Improving Policy Coherence for Portugal’s Ocean Economy

1. Portugal’s ocean economy in a rapidly changing world

Abstract

This chapter explores the global and European context in which Portugal’s ocean economy is evolving. This includes the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, in particular, Sustainable Development Goal 14 (Life Below Water), at the global level and a number of ocean frameworks and directives at the European level. Against this background, it provides an overview of Portugal’s ocean vision and strategies to achieve sustainability and introduces the institutional set-up for fostering a blue economy in the broader Portuguese policy and regulatory context.

A global goal for Life Below Water (SDG 14)

The ocean is an essential global resource for sustainable development and human well-being. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), adopted in September 2015 by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly, put the ocean high on the international political agenda. For the first time, a global development goal specifically targets the ocean: SDG 14 calls for the “conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development” (United Nations, 2015[1]). This goal reflects the potential of a sustainable ocean economy1 as a means to progress many of the 17 SDGs.

A new report by the OECD, however, suggests that while the past twenty-five years have shown a resilience of ocean economic activities, with most ocean industries outpacing the growth of other industries, the ocean economy is expected to suffer in the next decades from major shaping forces, including the deterioration of the ocean environment and accelerated climate change (OECD, 2025[2]).

The global ocean economy is considerably larger than previously thought and grew resiliently for the past 25 years, based on new OECD datasets and analytical tools on the global ocean economy. Initially considered to be worth around 2.5% of world gross value added (OECD, 2016[3]), the ocean economy accounted for around 3.4% of the world economy in 2019, employing over 133 million full-time equivalents that year and supporting job growth, especially in developing regions. If the ocean economy were a country, it would rank as the fifth-largest economy globally – and this estimate only considers ocean economic activities, not crucial marine ecosystems and the services they provide. The ocean economy has doubled in real terms in 25 years, growing from 1.3 trillion USD in 1995 to 2.6 trillion USD in 2020 in gross value-added (OECD, 2025[2]).

SDG 14 explicitly aims to balance the use and conservation of the ocean: the two pillars of the ocean economy are interdependent in that much activity associated with ocean-based industry is derived from marine ecosystems, while industrial activity often impacts marine ecosystems. Since the 2030 Agenda was established in 2015, two UN Ocean Conferences have taken place (in New York in 2017 and Lisbon in 2022). The next one is planned in Nice in June 2025, with the aim to gather stakeholders and collectively move the ocean further up policy agendas. 

Sustainable ocean economies are intrinsically connected with many other SDGs and are key to achieving economic, social and environmental sustainability, as shown in Table 1.1 (Chapter 1). Governments need to strengthen their capacity to balance competing interests and address fundamental trade-offs between conservation and use of ocean resources. For instance, the expected acceleration of off-shore wind farm activities could spur the achievement of SDG 7 (renewable energy production) while potentially generating a negative impact on other SDGs related to ocean conservation (SDG 14) and income generation (SDG 8) by limiting access to fishing areas or reducing the attractiveness of tourism and recreational facilities (OECD, 2023[4]).

Further, sustainable marine aquaculture (mariculture) is an important source of protein and food security and can contribute to feeding a growing global population, advancing progress on SDG 1 (No Poverty) and SDG 2 (Zero Hunger). New opportunities from marine-based renewable energy can create new jobs and steer the global energy mix towards a greater share of clean energy, contributing to the achievement of SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth) and SDG 13 (Climate Action). The ocean holds an abatement potential of more than 20% of the emission reduction required to achieve a 1.5°C trajectory by 2050 (Ocean Panel, 2020[5]). Therefore, actions to preserve the ocean’s capacity to regulate the climate and support biodiversity can advance the achievement of SDG 13 with a positive impact on climate migration and peace and stability (SDG 16).

The interlinkages and interdependences among targets of SDG 14 (Life Below Water), as well as interrelationships between those targets and other SDGs, are well documented (Le Blanc, Freire and Vierros, 2017[6]), although management and regulation of ocean activities has been historically characterised by an ad hoc, sector-by-sector approach, further increasing the pressures that unsustainable activities can create on ocean health. As a result, the combined pressures of rising sea levels and temperatures, acidification, pollution, overfishing and habitat loss threaten the health of the ocean and impact human well-being, livelihoods, societies and the wider economy and security as resources are being altered (OECD, 2023[4]).

Breaking out of sectoral silos and fostering greater coherence and collaboration in managing ocean resources and regulating ocean activities is fundamental to dealing with these pressures and avoiding social tensions that could arise from mismatching ocean-related social, economic and environmental considerations. By better managing policy interlinkages in relation to the ocean, policy making at the global, regional and national levels could strike the right balance between the need to protect the world’s oceans and seas and to unleash the great potential offered by ocean-based industries (OECD, 2016[3]).

A sustained and high-level commitment is required to consider these interlinkages when administering public policies. Governments need the support of data, management tools, and governance instruments to weigh different groups’ interests and account for the multiple objectives of the ocean economy. As a growing number of countries prioritise a sustainable ocean economy, the Policy Coherence for Sustainable Development (PCSD) principles can inspire governments in formulating their ocean economy strategies and related governance arrangements. These strategies and arrangements can reconcile competing impacts on SDGs and socio-economic interests, as well as those on neighbouring and developing countries, while reducing overlaps and fragmentation across policies and stakeholders (OECD, 2023[4]).

