	4.3*	4.9*	5.6*	5.3*	5.6*	5.5*	5.4*	5.2*
Sweden	Male	38.6*	38.7*	38.8*	38.9*	38.9*	39.0*	38.9*	38.9*	38.9*	38.9*
	Female	35.5*	35.2*	35.3*	35.4*	35.5*	35.4*	35.2*	35.1*	34.9*	34.7*
	Gender gap	3.1*	3.5*	3.5*	3.5*	3.4*	3.6*	3.7*	3.8*	4.0*	4.2*
		2007	2008	2009	2010	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016
Denmark	Male	36.6	36.2	35.8	35.9	35.9	35.7	35.7	35.6	35.6	34.9
	Female	31.8	31.7	31.4	31.2	31.2	31.2	31.3	31.1	31.0	30.6
	Gender gap	4.8	4.5	4.4	4.7	4.7	4.4	4.4	4.5	4.6	4.2
Iceland	Male	47.0	46.0	43.8	43.4	44.1	43.6	43.9	43.8	43.9	43.3
	Female	35.2	35.5	34.5	34.4	34.9	35.0	34.9	35.2	35.0	34.9
	Gender gap	11.8	10.5	9.3	9.1	9.2	8.6	9.0	8.6	8.9	8.4
Norway	Male	37.3	37.1	37.0	36.8	36.9	36.8	36.8	37.0	36.5	36.6
	Female	30.8	31.1	31.1	31.1	31.1	31.5	31.4	31.6	31.6	31.8
	Gender gap	6.5	6.1	5.8	5.8	5.7	5.3	5.3	5.4	4.9	4.8

Note: Data refer to average usual weekly working hours in the main job, and cover all employed (both employees and self-employed) of all ages. Data points marked with an * refer to estimated data (see Annex B).

Source: OECD Employment Database (http://www.oecd.org/employment/emp/onlineoecdemploymentdatabase.htm), and OECD estimates based on data from national statistical offices (see Annex B).

Table A A.3. Increases in women’s employment have contributed to economic growth in the Nordic countries

Average annual rate of growth in GDP per capita and disaggregation of growth into its primary components, longest available series, Nordic and selected other OECD member countries

	GDP per capita, average annual growth rate (%)	Percentage point contribution of main components			Decomposition of contribution of the employment rate, by gender
		Labour productivity (p.p.)	Working age share of population (p.p.)	Employment rate (p.p.)	Men's employment (p.p.)	Women's employment (p.p.)
Denmark (1967-2016)	1.64	1.55	0.00	0.09	-0.15	0.24
Finland (1970-2016)	2.01	2.19	-0.12	-0.06	-0.12	0.05
Iceland (1970-2016)	2.42	1.83	0.20	0.40	0.00	0.40
Norway (mainland) (1972-2016)	1.99	1.46	0.16	0.36	-0.05	0.41
Sweden (1963-2016)	1.92	1.93	-0.07	0.06	-0.19	0.25
Canada (1971-2016)	1.58	1.01	0.15	0.41	-0.06	0.48
France (1962-2016)	2.06	2.09	-0.05	0.01	-0.25	0.26
Germany (1991-2016)	1.24	0.88	-0.22	0.58	0.11	0.47
Italy (1970-2016)	1.46	1.24	-0.04	0.26	-0.17	0.43
Japan (1970-2015)	2.10	2.13	-0.31	0.28	0.07	0.21
United Kingdom (1960-2016)	1.97	1.84	-0.01	0.14	-0.19	0.32
United States (1970-2016)	1.77	1.41	0.22	0.14	-0.12	0.26

Note: Estimates based on the decomposition of national accounts data using labour force survey estimates. Differences in the time periods covered mean estimates are not fully comparable across countries. See Annex B for more detail.

Source: OECD estimates based on data from the OECD National Accounts Database (http://www.oecd.org/std/na/), the OECD Employment Database (http://www.oecd.org/employment/emp/onlineoecdemploymentdatabase.htm), the European Commission's AMECO Database (http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/ameco/user/serie/SelectSerie.cfm), Eurostat (http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database), and national statistical offices (see Annex B).

