This chapter describes the design of higher technical education programmes in OECD countries, zooming in on a selected group of case study countries. It describes the offer of higher technical programmes and how that offer is determined, and the target audience for which the programmes are designed. In addition to describing the international case studies, the chapter also sheds light on these aspects of higher technical education in England (United Kingdom) and provides lessons learnt from the international experience that can provide valuable insights for the further development of the English higher technical education sector.
Higher Technical Education in England, United Kingdom
Insights from Selected International Experience
Abstract
England (United Kingdom) has a large diversity of HTE qualifications, but these qualifications do not particularly differentiate themselves by virtue of having discrete and different target audiences. This means that students face a menu of choices without much guidance as to which award is most suitable. Moreover, the provision in terms of fields of study – on which approved providers have complete freedom- does not seem to match well with the needs of the economy, with a low proportion of HTE provision in services-related fields, despite England’s relative economic skew towards services.
Other countries provide inspiration on how to align provision with labour market needs and how to make the HTE offer transparent for learners and other stakeholders:
Austria, Denmark and Sweden all extensively involve social partners in the planning and co‑ordination of HTE content. This helps to ensure that alongside the planning of specific content within educational programmes, the overall offer and funding of education is cognisant of business and individuals’ needs.
Sweden and Denmark have systems which explicitly regulate supply of courses determined on analyses of labour market need (among other factors).
Sweden utilises management groups, to formalise professional processes on students admissions and course administration that ensure employers and the social partners are present in all decisions on the running of courses.
Austria enables greater participation in HTE via the use of carefully differentiated educational pathways that are designed to accommodate different needs and motivations of students. Denmark has separate pathways for young people and adults returning to education whilst working. Although Denmark and Austria have differentiated pathways and entry points for individuals, their systems coalesce somewhat and learners can end up with the same qualification at the end of their education.
Both Denmark and Austria have strong pathways of students from upper-secondary education into HTE, which is related to some of their programmes explicitly targeting young learners (Denmark) or closely being integrated with secondary education (Austria). Financial support also facilitates this, with Denmark, for example, providing free tuition for these courses and access to student grants and loans. Moreover, Denmark has a suite of “top-up” courses which makes it easy for its HTE graduates to pursue higher level education still, allowing for diverse education and career options to HTE learners and lowering the costs of continuing education to the highest levels.
The degree to which a system of higher technical education (HTE) delivers for the needs of a modern labour market depends upon both the content and structure of the education offered, and the students that participate in that education. A well-targeted curriculum of sharp and incisive programmes suited to the needs of the labour market is nothing if they are not demanded by students. Similarly, a large pool of eager and motivated prospective students may fail to fulfil their potential without an appropriately designed suite of educational programmes to nurture them. This chapter considers both of these dimensions, drawing examples from Austria, Denmark and Sweden to juxtapose with the English system. It brings to life some of the policy choices that are incumbent upon ensuring such a system meets these challenging objectives.
To begin this section, the subject areas chosen by short cycle tertiary students are reviewed across the sample countries to provide context on the different uses of higher technical qualifications in the respective countries. Broadly speaking, across OECD countries, there is a relative focus on ISCED level 5 courses in business administration and law (25%) and on STEM subjects1 (27%). The next three most populous subject areas across the OECD are health and welfare (15%), services (12%), art and humanities (11%), with relatively fewer courses on education, social sciences, journalism and information and agriculture, forestry, fisheries and veterinary (10% combined) (Figure 2.1).
This OECD distribution for short-cycle tertiary is not dissimilar from the subject distribution for bachelors degree students. For bachelor’s degrees, the main difference is a reduced prevalence of courses focussed on services (only 4%) with a commensurately increased focus on social sciences, journalism and information, which account for 12% of all courses (OECD, 2023[1]).
These OECD averages mask differences in the subject composition between countries and here England has a relative focus of short-cycle tertiary courses on health and welfare. Health and welfare courses in England comprise 30% of all courses, double the OECD average and over 50% higher than the next highest country in the panel of example countries in the report (Canada with 19%). Interestingly, for an economy which is heavily weighted towards services, the provision of short-cycle tertiary in England is not targeted towards this subject area. Only 1% of all new entrants to short-cycle tertiary courses in England are in services subjects. This is the lowest of the countries sampled in the report. This is some 87% lower than the OECD average and 80% lower than the next lowest country in the comparison countries in this report (France with 7%). Denmark and Sweden provide interesting food for thought in how systems might be focused towards other subject areas. In Denmark nearly six in ten (58%) of entrants are in business administration and law courses. Whilst in Sweden, over half (51%) of new entrants at this level study STEM subjects.