This project aims to support Portugal in formulating its ocean economy strategies and related governance arrangements along these lines. The Directorate-General for Natural Resources, Safety and Maritime Services (Direção-Geral de Recursos Naturais, Segurança e Serviços Marítimos, DGRM)’s 2030 Strategic Plan (DGRM, 2021[7]) offers the opportunity to express clear, long-term sustainability objectives and their interlinkages in key action areas within the DGRM’s mandate, to which public policies and processes can align.

Portugal’s alignment with the 2030 Agenda

The Portugal 2030 Strategy embodies the Government’s vision for Portugal up to 2030 and is intended as a “general guidance framework for the definition and implementation of structural public policies”. It was developed by the Ministry of Planning and approved by the Council of Ministers in 2020. Although the strategy does not use the 2030 Agenda and its targets as a framework, it is structured around the principle of Leaving No One Behind (LNOB) (eradicating discrimination and inequalities) and several goals (SDGs 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 16 and 17). Its purpose was to serve as a benchmark for various policy instruments, such as the Recovery and Resilience Plan (Plano de Recuperação e Resiliência, RRP) (Ministry of Planning, 2021[8]) and the current EU Partnership Agreement 2021-2027 (Portugal 2030) (Government of Portugal, 2021[9]), which represents the Multiannual Financial Framework (MFF) for the indicated period.

With the purpose of materialising, in the medium term, the strategic guidelines defined in the Portugal 2030 Strategy, two high-level and transversal planning instruments came into force: the National Reform Programme (PNR) 2023 and the Major Options Law (GO) for 2022-2026 (Government of Portugal, 2023[10]). The National Reform Programme (PNR 2023) (Government of Portugal, 2023[11]) presents a detailed description by SDG of the main political measures and their estimated qualitative and quantitative impact. Alignment to the SDGs is further highlighted in the GO 2022-2026 (Government of Portugal, 2023[10]), which links Portugal’s five strategic challenges to the SDGs.

According to the latest Sustainable Development Report on Portugal (2024) (Sachs et al., 2024[12]), Portugal achieved an overall SDG Index Score of 80.22/100 in its progress towards achieving the SDGs, scoring particularly high on SDG 1 (No Poverty), SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation). However, regarding SDG 14 (Life Below Water), the report concluded that major challenges remain for Portugal. In particular, the report indicated that Portugal’s score is decreasing for fish caught from overexploited or collapsed stocks, fish caught by trawling or dredging, and fish caught that are discarded (SDG indicator 14.4.1). While the Ocean Health Index (clean waters score, SDG indicator 14.1.1) is increasing, Portugal’s efforts are stagnating in protecting marine sites important to biodiversity (SDG indicators 14.2.1 and 14.5.1). The data collected by INE in 2023 (INE, 2023[13]) does not include figures for indicators 14.4.1 or 14.5.1 due to data unavailability.

In addition to alignment in high-level documents, policy coherence depends on a favourable institutional set-up and policy tools to translate this alignment into action (OECD, 2025[14]). 

Ocean priorities in the European Union

The European context sets many ambitious objectives and targets for EU Member States in ocean affairs and beyond (Box 1.1). Many of these top-level objectives must be incorporated into ocean strategies at national levels. Additionally, many must also be referred to in the strategies and administrative processes of maritime administrations.

Box 1.1. The EU ocean policy landscape

The European Commission has introduced several ocean-related targets, incentives and obligations. In particular, the Fuel EU Maritime Initiative, part of the “Fit for 55” package, aims to reduce the greenhouse gas (GHG) intensity of fuels used by the shipping sector from 2% in 2025 to 80% in 2050. It includes an incentive scheme for the uptake of renewable fuels of non-biological origin. It excludes fossil fuels from regulations’ certification processes and introduces the obligation to use an onshore power supply for passenger ships and containers in major EU ports by 2030. The European Union has also adopted a Strategy on Off-shore Renewable Energy, aiming for at least 60 gigawatts (GW) of off-shore wind and 1 GW of ocean energy by 2030. By the first half of 2023, EU Member States had pledged to double these targets, aiming for 111 GW of installed capacity.

Source: (EU Directorate General for Energy, n.d.[15]).

The environmental agencies and maritime administrations, such as the DGRM in Portugal, are where EU policies, regulations and directives “find their legs”. Consequently, these institutions are often tasked with implementing monitoring mechanisms to track and report on progress. For instance, by March 2024, EU Member States had to submit their 2030 roadmaps detailing the national measures proposed by maritime agencies to minimise fisheries impacts on marine ecosystems under the EU Action Plan to protect and restore marine ecosystems for sustainable and resilient fisheries. 

Another example is the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2030, which targets safeguarding 30% of Europe’s terrestrial and marine environments. Environmental agencies and maritime administrations across EU Member States were mandated to submit reports by 2022 and to adopt an ecosystem-based management strategy for their marine-protected areas. In addition to influencing national targets and policies, the EU regulatory tools have influenced how Portugal has designed its spatial planning tools, particularly the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) and the Maritime Spatial Planning Directive (MSPD).