Table A A.4. Most of the gains from women’s employment have come from 25-54 year-old women, but 55-64 year-old women have contributed too

Average annual rate of growth in GDP per capita and disaggregation of growth into its primary components, with the contribution of women's employment disaggregated by age group, longest available series, Nordic and selected other OECD member countries

	GDP per capita, average annual growth rate (%)	Percentage point contribution of main components			Decomposition of the contribution of the employment rate, by gender		Disaggregation of the contribution of women's employment by age group
		Labour productivity (p.p.)	Working age share of population (p.p.)	Employment rate (p.p.)	Men's employment (p.p.)	Women's employment (p.p.)	15-24 year olds (p.p.)	25-54 year-olds (p.p.)	55-64 year-olds (p.p.)
Denmark (1983-2016)	1.39	1.29	-0.07	0.16	0.03	0.14	0.00	0.02	0.12
Finland (1970-2016)	2.01	2.19	-0.12	-0.06	-0.12	0.05	-0.13	0.08	0.10
Iceland (1991-2016)	1.82	1.56	-0.05	0.31	0.10	0.20	0.01	0.08	0.11
Norway (mainland) (1972-2016)	1.99	1.46	0.16	0.36	-0.05	0.41	0.00	0.34	0.08
Sweden (1963-2016)	1.92	1.93	-0.07	0.06	-0.19	0.25	-0.06	0.23	0.08
Canada (1976-2016)	1.37	0.89	0.04	0.44	-0.02	0.46	-0.09	0.40	0.15
France (1968-2016)	1.78	1.74	0.00	0.04	-0.25	0.29	-0.12	0.36	0.05
Germany (1991-2016)	1.24	0.88	-0.22	0.58	0.11	0.47	-0.07	0.27	0.28
Italy (1970-2016)	1.46	1.24	-0.04	0.26	-0.17	0.43	-0.11	0.39	0.15
Japan (1970-2015)	2.10	2.13	-0.31	0.28	0.07	0.21	-0.13	0.22	0.12
United Kingdom (1984-2016)	1.82	1.44	-0.05	0.42	0.06	0.37	-0.07	0.33	0.11
United States (1970-2016)	1.77	1.41	0.22	0.14	-0.12	0.26	-0.06	0.24	0.08

Note: Estimates based on the decomposition of national accounts data using labour force survey estimates. Differences in the time periods covered mean estimates are not fully comparable across countries. See Annex B for more detail.

Source: OECD estimates based on data from the OECD National Accounts Database (http://www.oecd.org/std/na/), the OECD Employment Database (http://www.oecd.org/employment/emp/onlineoecdemploymentdatabase.htm), the European Commission's AMECO Database (http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/ameco/user/serie/SelectSerie.cfm), Eurostat (http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database), and national statistical offices (see Annex B).

Table A A.5. Growth in women’s working hours have contributed relatively little to economic growth in the Nordic countries

Average annual rate of growth in GDP per capita and disaggregation of growth into its primary components, employment rates and working hours, longest available series, Nordic and selected other OECD member countries

	GDP per capita, average annual growth rate (%)	Percentage point contribution of main components				Decomposition of the contribution of the employment rate, by gender		Decomposition of the contribution of working hours, by gender
		Labour productivity (p.p.)	Working age share of population (p.p.)	Employment rate (p.p.)	Working hours (p.p.)	Men's employment (p.p.)	Women's employment (p.p.)	Men's working hours (p.p.)	Women's working hours (p.p.)
Denmark (1983-2016)	1.39	1.58	-0.07	0.17	-0.29	0.03	0.14	-0.33	0.04
Finland (1990-2016)	1.21	1.85	-0.26	-0.07	-0.31	-0.06	-0.01	-0.22	-0.09
Iceland (1991-2016)	1.82	1.82	-0.05	0.31	-0.26	0.11	0.20	-0.41	0.15
Norway (mainland) (1975-2016)	1.86	1.85	0.13	0.38	-0.50	-0.03	0.41	-0.66	0.16
Sweden (1987-2016)	1.56	1.66	-0.03	-0.21	0.15	-0.12	-0.10	0.11	0.04
Canada (1976-2016)	1.37	2.08	0.04	0.47	-1.22	-0.02	0.49	-1.08	-0.14
France (1983-2016)	1.25	1.52	-0.19	0.25	-0.33	-0.11	0.36	-0.44	0.10
Germany (1991-2016)	1.24	1.43	-0.23	0.58	-0.55	0.11	0.47	-0.47	-0.08
Italy (1983-2016)	0.97	1.00	-0.19	0.41	-0.25	-0.05	0.46	-0.44	0.19
United Kingdom (1984-2016)	1.82	1.70	-0.05	0.43	-0.26	0.06	0.37	-0.44	0.19
United States (1979-2016)	1.60	2.39	0.04	0.10	-0.93	-0.09	0.20	-0.73	-0.20