Distribution of new entrants to short-cycle tertiary, by field of study (2021)
Note: STEM refers to the fields of science, technology, engineering and mathematics. Additional columns showing the share for social sciences, journalism and information, and agriculture, forestry, fisheries and veterinary are not shown.
Source: OECD (2023[1]), Education at a Glance 2023, https://doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en.
England has a fragmented HTE system with diverse qualifications
The HTE system in England is marked by a wide range of different qualification types for students. The qualifications are at different levels in the regulated qualifications framework, with differing completion lengths (up to one and two years full-time). On top of this, awarding bodies for these different types of qualification also change. All of these elements have a bearing on the precise content of HTE in the English market. This set-up bears marked distinction to the other countries considered in this report, for whom the range of HTE qualifications is smaller and is delivered through fewer types of education providers.
There is a wide range of HTE awards delivered by different institutions in England and this determines content
To provide more context on how fields of study are chosen and their contents are determined for HTE in England, it is worth first pausing on the types of qualification that may be studied at this level to provide context for how subject choices are made. In England, it is possible to study short-cycle vocational courses at two levels in the Regulated Quality Framework (RQF), typically related to duration. Higher level (five) courses usually taking two years to complete, with lower level (four) course taking up to one year. Some qualifications are specific to one of these two levels (e.g. Higher National Certificates exist only at level 4 and higher national diplomas at level 5), while others -Awards, Certificates, Diplomas and National Vocational Qualifications- are offered at both levels (Table 2.1). As highlighted in the overview, it is not unusual for countries to offer courses with different duration, as this has the potential for different study “depths” related to longer or shorter duration.
Note: Levels are of the National Qualification Framework in England. These courses are classified at ISCED level 5.
Source: GOV.UK (n.d.[2]), What qualifications levels mean, www.gov.uk/what-different-qualification-levels-mean/list-of-qualification-levels.
Given the range of potential courses that are available in England, looking at distribution of students by qualification type helps to further unpick how the content of qualifications is determined. The majority (59%, 136 000) of the 231 000 students were engaged in apprenticeships (Table 2.2). This proportion has increased significantly over time, from around one quarter in 2015/16 (Boniface, Whalley and Goodwin, 2018[3]). Foundation degrees are the next largest course type, accounting for around one in seven (14%) of students. There were just over 15 000 HND students (7%) with another 12 000 HNC students (5%).
England, 2022/23
Source: ONS (2024[4]) England Higher Level Learner statistics academic year 2022/23, https://explore-education-statistics.service.gov.uk/data-tables/permalink/8eb065d9-ea59-4d6f-1dfd-08dd0254fb9b.
Focusing solely on non-apprenticeship, classroom-based provision, the majority of learners are on foundation degrees (31%), HNC/HND (29%) and diplomas (24%) (Table 2.2). This report explicitly considers two of the main categories, i.e. HNC/HND and foundation degrees, covering two-thirds of provision. In the first instance, HNCs and HNDs are designed and licensed via Pearson (who have approval from the Office for Students, OfS). In the second, foundation degrees can be designed and validated by providers who have been conferred foundation degree awarding status by the QAA. Reviewing how the content is designed in these two categories provides a good overview of how HTE is organised generally, even if it is not comprehensive in its coverage.
The complexity of the landscape of the different organisations that can create and validate qualifications (known in England as awarding organisations or bodies) in England, mean that it is difficult to give a full account of all courses. For example, there are around 75 awarding bodies for level 5 diplomas- including HNDs- in England (UK Study Online, 2024[5]). Some organisations, such as Pearson and City and Guilds, are larger, however there are many smaller awarding bodies. For example, whilst Pearson (10) and City and Guilds (8) offer courses in multiple subject areas, over seven in ten awarding bodies offer qualifications in only one (56%) or two (15%) subject areas (DfE, 2019[6]). To the extent that their provision should also adhere to the guidelines set down by Ofqual, OfS and the QAA (for its voluntary members) then these courses will have to meet similar standards to those managed by larger bodies, even if the precise determination of the content differs.
Foundation degree contents are regulated by the Office for Student’s sector standards but designed and awarded individually by awarding bodies
Foundation degrees contents are regulated by adherence to the Office for Student’s (OfS) sector standards, which describe in general terms the outcomes which students are expected to achieve after having studied on a programme (OfS, 2022[7]). Alongside this, for those degree-awarding institutions that are (voluntary) members of the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA), their education code for higher education outlines the content which foundation degrees should comprise of.