According to interviews with Portuguese stakeholders in 2023 and 2024, the series of proposals introduced by the European Union provides not only an important policy and regulatory framework for Portugal and the DGRM’s actions but they demonstrate considerable diversity, which is difficult to reconcile at times. This requires policy tools at the level of operational agencies to ensure coherence among EU instruments and account for the SDGs interlinkages that the proposed policies will impact.

Portugal’s ocean vision and strategies to achieve a sustainable blue economy

Portugal is the European Union’s largest coastal state, holding jurisdiction over approximately half of the European Union’s marine waters and a vast expanse of seabed and subsoil in the Northeast Atlantic. The country plays a pivotal role in advancing ocean sustainability and governance, both within the European Union and on the global stage.

Portugal’s main policies contributing to achieving SDG 14, as identified in the GO 2022-2026, are the NOS 2021-2030 (DGRM, 2021[7]) and the Strategic Plan for Portuguese Aquaculture 2021-2030 (PEA) (DGRM, 2021[16]). Planning tools include the Maritime Spatial Plan (PSOEM) (Government of Portugal, 2019[17]) and the Small Fishery National Strategy 2022-2030.  

Moreover, one of the components (C10) of the RRP is dedicated entirely to ocean policy and governance (Ministry of Planning, 2021[8]). Other key documents are the Portuguese National Energy and Climate Plan (PNEC) (2021-2030), revised in 2024, and the Roadmap to Carbon Neutrality 2050, which together shape the strategies for promoting decarbonisation and energy security. The PNEC was updated after the entry into force of the Portuguese Climate Framework Law. Regarding the investment in off-shore wind energy production, the Government of Portugal prepared an Off-shore Renewable Energy Allocation Plan that reserves areas along the coast of the mainland, allowing for an installed capacity of 10 GW by 2030.

According to the targets of the NOS 2021-2030 (DGRM, 2021[7]), which provides the overarching policy framework on ocean governance in Portugal, Portugal’s key priorities are environmental sustainability, particularly decarbonisation, and the protection of the marine ecosystem through marine-protected areas (MPAs) and independence in the area of energy supply. Recently, Portugal has strengthened its commitment to issues related to ocean governance, including its conservation, knowledge and advocacy.

This strategic document has been developed using tools for considering and setting long-term goals, such as impact assessment, strategic foresight, Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) analysis, etc. However, while the NOS states its alignment with the SDGs, it does not outline the extent to which its implementation will make concrete contributions to the SDG framework (i.e. the goals, targets and indicators) and whether the governing and monitoring regime of the NOS overlaps with Portugal’s efforts in achieving the SDGs.   

Furthermore, the NOS, as well as sectoral strategies and plans, result from inter-ministerial co‑ordination and stakeholder involvement. Yet, the link between these high-level strategies and the operational programmes, plans and administrative processes is often weak. No direct budget lines are associated with the NOS’s implementation, and so far, a monitoring report has been produced on the first strategic objective of the strategy only.

Consequently, there often is a lack of alignment between the ambition set in the NOS and the sectoral strategies and the operational capacities of the public institutions mandated to achieve and track results. In particular, indicators and targets to measure the different ocean policies are not aligned with the NOS.

Ensuring the coherent implementation of global, European and Portuguese ocean policies

Responsibilities for the ocean in Portugal are scattered across different ministries and intermediate entities. For instance, the different facets of the maritime sector are managed and regulated by various ministries and other governmental bodies (Table 1.1).

To overcome the risk of fragmentation, the Inter-Ministerial Commission for Sea Affairs (CIAM) was created in order to oversee the implementation of the NOS 2030. It includes representatives from both line ministries and autonomous regions. It is presided over by the prime minister and supported by a network of focal points. As a co-ordination mechanism, the CIAM has the legislative and political mandate to arbitrate for resolving policy trade-offs related to sustainability priorities in the ocean sectors. It therefore has the potential to strengthen horizontal co-ordination across ministries and increase policy integration for the ocean. However, the CIAM’s mandate does not cover the promotion of PCSD, and its practical involvement in ocean governance is currently limited, as it met on one occasion only under the previous government.

Table 1.1. Ministry co-ordination on maritime administration

Areas of regulation	Ministry of Economic Affairs	Ministry of Defence	Ministry of Foreign Affairs	Ministry of Agriculture and Food	Ministry of Infrastructure and Housing
Co-ordinate national participation in European and international organisations responsible for defining and monitoring maritime policies	X		X
Define the strategic guidelines for the Mission Structure for the Extension of the Continental Shelf	X	X	X
Define the strategic guidelines for the National Maritime Authority (AMN) and co-ordinate the execution of its powers in the areas of jurisdiction and within the framework of the Maritime Authority System	X	X
Formulate, conduct, implement and evaluate infrastructure policies, including the regulation of maritime transport and ports policies and their security					X
Exercise superintendence and supervision over port administrations	X				X
Formulate, conduct, execute and evaluate policies on maritime security and port protection, as well as plan and co-ordinate the application of national and European funds intended for port protection and maritime security works, defining the respective strategy and priorities and establishing sectoral strategic guidelines relating to fishing ports				X
Manage the Authority of the Mar 2020 and the Mar 2030 Operational Programme (Mar 2020 and Mar 2030) on matters related to the Integrated Maritime Policy	X			X

Source: Decree-Law No. 32/2022, approving the organisation and functioning regime of the XXIV Constitutional Government.