Note: Estimates based on the decomposition of national accounts data using labour force survey estimates. Differences in the time periods covered mean estimates are not fully comparable across countries. See Annex B for more detail.

Source: OECD estimates based on data from the OECD National Accounts Database (http://www.oecd.org/std/na/), the OECD Employment Database (http://www.oecd.org/employment/emp/onlineoecdemploymentdatabase.htm), the European Commission's AMECO Database (http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/ameco/user/serie/SelectSerie.cfm), Eurostat (http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database), and national statistical offices (see Annex B).

Table A A.6. The relatively high levels of female employment in the Nordic countries contribute to their relative prosperity

Gap in GDP per capita relative to the OECD-30 total and decomposition of the gap into its primary components, USD 2010 PPP, 2015, Nordic and selected other OECD member countries

	Difference in GDP per capita (USD)	Percentage point contribution of main components				Decomposition of the contribution of the employment rate, by gender		Decomposition of the contribution of working hours, by gender
		Labour productivity (USD)	Working age share of population (USD)	Employment rate (USD)	Average working hours (USD)	Men's employment (USD)	Women's employment (USD)	Men's working hours (USD)	Women's working hours (USD)
Denmark	2 429.0	7 736.1	- 136.8	2 994.7	-8 165.0	1 115.2	1 879.5	-5 301.9	-2 863.1
Finland	-4 226.9	-1 839.6	- 564.4	- 244.7	-1 578.1	-1 066.1	821.3	-2 337.5	759.3
Iceland	135.0	-11 519.5	-1 281.4	8 727.4	4 208.5	3 817.7	4 909.6	2 370.8	1 837.7
Norway (mainland)	8 014.5	11 780.7	1 002.8	3 910.5	-8 679.6	1 539.2	2 371.3	-5 619.9	-3 059.7
Sweden	2 228.0	2 460.7	- 955.5	3 154.3	-2 431.5	912.6	2 241.7	-2 729.3	297.7
Canada	322.6	-3 556.9	1 293.6	2 489.1	96.7	669.4	1 819.7	- 528.9	625.6
France	-5 176.3	4 489.2	-2 959.4	-1 933.7	-4 772.3	-1 828.1	- 105.7	-3 516.3	-1 256.0
Germany	575.8	4 678.4	337.2	4 904.0	-9 343.7	2 383.3	2 520.7	-4 654.3	-4 689.4
Italy	-8 844.5	-3 740.2	- 30.3	-5 399.9	325.8	-1 428.7	-3 971.2	2 124.6	-1 798.7
United Kingdom	-3 733.2	-3 845.9	-1 140.1	2 347.0	-1 094.2	927.4	1 419.6	- 1.9	-1 092.2
United States	9 816.6	8 190.7	- 527.7	917.8	1 235.8	202.6	715.2	- 172.4	1 408.2

Note: Estimates based on the decomposition of national accounts data using labour force survey estimates. Differences in definitions and the data used mean estimates are not fully comparable across countries. See Annex B for more details

Source: OECD estimates based on data from the OECD National Accounts Database (http://www.oecd.org/std/na/), the OECD Employment Database (http://www.oecd.org/employment/emp/onlineoecdemploymentdatabase.htm), the European Commission's AMECO Database (http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/ameco/user/serie/SelectSerie.cfm), Eurostat (http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database), and national statistical offices (see Annex B)