The course content of foundation degrees is regulated through the adherence to principles laid out in various government policy documents. These include:
the framework for higher education qualifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland
one of the 28 subject benchmark statements relating to the subject in question
National Occupational Standards
sector skills foundation degree framework
professional body accreditation schemes
apprenticeship standards and apprenticeship frameworks.
The documents generally provide a principles-based approach to regulation (for example see Box 2.1 on definitions of how course content should be determined) which mean that course providers have some flexibility in course design. The precise policy guidance documents which apply to a course will depend on the nature of that course. For example, if a foundation degree is in a subject without a corresponding professional body, there will be no standards laid down to it in this respect.
The power to award foundation degrees is conferred by the OfS, who approve institutions as having foundation degree awarding powers. All universities that have powers to award research degrees have this power by default. Further education (FE) colleges can apply for foundation degree-awarding powers or can partner with universities to offer foundation degrees that are approved via their partner institution. This means that universities or colleges with foundation degree-awarding status can create new foundation degrees independently, subject to ensuring they follow the broad guideline documents as outlined above.
In practice this then means that the institutions that have degree-awarding powers have control in setting course content which is expected to adhere to the principles outlined in the documents above. This can be in collaboration with other educational providers that may offer foundation degrees in partnership with these institutions (as often happens with FE colleges). This decentralised control of foundation degree programme design means that innovation and composition of the suite of foundation degrees is locally driven by individual institutions.
The distinctive features of a Computing Degree
According to its subject benchmark statement computing is a discipline that:
Blends elegant theories (including those derived from a range of other disciplines such as mathematics, engineering, psychology, graphical design or well-founded experimental insight) with the solution of immediate practical problems.
Underpins the development of both small and large-scale systems that are secure, reliable, usable and that support organisational goals.
Helps individuals in their everyday lives and realise their career aspirations.
Is pervasive, ubiquitous and diversely applied to a range of applications, and important components are often invisible to the naked eye.
This loose interpretation enables course providers to have scope for flexibility in their application of course design and is recognised explicitly in the statement itself where “…individual higher education providers may need to draw on a wider range of materials and resources, including ethics and data regulation or other Subject Benchmark Statements, to capture fully the specific character of their particular degree courses.”
Placements with employers are broadly encouraged but not mandatory
The relevant course provider has the option over whether or not to utilise placements with employers. The benchmark statement says that “computer degrees often integrate a period of time working within a company or similar organisation as an intern or placement student” but does not specify that this should happen.
Source: QAA (2022[8]), Subject Benchmark Statement: Computing, www.qaa.ac.uk/docs/qaa/sbs/sbs-computing-22.pdf?sfvrsn=ebb3dc81_4.
Pearson determines course content for HNCs and HNDs
Like other qualifications, HNCs and HNDs will comply with regulations on course contents and quality set out by the QAA (when the awarding body is a QAA member), and OfS’s regulatory framework defines the sector-recognised standards. But, being designed and regulated by one awarding body, Pearson, means it is easier to synthesise how decisions are made.
Pearson offers around 40 subject area Higher National programmes. Each programme incorporates a range of core units, mandatory units and optional units. Similarly to higher education, completion is determined based around credit points. An HNC is fulfilled with 120 credit points at level 4, whilst an HND requires a further 120 credit points at level 5.
It is via the use of optional units that institutions are able to adapt the qualifications to their specific needs, for example by incorporation of further specialisation or by broadening out the qualification subject somewhat. Similarly programme content can be altered according to ‘local needs’ via the use of units from distinct qualifications that may be utilised as optional units. The limit to such substitution is 30 credits per 120 credits in the programme. Units must be imported from the same qualification ‘family’ and are subject to an application to Pearson which includes information on why the substitution is important to address specific needs of learners in the institution.
Pearson’s Higher Nationals (diplomas and certificates) are meant to be developed in collaboration with centres, universities, employers, professional bodies and students, so that course content is cognizant of the skills and knowledge requirements of industry and utilises best practice in the field. Actively working with employers allows Pearson to demonstrate the advantages of its qualifications with employers and students alike (see Box 2.2 for an example of this work in aeronautical engineering).
BTEC Higher National in Aeronautical Engineering gives a glimpse into work with providers
A large range of key employers were consulted in the design of Pearson’s BTEC in Aeronautical Engineering. This included large, global organisations, such as: Alstom, BAE Systems, BMW, Eaton, Gen2, Jaguar Land Rover, Railtrack, Siemens, UAE Military Logistics Support, Engineering Council, the Royal Aeronautical Society, the Royal Academy of Engineering, the Sector Skills Council for Science, Engineering and Manufacturing Technologies, Society of Operations Engineers, the Institute of Engineering Technology, the Institute of the Motor Industry, and the National Forum of Engineering Centres.