The Directorate-General for Maritime Policy (DGPM) designs, assesses and monitors the NOS. The DGPM also serves as the technical co-ordinator, providing logistic, administrative and technical support. Moreover, it acts as the secretariat during CIAM meetings and co-ordinates the focal points network. Furthermore, it ensures functional connections between public and private organisations involved in implementing, monitoring, assessing and revising the NOS Action Plan.

Another inter-institutional mechanism – the Consultative Committee (CC) – oversees and advises the development of the PSOEM to ensure that all relevant public entities’ interests are considered when defining sea uses and ensuring the PSOEM’s compatibility with other territorial plans (e.g. Coastal Zone Management Plans). However, the interviewed stakeholders pointed out the need for further integration of planning tools.

The responsibility for devising the PSOEM lies with the DGRM, a critical entity in Portugal’s blue economy administration (Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1. Mapping of the DGRM and the blue economy administration

Source: Authors’ elaboration.

Developing a strategic framework for sustainable ocean management to 2030

In implementing its responsibilities to operationalise ocean sector strategies, the DGRM acts as a knowledge hub, supporting the creation of strategies and regulations, supporting their implementation (through planning and providing administrative services) and their oversight (through inspections and data collection). Therefore, the DGRM is in a good position to support the orientation of policymakers in identifying, preventing and mitigating the potential adverse sustainability effects of different ocean uses.

The DGRM’s strategic framework for implementing ocean sustainable development is currently being produced (Strategic Plan 2030). This long-term planning tool will enhance the DGRM’s capacities for translating strategic ocean priorities into concrete actions and services. It will fill an important gap as an operational framework and in setting the DGRM’s ambitions in contributing to the SDGs by 2030, implementing the European Union’s greening ambitions, and defining them through concrete targets aligned to the NOS matrix across its key mandates.

Implementing Portugal’s long-term strategies for the ocean

One of the crucial contributions of the DGRM to implementing Portugal’s long-term strategies for the ocean is the design and management of the Situational Plan of the PSOEM (Government of Portugal, 2019[17]) and specific Allocation Plans (POEMs). Rather than a strategic document, the PSOEM is an operational instrument and a planning framework that makes it possible to co-ordinate the tools that govern maritime spatial planning. It translates the priorities and visions of the Portuguese ocean policies and the directives from the European Union and other international organisations into a plan that identifies the spatial and temporal distribution of existing and potential uses and activities. It also identifies natural and cultural assets important to environmental sustainability and intergenerational solidarity. It aims to facilitate and regulate economic activity, promoting a favourable environment for investment and improving social welfare.

Devising the PSOEM enables the DGRM to align blue economy goals and priorities by determining which activities merit marine space reservation, ensuring they are compatible with sustainable development and marine environment conservation. The DGRM ensures transparency and legal certainty in ocean-related administrative processes by allocating marine space for various activities and protection efforts. The formulation process of the Portuguese maritime spatial planning, which involves extensive stakeholder engagement and employs integrative tools to explore synergies and trade-offs, exemplifies the potential of the DGRM to enhance maritime policy integration and render sustainability operational.

In addition, the DGRM is a pivotal actor for Portugal’s flag state through ship inspections, data collection and supporting the creation of strategies and regulations. The DGRM already contributes to the design of Portugal’s vision for flag state management by approving the rules regulating the activities of entities operating in the maritime port sector. With more skilled resources, the DGRM would be in a good position to complete the links between the international conventions, which increasingly include high-level analysis of their alignment to the SDGs and the operational programmes, plans and actions with adequate references to their contributions to SDGs. Currently, there is insufficient capacity to track the results set in international strategies, their operationalisation and with the SDGs.

In the area of aquaculture, the DGRM devised the Strategic Plan for Portuguese Aquaculture 2021-2030 (PEA) (DGRM, 2021[16]). In formulating its objectives, the document considers trade-offs and synergies between different economic, social and environmental priorities. Although it does not directly reference the SDGs, it enshrines the DGRM’s explicit commitment to increasing food security and environmental sustainability. However, Portugal’s aquaculture vision could be more holistic and consequential, comparable, for instance, to Spain’s aquaculture policy framework (SGP-MAPA, 2022[18]).

Challenges in consolidating the DGRM’s policy-setting and operational responsibilities

The DGRM faces different challenges in playing its role in Portugal’s ocean economy, at a crossroads between policy-setting and operational responsibilities, acting as a focal point for a multitude of internal and external stakeholders (see Recommendation 1 in Chapter 5 in this regard).