Table A A.7. Potential gains from closing gender participation gaps are fairly small in the Nordic countries, but closing working hours gaps could lead to larger gains

Projected GDP per capita and projected average annual rate of growth in GDP per capita under different gender gap scenarios, 2013-2040, OECD countries

	GDP per capita, 2012, USD 2005 PPP	Projected GDP per capita, 2040, USD 2005 PPP						Average annual rate of growth in GDP per capita, 2013-2040, %
Labour force participation scenario:		Baseline	25% by 2025, 50% by 2040	50% by 2025, 100% by 2040	25% by 2025, 50% by 2040	25% by 2025, 50% by 2040	50% by 2025, 100% by 2040	Baseline	25% by 2025, 50% by 2040	50% by 2025, 100% by 2040	25% by 2025, 50% by 2040	25% by 2025, 50% by 2040	50% by 2025, 100% by 2040
Working hours scenario:		Baseline	Baseline	Baseline	25% by 2025, 50% by 2040	25% by 2025, 50% by 2040 (male driven)	50% by 2025, 100% by 2040	Baseline	Baseline	Baseline	25% by 2025, 50% by 2040	25% by 2025, 50% by 2040 (male driven)	50% by 2025, 100% by 2040
Denmark	32 393.1	50 739.6	51 755.9	52 524.1	52 753.3	50 642.1	56 881.3	1.62	1.69	1.74	1.76	1.61	2.03
Finland	31 634.7	50 983.3	51 214.4	51 704.2	52 076.2	49 918.5	54 886.9	1.72	1.74	1.77	1.8	1.64	1.99
Iceland	33 301.3	49 277.9	49 163.5	49 673.7	50 722.3	46 439.4	54 831.8	1.41	1.4	1.44	1.51	1.19	1.8
Norway	56 441.5	82 195.4	82 727.7	83 715.9	84 460.3	80 152.3	90 432.1	1.35	1.37	1.42	1.45	1.26	1.7
Sweden	35 067.5	59 157.6	59 351.5	59 971.5	60 249.4	57 992.4	63 491.2	1.89	1.9	1.93	1.95	1.81	2.14
Canada	37 068.1	53 050.4	53 858.4	54 741.2	55 122.	52 252.5	60 058.4	1.29	1.34	1.4	1.43	1.23	1.74
France	29 949.1	48 205.4	48 559.3	49 529.6	49 588.7	47 095.	54 030.1	1.71	1.74	1.81	1.82	1.63	2.13
Germany	35 039.3	51 489.9	51 495.5	52 545.5	53 347.6	48 395.7	59 698.2	1.38	1.38	1.46	1.51	1.16	1.92
Italy	26 325.8	39 170.1	39 408.3	41 294.8	40 571.5	37 353.2	46 509.2	1.43	1.45	1.62	1.56	1.26	2.05
Japan	31 398.5	48 051.2	48 203.3	50 484.3	..	..	..	1.53	1.54	1.71	..	..	..
United Kingdom	32 910.9	57 048.6	57 746.7	59 074.3	59 870.5	54 552.4	67 609.9	1.98	2.03	2.11	2.16	1.82	2.6
United States	44 832.5	71 706.6	72 425.	74 404.6	73 535.1	70 974.1	79 726.6	1.69	1.73	1.83	1.78	1.65	2.08
Australia	36 574.1	63 510.	64 255.8	65 894.3	66 444.5	61 001.7	75 400.5	1.99	2.03	2.12	2.16	1.84	2.62
Austria	36 388.	58 011.	57 859.7	59 001.6	59 951.7	54 402.6	66 735.3	1.68	1.67	1.74	1.8	1.45	2.19
Belgium	33 045.7	50 645.8	51 148.2	52 441.	52 605.1	49 011.5	58 656.6	1.54	1.57	1.66	1.67	1.42	2.07
Chile	15 842.5	38 355.	38 147.4	40 493.1	38 954.3	36 572.2	44 776.3	3.21	3.19	3.41	3.27	3.03	3.78
Czech Republic	23 655.1	47 974.8	49 214.1	50 788.5	49 806.1	48 814.3	54 445.1	2.56	2.65	2.77	2.69	2.62	3.02