After the initial design, Pearson seeks further recognition with its key employers and partners. For example, explicit statements of support for the qualifications are given by BAE Systems, Leonardo (Helicopter Division), and Schneider Electric. This serves to embed support for the qualifications within the employers, but also gives prospective students confidence in the utility of achieving the qualifications in securing good jobs.
In addition to these, links are also sought with related qualifications. For example, the Royal Aeronautical Society explicitly recognises that the HNs in Aeronautical Engineering meet the academic requirements for EngTech and support students in progressing in their careers.
Source: Pearson (n.d.[9]), Engineering Sector - Industry Engagement, https://qualifications.pearson.com/en/qualifications/btec-higher-nationals/higher-nationals/industry-engagement/engineering-sector.html.
HNCs and HND are offered under license from Pearson. Providers must register to become a Pearson approved provider and adhere to their standards of quality assurance. Pearson use a subject expert external examiner to independently assure quality, utilising the UK quality code for Higher Education (QAA, 2024[10]) as a framework (Pearson, 2023[11]). Pearson also offers a range of training events to support their approved centres. These includes training on course curriculums assessment and quality assurance; on designing assignments and assessing student progress; internal verification procedures to manage quality; and on the systemic quality assurance procedures undertaken as part of an approved Pearson BTEC.
HTQs aim to add transparency to the complex, diffuse and de-centralised HTE system
The preceding sections have shown that the system of HTE qualifications in England is diffuse and de‑centralised. England is distinguished by a system which allows multiple education providers to offer a range of different qualifications and the content of these courses is determined based on the precise qualification in question and the independent institution designing and delivering that qualification. Prior to introduction of HTQ pathways and accreditation, there was no national assurance that the qualifications were meeting employer needs (DfE, 2019[12]) and it is for this reason that with the new HTQs employers are designed to be involved from an early stage in the approvals process.
The Institute for Apprenticeships and Technical Education (IfATE) approve the new HTQs
Central to HTE reform in England has been the introduction of HTQs. HTQs are new or existing level 4/5 qualifications (such as HNDs and Foundation Degrees) that have been approved against employer-developed standards, and quality marked by the Institute for Apprenticeships & Technical Education (IfATE). There has been a phased rollout, stating with 31 digital HTQs becoming available in the academic year 2022/23. In total 241 HTQs have now been approved across 13 of the 15 occupational routes, which will all be available to be taught by the academic year 2025/26. Fields cover agriculture; environment and animal care; business and administration; catering and hospitality; care services; construction and the built environment, creative and design; digital; education and early years; engineering and manufacturing; health and science; legal; finance and accounting; protective services; and sales marketing and procurement.
The extent which the availability of these new HTQs affects the compositional make-up will depend upon the success of the new reforms in generating demand for these qualifications and the extent to which courses are newly created or whether existing courses are simply accredited through the new pathway.
This HTQ programme is designed to build on their pre-existing IfATE approvals process for vocational T‑levels (ISCED 3 qualifications) and apprenticeships. IfATE works with and represents employers to develop and approve apprenticeships, technical qualifications and occupational standards (descriptions of occupations and the skills, knowledge and behaviours needed for these occupations) that are tightly linked to labour market demands. The responsiblity of IfATE will shortly be taken over by the newly created Skills England body. At present it remains unclear whether this will impact any of the functions undertaken.
IfATE regularly review and refine the occupational standards that are available and announce which are in scope for HTQ approval at the start of an approval cycle. Awarding organisations can then submit qualifications to IfATE, who review submissions against the approvals criteria. The “alternative approvals test” and the “employer demand test” are statutory critera, as set out in the Apprenticeship, Skills Children and Learning Act (2009) and amended by the Skills and Post-16 Education Act (2022):
Alternative approval - an occupational standard for the course is published in the Apprenticeships, Skills, Children and Learning Act 2009, and in obtaining the qualification a person demonstrates attainment of as many of the outcomes set out in the occupational standard as may reasonably be expected to be attained by undertaking a course of education. The evidence for this includes a specification of the qualification descriptors and module or unit outlines, and how these map to occupational standards; a mapping to show how the content and assessment meeting the knowledge, skills and behaviours mapped out for that occupation by IfATE; assessment strategies and policies; sample assessment material; Statutory/regulatory body recognition (if required).