In addition to decarbonisation, digitisation and the push for ensuring sustainable practices, the DGRM and Portuguese maritime stakeholders face rapid technological advancements, evolving legislation, more stringent environmental standards, and a constant quest for more competitive practices. This is particularly true when it comes to decarbonisation, where recent EU regulations have been incorporated into national legislation (see Table 1.2).

Table 1.2. How decarbonisation interlinks with different domains

Main areas	Analysis
Understanding sector/domain dynamics	Decarbonisation impacts nearly all sectors of the maritime industry, from shipping and port operations to fisheries and marine tourism. Understanding how each sector contributes to carbon emissions is crucial. For the DGRM, this means assessing the carbon footprint of vessel operations, port activities and other maritime services to identify key areas where emissions can be reduced.
Identifying shared resources and conflicts	Shared resources: The marine environment is a shared resource that benefits multiple sectors, including fishing, aquaculture and tourism. Decarbonisation efforts can help preserve these resources by reducing pollution and mitigating climate change impacts on marine ecosystems. Conflicts: Efforts to decarbonise one sector may lead to conflicts with others. For instance, installing off-shore renewable energy installations conflicts with traditional fishing areas or shipping lanes in Portuguese waters. The DGRM needs to manage these conflicts to ensure a balanced approach to maritime resource use.
Examining interdependencies and synergies	Interdependencies: The maritime sectors are highly interdependent. For example, greener shipping practices lead for now to increased costs for transported goods, affecting the competitiveness of Portuguese exports. The DGRM’s role involves facilitating dialogue and co-operation among stakeholders to ensure that decarbonisation efforts are aligned across sectors, particularly as it reviews its flag state regime. Synergies: Decarbonisation can also create synergies, such as developing green ports that reduce emissions and attract environmentally conscious shipping companies, boosting the economy. The DGRM actively promotes these synergies by supporting innovations in sustainable maritime technologies and practices and facilitating simpler administrative processes, as in the case of the Janela Unica Logistica (JUL) project.
Evaluating the impact of external factors	External factors, like international regulations (IMO 2020 sulfur cap, for instance), global market trends in shipping and advances in green technology significantly influence decarbonisation efforts. The DGRM needs to stay informed about these factors to adapt its strategies effectively and leverage opportunities for advancing decarbonisation.
Policy and strategy development	Policy development: Crafting policies that support decarbonisation across all sectors of the maritime economy is essential. This includes incentives for clean energy adoption, emission reduction regulations and support for research into sustainable maritime technologies. Strategy development: The DGRM’s strategic approach to decarbonisation should integrate all aspects of its mission, from ensuring maritime safety and promoting economic development to protecting the marine environment. This includes setting clear emissions reduction targets, developing alternative fuel infrastructure and encouraging sustainable practices among maritime operators.

Note: IMO 2020 is a global regulation issued by the International Maritime Organization.

To modernise and improve the efficiency and sustainability of Portugal’s maritime sector, the DGRM is formulating a comprehensive Strategic Plan 2030 centred on decarbonisation, digitalisation and promoting a sustainable blue economy. These priorities intersect, creating synergies such as utilising digital tools to monitor and improve marine ecosystem health, optimising energy consumption to advance decarbonisation and encouraging economic activities that operate within ecological limits (see Table 1.3).

Table 1.3. Synergies and challenges across priority areas to modernise and improve the efficiency and sustainability of Portugal’s maritime sector

Priority areas	Synergies	Challenges
Decarbonisation	Aligns with sustainability goals; promotes cleaner technologies	High costs; regulatory hurdles
Digitisation	Enhances efficiency and sustainability; improves data management	Cybersecurity risks; need for digital skills
Sustainable blue economy	Supports economic growth and conservation	Balancing economic activities with conservation imperatives
Innovation and technological advances	Contributes blue innovations across other priority areas with the involvement of very different stakeholders (scientific community, academia, industry, Forum Oceano)	Devoted time and resources to develop time-to-market blue solutions, some resistance in adopting new technologies for incumbents
Environmental standards	Driven by international, EU and national regulations, contribute to further innovation, digitisation and decarbonisation	Constraints and liability risks are growing for parts of the industry; more private investments are needed for transition
Workforce and training	Contribute to a diversity of attractive blue jobs, including in traditional maritime sectors	Competition for talents, especially in technical domains (information and communication technology), need for outreach to advertise opportunities

Applied frameworks and methodologies

OECD Recommendation on Policy Coherence for Sustainable Development

The analytical framework applied to assess the DGRM’s current capacity (Chapter 2) to design and implement coherent policies is based on the PCSD Recommendation (OECD, 2019[19]), which is structured along three main pillars and eight principles (Figure 1.2). It calls for: 

• a strategic vision for implementing the 2030 Agenda underpinned by a clear political commitment and leadership to enhance policy coherence for sustainable development

• effective and inclusive institutional and governance mechanisms to address policy interactions across sectors and align actions between levels of government 

• a set of responsive and adaptive tools to anticipate, assess and address domestic, transboundary and long-term impacts of policies.

Figure 1.2. The OECD Recommendation on Policy Coherence for Sustainable Development

Source: OECD (2019[19]), Recommendation of the Council on Policy Coherence for Sustainable Development, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/oecd-legal-0381.