Estonia	18 943.8	41 405.5	42 173.7	42 650.8	42 465.8	42 077.9	44 527.8	2.83	2.9	2.94	2.92	2.89	3.1
Greece	20 626.2	39 304.6	38 639.9	40 417.9	39 397.1	36 937.5	43 454.5	2.33	2.27	2.43	2.34	2.1	2.7
Hungary	16 932.6	30 359.2	31 414.8	32 091.9	31 561.5	31 716.1	33 619.8	2.11	2.23	2.31	2.25	2.27	2.48
Ireland	36 662.7	54 969.4	54 087.	55 975.2	56 100.1	50 226.4	63 391.2	1.46	1.4	1.52	1.53	1.13	1.97
Israel	30 001.6	48 707.7	48 406.7	49 433.2	49 745.5	46 063.4	54 656.7	1.75	1.72	1.8	1.82	1.54	2.17
Korea	30 870.3	59 549.1	61 198.7	64 171.2	62 398.5	59 805.4	70 633.6	2.37	2.47	2.65	2.55	2.39	3
Luxembourg	67 356.5	95 187.6	94 449.7	97 157.2	96 570.	90 669.3	106 177.6	1.24	1.21	1.32	1.29	1.07	1.64
Mexico	12 992.1	24 536.8	26 141.2	28 312.1	26 936.7	25 596.6	33 692.1	2.3	2.53	2.82	2.64	2.45	3.46
Netherlands	36 525.7	61 846.9	62 073.8	63 303.2	65 201.	57 090.6	74 993.2	1.9	1.91	1.98	2.09	1.61	2.6
New Zealand	26 114.	42 383.2	42 778.	43 704.5	44 257.2	40 493.5	43 958.8	1.74	1.78	1.86	1.9	1.58	1.88
Poland	18 446.2	32 680.	33 643.3	34 635.9	34 069.4	33 414.3	37 340.	2.06	2.17	2.28	2.22	2.14	2.55
Portugal	20 768.3	35 785.7	35 894.8	36 742.3	36 301.2	35 312.8	38 805.9	1.96	1.97	2.06	2.01	1.91	2.26
Slovak Republic	21 023.5	39 225.1	40 450.8	41 752.2	40 814.	40 447.1	44 311.3	2.25	2.36	2.48	2.4	2.36	2.7
Slovenia	24 255.3	41 003.3	41 889.9	42 578.4	42 307.4	41 658.7	44 758.3	1.89	1.97	2.03	2.01	1.95	2.21
Spain	26 318.7	38 033.1	37 563.3	38 546.8	38 395.	35 993.5	41 713.4	1.32	1.28	1.37	1.36	1.12	1.66
Switzerland	39 491.5	60 289.1	60 426.3	61 871.8	..	..	..	1.52	1.53	1.62	..	..	..
Turkey	13 722.3	32 257.4	33 174.8	36 177.8	33 715.8	32 498.2	41 516.	3.1	3.2	3.52	3.26	3.13	4.03
United Kingdom	32 910.9	57 048.6	57 746.7	59 074.3	59 870.5	54 552.4	67 609.9	1.98	2.03	2.11	2.16	1.82	2.6
United States	44 832.5	71 706.6	72 425.	74 404.6	73 535.1	70 974.1	79 726.6	1.69	1.73	1.83	1.78	1.65	2.08

Note: Projections using adjustments to working hours not available for Japan and Switzerland due to missing data on average usual weekly working hours. For the United States, working hours data based on dependent employees only. See Annex B for a description of the method and data used.

Source: OECD estimates based on OECD (2014), OECD Economic Outlook No. 95 Volume 2014 Issue 1, OECD Publishing, Paris (http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/eco_outlook-v2014-1-en), OECD Economic Outlook: Statistics and Projections Databases (http://stats.oecd.org/index.aspx?dataSetCode=EO), OECD population data and the OECD Employment Database (http://www.oecd.org/employment/emp/onlineoecdemploymentdatabase.htm).