Employer–demand - there is, or is likely to be, demand from employers in the occupations for employees who have obtained the particular qualification. The evidence for this can include letters of support from employers and records of engagement with employers; details of planned annual qualification reviews and the role of employers in keeping the qualifications current; details of collaboration and ongoing employer relationships and partnerships.
IfATE works with awarding bodies through the approvals process and provides feedback on any areas that require further development to achieve alignment with the HTQ criteria. To be submitted for HTQ approval, qualifications must be either awarded by a Higher Education Institution which has Foundation Degree/Degree Awarding Powers and is registered with the Office for Students (OfS), or be awarded by an awarding body who have the relevant sector/subject area in their Ofqual recognition and be on the Ofqual Register.
IfATE assesses these qualifications against the HTQ requirements to check their compliance. The use of peer reviewers can be undertaken, to provide specific employer insight on the relevant technical education. This information is used by IfATE to make its assessment on whether a course meets the specified criteria. Employer panels are the formal mechanism by which IfATE incorporates industry feedback into its approvals process, using the panels to determine whether or not the qualification meets their needs in equipping students with the relevant skills necessary to enter the occupation (IfATE, 2024[13]).
IfATE is also taking the opportunity to support student decision making and planning via the provision of information on occupational (see Box 2.3). This is designed to offer students more insight into where their education can lead them, both in terms of jobs (and related salaries) and also further educational opportunities at higher levels.
Fifteen occupational routes have been created to map out pathways for individuals
The occupational maps created by IfATE are designed to help students and staff in technical education to understand the options to train and progress in their careers, to show how occupations at different levels link together and to provide workforce and career planning information, including likely salaries.
IfATE works with employers to develop and approve occupational standards (descriptions of occupations and the skills, knowledge and behaviours needed for these occupations), apprenticeships and technical qualifications.
The occupational maps show how these different elements fit together. The maps draw together the lower-level occupational standards into their higher-level occupational route (for example a youth support worker comes under the care services route). They then provide diagrammatic information on how individuals can progress through qualification levels in these routes, in the same or related occupational standards. For example, a youth support worker at level three progressing to become a youth worker at level 6. Information on salaries and education is provided to show the routeway in that profession.
The green transition is supported through these pathways
In addition to basic information on training and salaries, the IfATE have also started to develop green standards for occupations, to provide information on whether an industry is directly embedded in green technology (for example, wind turbine engineers), or whether it exists in a profession which has the scope to become green via the use of new skills and behaviours to aid the green transition (for example, a geospatial survey technician, which may re-orientate towards providing expertise for green industries). The idea is to allow individuals to make informed choices on how they can progress their careers in green jobs.
Source: IfATE (n.d.[14]), Occupational Maps, https://occupational-maps.instituteforapprenticeships.org/.
The additional approvals for HTQs adds in another layer of complexity for course providers, who deliver awards owned by separate awarding bodies (for example, the HNDs and HNCs devised by Pearson). For example, a HND provider will have to satisfy the Pearson award criteria and may have to separately (with Pearson’s approval) apply to IfATE to secure approval as an HTQ, if Pearson has not already undergone that process for the particular HND in question. Pearson has already established 43 of its HNC/HNDs as approved HTQs (Pearson, 2024[15]), so there is already a good coverage of its courses in the newly defined HTQs.
In Sweden HTE content is well co-ordinated, and participation has increased in recent years
HTE in Sweden is designed and implemented through a co‑ordination between government, vocational schools and the social partners. The Swedish National Agency for Higher Vocational Education (MYH) co‑ordinates the sector and regulates both the courses offered and the institutions responsible for delivering them. Education is provided by a mixture of institutions which can include public universities and other higher education institutions, other public authorities, municipalities, regions and private companies (Sveriges Rikdag, 2009[16]). The system differs from England in its concise set of programme options (in terms of different qualification types), although its range of provider types bears more similarity with England. HTE in Sweden is known as higher vocational education (Yrkeshögskolan, HVE). It offers both an “advanced” HVE diploma (Kvalificerad yrkeshögskoleexamen) which must be longer than two years in duration, and a HVE diploma (Yrkeshögskoleexamen), which at least one year but less than two years long (programmes start at six months long, but for a diploma to be issued, they must be at least one year in length).