Identifying policy interlinkages across maritime sectors

Underpinned by the principles enshrined in the PCSD Recommendation, a complementary methodology was developed to identify maritime sectors’ interlinkages and dynamics, including in the context of the SDGs (Table 1.4), to identify challenges and opportunities in integrating digitalisation, decarbonisation and sustainable use of marine resources in key areas under the DGRM’s responsibility.

Table 1.4. Interactions between SDG 14, Life Below Water, and other SDGs

SDG	Impact of SDG 14	Impact on SDG 14	Description of linkage
SDG 1 – No Poverty	X		A healthy ocean is crucial for poverty alleviation, especially in many small island developing states (SIDS) and least developed countries (LDCs) where fishery, aquaculture and tourism are key sources of livelihoods for coastal populations.
SDG 2 – Zero Hunger	X		Sustainable aquaculture and innovative solutions for mariculture can significantly help meet the increasing global demand for food if managed sustainably.
	X		Reducing ocean pollution and overfishing can put an end to fish stock depletion and negative impacts on the quality of edible fish and other marine products.
SDG 3 – Good Health and Well-being	X		Addressing pollution of coastal areas and marine resources can kerb its negative impacts on health and well-being.
	X		The ocean is an important part of human well-being due to the cultural and recreational value people attach to it. Marine biodiversity provides a multitude of animals, algae and bacteria that can support the development of new medicines and vaccines.
SDG 4 – Quality Education		X	Ocean literacy is key to ensuring awareness and scaling up action to protect and conserve marine ecosystems.
SDG 5 – Gender Equality	X		Sustainable development of ocean-based industries can create new economic opportunities for women.
SDG 6 – Clean Water and Sanitation	X	X	Addressing wastewater (industrial and residential) and agricultural runoff reduces ocean pollution.
	X	X	Wetlands protect water quality by trapping sediments and retaining excess nutrients and other pollutants, such as heavy metals, that may otherwise end up in the sea.
SDG 7 – Affordable and Clean Energy	X	X	Reducing greenhouse gas emissions can contribute to ocean health by reducing ocean warming and acidification.
		X	Energy infrastructures in coastal and marine environments can have negative impacts on ocean health and present a threat to marine ecosystems.
SDG 8 – Decent Work and Economic Growth	X	X	Expansion in traditional and emerging ocean-based economic activities can help boost employment (e.g. in offshore wind energy, marine aquaculture, fish processing and port activities).
SDG 9 –Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure	X	X	Industrial byproducts and waste (e.g. heavy metals, chemicals, particulate matter) pollute oceans. On the other hand, efforts to improve the quality of infrastructure and planning for industrialisation could have large positive impacts on coastal areas currently detrimentally impacted by industry.
SDG 10 – Reduced Inequalities	X		Enhancing the quality of jobs and the social sustainability of ocean-related sectors can boost socio-economic inclusion.
SDG 13 – Climate Action		X	Pollution acts with other stressors to hamper the resilience of ecosystems to climate change.
	X	X	The ocean’s capacity to regulate the climate can be enhanced by conserving and enhancing the ocean’s carbon sink.
SDG 15 – Life on Land	X	X	Better management of terrestrial ecosystems can reduce ocean pollution.
SDG 16 – Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions	X		Conserving the ocean’s capacity to regulate the climate can prevent large climate migration flows.
SDG 17 – Partnerships		X	The transboundary nature of the ocean and the global connectivity of marine ecosystems require the establishment of effective partnerships between different countries and actors.

Note: For a detailed analysis of SDG interlinkages, see also Council on Science (2017[20]).

Source: Table revised from OECD (2020[21]), Sustainable Ocean for All: Harnessing the Benefits of Sustainable Ocean Economies for Developing Countries, https://doi.org/10.1787/bede6513-en.

The methodology is based on a set of guiding questions developed by the OECD team around five main themes, providing tools for a diagnostic of the sustainability interactions within key sectors of the DGRM’s competencies, including managing potential competition in marine resource usage, as well as managing positive synergies and the policy implications of addressing these interactions: 

1. Understanding sector dynamics: This involves analysing each maritime sector’s core activities, stakeholders and regulatory environments. It seeks to understand how each sector operates, its goals, the challenges it faces, and its importance to the national economy and environmental sustainability. Understanding sector dynamics is crucial for identifying how different maritime activities in Portugal, such as shipping, fishing, tourism and aquaculture, impact and interact with each other and the marine environment.

2. Identifying shared resources and conflicts: This theme examines the resources shared among sectors, such as waterways, and potential conflicts arising from their use. For instance, aquaculture zones may overlap with areas designated for marine conservation or offshore renewable energy, leading to conflicts that need careful management. Identifying these shared resources and conflicts is essential for developing strategies that balance the needs and impacts of different sectors.

3. Examining interdependencies and synergies: This involves looking for ways in which different maritime sectors are interconnected and can benefit from each other. For example, developing offshore renewable energy can create opportunities for local shipbuilding and maintenance services. Recognising these interdependencies and synergies can help promote co-operative strategies that enhance the overall productivity and sustainability of the maritime economy.

4. Evaluating the impact of external factors: External factors, such as global economic trends, climate change and international maritime regulations, can significantly affect maritime sectors. This category assesses how such external pressures impact sectoral dynamics, shared resources, and the potential for conflicts or synergies. Understanding these impacts is critical for adaptive management and resilience building within maritime sectors.

5. Policy and strategy development: Based on the understanding of sector dynamics, shared resources, interdependencies and external impacts, this final step aims to contribute to creating effective policies and strategies. It involves developing initiatives that support sustainable development, anticipate and address trade-offs and leverage synergies among maritime sectors. As part of this policy and strategy development, stakeholder engagement is important, ensuring that the needs and perspectives of all affected parties are incorporated.

Together, these themes provide a comprehensive approach to mapping the complex web of interlinkages among maritime sectors and could help guide the DGRM in its efforts to manage Portugal’s maritime affairs. For each theme, guiding questions are designed to uncover the complex relationships and potential areas for policy integration or conflict resolution. Table 1.5 applies the questions to the three pilot areas examined: maritime spatial planning, aquaculture, and flag state. These guiding questions can be adapted to different policy areas to reveal different interlinkages and inform policy making.

Table 1.5. Guiding questions to reveal sectoral interlinkages under the DGRM’s remit

Theme	Guiding questions
Understanding sector/domain dynamics	What are the primary objectives of each maritime sector and domain (e.g. marine protected areas) under the DGRM’s jurisdiction, and how do they align or conflict with one another? - How do current maritime policies and regulations impact the operations and growth of each sector?
Identifying shared resources and conflicts	What shared resources (e.g. water space, marine biodiversity) are critical to the sustainability and productivity of the multiple sectors under the DGRM’s remit? - Are there any historical or potential conflicts between sectors over the use of these shared resources? - How do environmental protection efforts intersect with the goals and activities of each sector? - In what ways do shipping, aquaculture, tourism, energy sectors and sea-cable developments, in particular, utilise shared marine spaces, and what conflicts have arisen from this shared use?
Examining interdependencies and synergies	Where are the opportunities for synergy between different maritime sectors, such as using marine technology to enhance energy production and environmental conservation? - How might advancements in maritime technology impact the efficiency, safety and environmental footprint of sector activities? - What role do European and international maritime regulations play in shaping the interlinkages between sectors, particularly in terms of environmental and safety standards?
Evaluating the impact of external factors	How do global economic trends and climate change projections influence the future sustainability and growth of these sectors? - What are the implications of international maritime disputes or geopolitical tensions on maritime sector management and strategic planning?
Policy and strategy development	Based on the above analysis, what strategies, initiatives or tools could be implemented to enhance collaboration between sectors and mitigate potential conflicts? - How can the DGRM leverage digital transformation and innovation to support sustainable growth across all maritime sectors? - What are the gaps in current policy or legislation that prevent effective management of sector interlinkages, and how might these be addressed?

Source: Authors’ elaboration.

These guiding questions, visually summarised in Figure 1.3, can support the DGRM in systematically evaluating the complex web of relationships within the maritime domain. Benchmarking Portugal’s performance against other countries’ practices, as outlined in the following chapters, could further facilitate the development of integrated policies and strategies that promote sustainable growth and environmental stewardship.

Figure 1.3. Visual representation of the methodology used to understand policy interlinkages

Source: Authors’ elaboration.

Annex 1.A. Portugal’s economic and environmental profile

This annex includes information adapted from the OECD’s latest Environmental Performance Review of Portugal in 2023. It is presented for reference purposes to contextualise Portugal’s maritime sector within its broader economic profile.

Portugal is the westernmost country of mainland Europe and includes the Azores and Madeira archipelagos in the Atlantic Ocean. Its territory covers 92 200 km² and includes 2 600 km of coastline. Agricultural land and forests each cover about 40% of its land area. 

The Portuguese economy is small and open. In 2021, gross domestic product (GDP) per capita was 25% lower than the OECD average. Economic activity grew steadily from 2013 until the coronavirus (COVID‑19) pandemic. GDP rose by 4.9% in 2021, rebounding from an unprecedented slump in 2020 (-8.4%). The services sector, particularly tourism, is the country’s largest employer. Population density is similar to the OECD European average, but distribution across regions is uneven. Thanks to its geographical location and geophysical conditions, Portugal possesses a diverse natural heritage. The Azores and Madeira archipelagos are home to unique habitats. Portugal’s mineral resources include significant deposits of zinc, copper, lead, tin and tungsten, as well as lithium. The country relies entirely on imports of fossil fuels. Domestic energy production comes primarily from bioenergy, wind and hydropower.

In Portugal, agriculture, infrastructure development, invasive species, natural processes (such as erosion), climate change and fires exert significant pressures on biodiversity. About 30% of fish and birds and 20% of mammals and reptiles are threatened. 

Revenue from environmentally related taxes remains above the OECD and OECD European averages. As in many countries, most receipts come from taxes on energy products and, to a lesser extent, motor vehicles’ purchase and use. Taxes on pollution and resource management, such as the tax on effluent discharges and fees for hunting and fishery licences, raise little revenue. 