The programme subject matter and content of individual programmes is co‑ordinated and advised through extensive engagement with the social partners, who play a formal role in determining the needs of the higher educational system and the provision that is then delivered to meet these needs. Programmes focus on specialised fields, where a clear demand for skilled professionals has been established (which is established via labour market analyses conducted by MYH, discussed later in the chapter). Each HVE programme is governed by a managing board. Its responsibilities include the development of course curricula, student admissions and graduation, and supply of work-based learning (LIA) places. The managing board should include stakeholders from the programme’s sector, at least one student and at least one representative of the education sector. It also includes a representative from the education provider (Sveriges Riksdag, 2009[17]). Work-based learning is a fundamental component of HVE programmes and typically incorporates several periods of it. While some HVE programmes may entail tuition fees, the majority do not charge tuition-fees.
Course lengths are typically one to two years and require at least upper-secondary education
The duration of HVE programmes typically ranges from six months onwards, with most falling within the one to two-year timeframe. This duration is quantified in HVE-credits (YH-poäng), where five credits equate to one week of full-time studies (Table 2.4). HVE programmes are required to include a minimum of 100 HVE-credits. Nonetheless, the educational content may represent less than 100 HVE-credits (short education) if the reduced scope is justified by the demands of the professional world.
Source: MYH (2024[18]), Length, points and degree, www.yrkeshogskolan.se/antagning-och-studier/langd-poang-och-examen/.
For a HVE programme to confer a graduation award, it must have a duration of at least one year. The completed awards are either higher diplomas (Yrkeshögskoleexamen) or advanced higher diplomas (Kvalificerad yrkeshögskoleexamen). Compared to England, the scope for different award types at this level are much reduced, offering less choice but greater clarity to students and employers.
To be eligible for HVE, candidates must demonstrate a level of knowledge equivalent to upper-secondary education. In addition to that, numerous HVE programmes require specialised prior knowledge beyond the standard entry prerequisites. These requirements can differ among HVE programmes and may entail completing specific courses from a national upper-secondary programme or acquiring particular professional experience. HVE programmes are eligible for student financial aid from the Swedish Board of Study Support (CSN) and equip graduates for immediate entry into the workforce.
Links from HTE through to other higher education are not automatic. Credits earned in a HVE programme do not automatically transfer as credits towards further university studies, and individual universities can decide whether or not to accept credit transfers. This contrasts, for example, to the systems in Denmark and Ontario (Canada), where HTE confers entry possibility to degrees, and in the latter case where HTE can even shorten degree programmes in approved related subjects.
Since 2007, there has been a significant rise in student enrolment in HVE but key subject areas have remained stable and there has been a rise in distance learning
Between 2007 and 2022 students in HVE have more than doubled. The student population increased from 33 700 in 2007 to 88 500 in 2022, marking a 163% increase. There has been a fairly stable distribution of study domains over time. Table 2.4 provides an overview of the total number of educational areas according to their size, based on the average number of admitted students who began their studies over the last three years. Large educational areas include a minimum of 3 000 admitted students on average over the last three years. Medium-sized educational areas encompass between 500 and 2 999 admitted students on average during the same period. Meanwhile, small educational areas consist of fewer than 500 admitted students on average over the last three years.
Note: Large >2 999 students admitted per year, Medium 499-2 999 students, Small <499 students admitted. Three-year averages are used to calculate student number.
The large educational areas accounted for 82% of the student body in 2022. Over the past decade, this proportion has fluctuated between 77% and 82%, with each of the five areas consistently maintaining a share of at least 10% of the student body throughout the entire period. Therefore, it is evident to see that HVE in Sweden helps to equip its labour market with highly-skilled individuals across a range of service and goods industries, ensuring workers are available to support technology-driven service sectors alongside labour-intensive care work and infrastructure development.
Besides the one to two-year timeframe for HVE programmes (which number in their hundreds), a total of 222 shorter courses or course packages (fewer than 100 HVE-credits) were conducted in 2022, surpassing the numbers from both 2020 and 2021, during which there were 177 and 164 shorter courses respectively (MYH, 2023[19]). These courses were introduced in 2020 as a means to increase flexibility into the HTE system, following feedback from industry and social partners, particularly to support increased workforce competence to support adaptation in light of digitalisation and automation (MYH, 2021[20]). Similar to the longer HVE programmes, most of the shorter courses were within one of the five large educational areas. Twenty-seven percent of the shorter courses took place in finance, administration and sales in 2022 (which was also the largest category in 2021 and 2020), a further 17% was in community building and construction,15% in technology and manufacturing and 14% in health care.
Over time, distance learning courses have seen a particularly large relative growth. In 2007 distance-learning accounted for 10% of all courses, but this had grown to 33% by 2022, with half of this increase occurring in the past five years (MYH, 2023[19]). The use of distance learning is especially remarkable in the short courses, with some 86% of all students who started between 2020 and mid-2021 studying remotely. There is also sectoral dispersion in these short courses, with some areas such as journalism, transport and healthcare having rates close to 100% of students studying remotely, compared to only 61% of agriculture and 22% of security services students (MYH, 2021[20]).
Higher Vocational Education (HVE) in Sweden is aligned with labour market demands through regional and sectoral engagement with the social partners
MYH has ultimate responsibility for analysing labour market needs and deciding upon which HVE programmes are to be provided. However, to perform this duty, it actively works with stakeholders across Sweden to review, assess and analyse the state of its HTE and to alter the scope and content of programmes. It also controls provision via the allocation of public funding to education providers and its monitoring and audits of the quality of the educational provision and student outcomes.
MYH receives information and data provided by external stakeholders to guide its evaluation and decision-making processes. External stakeholders including employers, industry representatives, as well as central and local authorities play a pivotal role in enabling an accurate picture of the labour market demand. The selection of HVE programmes, their geographic distribution and the allocated number of places for each study programme, are contingent upon the needs and demands specified by social partners (Skolverket, ReferNet Sweden, 2019[21]).
MYH evaluates and authorises the introduction of new HVE programmes
The suite of available HVE programmes is designed to be responsive to the demands of the labour market, ensuring that participants acquire skills and knowledge that directly meet industry needs. The selection of HVE starts when training providers, in collaboration with employers, submit a programme proposal to the MYH. The application by the training provider needs to be developed in collaboration with the relevant employer, and contain information on how target employers and industries will support the programme and contribute to its development. To support the application, a declaration of intent from relevant employers is required, which is submitted online to the MYH. These declarations serve several purposes, including determining if the employers are familiar with the content and structure of the education programme and if they actively contributed to its development. The declaration of intent also requests estimations by the employers of their prospective recruitment needs. It is important to note that the information provided by the employers through the declaration of intent is non-binding and serves as an estimate. The emphasis on aligning educational provision with the labour market in Sweden is designed to ensure that graduates are well-prepared for current industry requirements.
The MYH decides, upon application, whether a vocational programme shall be included as HVE for a specific duration. While the evaluation mainly relies on the content of the application, the MYH also analyses relevant reports and documents from completed inspections, quality reviews and follow-up audits of the institution applying to offer the new programme.
The assessment of the application takes place in two stages. Firstly, the MYH assesses whether the programme can be included as HVE according to relevant regulations. During this initial stage, the MYH assesses that the applicant has the right to apply and meets the legal and financial requirements to deliver the HVE programme. Subsequently, the provisions relating to the content and implementation of the HVE programme are evaluated.
Secondly, the MYH evaluates the allocation of state grants or special funds for the HVE programme. The MYH allocates funds to be distributed among the applications, which it decides upon according to its responsibilities in legislation (Sveriges Riksdag, 2009[17]). In this stage, an overall assessment is made of the degree to which the HVE programme:
1. Meets the need for qualified labour force and this need is not covered by an already existing programme or degree.
2. Contributes to developing or maintaining professional skills in a specific field that is of importance to the individual and the society.
3. Is financially supported by the relevant business sector.
4. Is adequately situated regionally or nationally based on labour market demands and needs.
MYH also decides whether the education provider may charge student fees for a HVE programme. According to Section 9 of the law on higher vocational education (Sveriges Rikdag, 2009[16]), a HVE programme for which an education provider receives state grants or special funds, must be free of charge. There may be, however, occasional elements for which the students have to pay a small amount. HVE providers that do not receive state subsidies or special funds have the option of charging student fees. The fees must be fair in relation to the organiser’s expenses, while ensuring that the expenses are reasonable for the business. If the training provider is planning to collect fees from the students, this must be stated in the application to MYH.
In addition, the MYH has the power to withdraw its approval for a programme if it no longer meets the standards or if the organisers fail to meet their obligations as outlined in legislation (Sveriges Rikdag, 2009[16]). However, before such a decision is made, the education provider must be given the chance to address any shortcomings. Following the conclusion of a grant period, the training provider has the option to reapply for another set of programme starts, potentially adjusting them to align with evolving labour market requirements.
Area analyses are an integral part in the selection and funding of HVE courses
The MYH is responsible for gathering data from different sources to conduct analysis on the demand for education in the labour market and determine the offer and content of HVE. In the spring of 2022, a new suite of area analyses (Områdesanalys) were introduced in HVE (MYH, 2024[22]). These area analyses describe the demand of qualifications across several educational specialisations. The analyses intend to provide an overall picture of the educational offer, as well as delineate the degree of growth in each educational specialisation. The area analyses constitute an integral part in the selection of HVE programmes by the MYH.