GHG emissions declined due to reduced energy demand following the 2008 crisis and increasing renewable electricity generation. With the economic recovery, emissions rebounded in 2014‑17, particularly in the transport sector. They have since fallen, driven by a strong shift away from coal-fired power generation. In 2020, the reduction in GHG emissions can be partly attributed to lower energy consumption due to restrictions during the COVID-19 pandemic. The transport sector is the largest GHG emitter, followed by energy, manufacturing, and construction industries. Over 2005‑20, emissions have decreased in all sectors but agriculture. Portugal’s economy is less CO₂ intensive than the OECD European average, reflecting a service-oriented economy and a high share of renewable energy. However, emissions of methane (from agriculture and waste) and fluorinated gas (hydrofluorocarbons from refrigeration and air conditioning equipment) make its economy more GHG intensive than the OECD European average (OECD, 2023[22]; OECD, 2024[23]).

References

[20] Council on Science (2017), SDGs Guide to Interactions, https://council.science/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/SDGs-Guide-to-Interactions.pdf.

[7] DGRM (2021), National Ocean Strategy 2021-2030, https://www.dgpm.mm.gov.pt/_files/ugd/eb00d2_b2cf9034fcc84867be8d08d69435c3bc.pdf.

[16] DGRM (2021), Plano Estrategico para a Aquicultura Portuguesa 2021-2030, https://www.dgrm.mm.gov.pt/documents/20143/45612/PT_PEA_2021_2030.pdf/37c9c077-f248-ff56-3de9-0ffe12c89f89.

[15] EU Directorate General for Energy (n.d.), Marine renewable energy, https://oceans-and-fisheries.ec.europa.eu/ocean/blue-economy/marine-renewable-energy_en.

[10] Government of Portugal (2023), Lei das Grandes Opsoes para 2023-2026 Lei n. 38/2023, https://diariodarepublica.pt/dr/detalhe/lei/38-2023-216598400.

[11] Government of Portugal (2023), National Reform Programme.

[9] Government of Portugal (2021), Acordo de parceria - República Portuguesa (Portugal 2030), https://portugal2030.pt/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2022/07/sfc2021-PA-2021PT16FFPA001-2.0_vf.pdf.

[17] Government of Portugal (2019), Plano de Situação do Ordenamento do Espaço Marítimo Nacional, https://www.psoem.pt/o-plano-de-situacao/.

[13] INE (2023), Objetivos de Desenvolvimento Sustentável - Agenda 2030 - Indicadores para Portugal: 2015-2022, Instituto Nacional de Estatística, Lisbon, https://www.ine.pt/xurl/pub/611060313.

[6] Le Blanc, D., C. Freire and M. Vierros (2017), “Mapping the linkages between oceans and other Sustainable Development Goals: A preliminary exploration”, Department of Economic & Social Affairs Working Papers, No. 149, United Nations, https://www.un.org/esa/desa/papers/2017/wp149_2017.pdf.

[8] Ministry of Planning (2021), Plano de Recuperação e Resiliência, https://recuperarportugal.gov.pt/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/PRR.pdf.

[5] Ocean Panel (2020), Ocean Solutions that Benefit People, Nature and the Economy, https://oceanpanel.org/publication/ocean-solutions-that-benefit-people-nature-and-theeconomy/.

[14] OECD (2025), Portugal Scan - Institutional mechanisms for enhancing policy coherence for sustainable development, OECD Publishing, Paris, forthcoming.

[2] OECD (2025), The Ocean Economy to 2050, OECD Publishing, Paris, forthcoming.

[23] OECD (2024), “Biodiversity: Threatened species”, OECD Environment Statistics (database), https://doi.org/10.1787/data-00605-en.

[4] OECD (2023), Driving Policy Coherence for Sustainable Development: Accelerating Progress on the SDGs, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/a6cb4aa1-en.

[22] OECD (2023), OECD Environmental Performance Reviews: Portugal 2023, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/d9783cbf-en.

[21] OECD (2020), Sustainable Ocean for All: Harnessing the Benefits of Sustainable Ocean Economies for Developing Countries, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/bede6513-en.

[19] OECD (2019), Recommendation of the Council on Policy Coherence for Sustainable Development, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/oecd-legal-0381.

[3] OECD (2016), The Ocean Economy in 2030, OECD Publishing, Paris., https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264251724-en.

[12] Sachs et al. (2024), Sustainable Development Report 2024, https://s3.amazonaws.com/sustainabledevelopment.report/2024/sustainable-development-report-2024.pdf.

[18] SGP-MAPA (2022), Spain’s Contribution to the Strategic Guidelines for a More Sustainable and Competitive EU Aquaculture 2021-2030, https://www.mapa.gob.es/es/pesca/temas/acuicultura/esacui_2021_2030_tcm30-636188.pdf.

[1] United Nations (2015), Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), https://sdgs.un.org/goals.

Note

← 1. The ocean economy is defined by the OECD as the sum of the economic activities of ocean-based industries, together with the assets, goods and services provided by marine ecosystems (OECD, 2016[3]).