The area analyses incorporate various factors in the analysis, including the amount of educational places already granted within HVE specialisations, the anticipated demand of places over the next 3-5 years and the financial resources for new places. The structure is the same for all area analyses and each area analysis contains the following information:
Application outcome of the current year and the new education range of HVE programmes.
Results from completed training courses.
Description of the demands for competences in the next 3-5 years.
Regional supply and regional demand forecasts.
Assessment of new places with completion rates per year.
The area analysis reports supplement the evaluation process of HVE programmes by the MYH and enhance the transparency in the decision-making processes. When several applications are received for the same educational field or location, the area analyses can serve as a reference point. This, in turn, can affect the number of applications the agency for HVE can approve. The new area analyses are expected to cover all educational specialisations for which there is an educational offer, but can also address the demand for new professional roles that may emerge. The MYH may also identify the demand for competences in certain educational specialisations for which there is currently a lack of educational provision, so that analysis shows where new educational courses may address skills gaps. Each of Sweden’s 21 counties has responsibilities for co‑ordinating and developing sustainable development in their county, including providing assessments of their short and long run skills needs (Tillväxtverket, 2024[23]). Systematic incorporation of regional skills demands are incorporated via collaboration with regional development managers.
There are approximately 200 active educational specialisations grouped into 50 area analyses (available online (MYH, 2024[24])). These analyses are updated annually or as required.
A labour market council serves as an advisory body affiliated to the MYH
To guarantee a close link between education and the world of work, the MYH has established networks in different sectors with extensive membership from the social partners, which is overseen by its Labour Market Council (Arbetsmarknadsråd). The Labour Market Council was appointed as an advisory body linked to MYH as laid down in legislation (ordinance 2018:758). The council is a body of the MYH and is tasked with advising the agency about the needs of HVE programmes and future skills. It supports the MYH in building a comprehensive offer of qualifications and training at national level. The task of the council is to provide MYH with information about the labour market. This covers the vocational areas under development, anticipated new skill requirements, and the qualifications earmarked for discontinuation.
Legislation stipulates that the council shall consist of a chairperson and a maximum of eight members. The members of the council are representatives of the public employment service and the social partners. The council consists of members such as the Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Regions, employee and employer organisations such as the Swedish Confederation of Professional Employees (TCO), the Swedish Trade Union Confederation (LO), Swedish Federation of Business Owners and the Confederation of Swedish Enterprise.
Regional stakeholder groups align education planning with regional demand
Collaboration with regional stakeholders is fundamental to the development strategy of the MYH. The regional social partners are organised into local networks, which are organised bodies of the social partners in the different regions. The formal government objective for these bodies is to support regional competence provision. MYH collaborates with these regional bodies, who foster co‑operation between governmental agencies and local entities (see Box 2.4 for an example of two regional networks for HVE in Sweden).
Regional bodies are established in each county and are led by county boards, regions, or regional associations. These platforms, mandated by legislation (Sveriges Riksdag, 2010[25]), work on skills provision and education planning. They facilitate networks with local businesses and conduct their own skills analyses. The regional competence platforms operate independently of the MYH but serve as crucial conduits for aligning education planning with regional demands. Through active participation in these networks, the MYH facilitates dialogue with regional industries, enabling to conduct comprehensive analyses of skill requirements and contribute effectively to meeting them.
An evaluation conducted which looked at the early implementation period of the regional bodies- between 2013 and 2017- concluded that the regional bodies were essential tools for regional development and competitiveness. During this period a total of 45 different local projects were conducted to enhance local skills delivery. The bodies helped to address skills mismatches through better research and communication, enhanced collaboration between regional and national levels, and strengthened the structures needed for long-term skills supply (Tillväxtverket, 2018[26]).
The YH network in the North
The HVE network in the North is an example of one regional platform comprising approximately 40 organisations. These include both public and private entities, educational institutions and skill providers operating in Upper Norrland – Norrbotten and Västerbotten. Collaboratively, this regional network aims to enhance the accessibility and availability of vocational training within the region by expanding the range of courses offered, increasing the number of training opportunities, and fostering cross-county co‑operation.
The vocational colleges in Västernorrland
The vocational colleges in Västernorrland was established in April 2016 by former organisers of vocational education within the county's HVE system.
The platform aims to:
Influence the development, continuity, and growth of HVE courses.
Enhance and further develop HVE.
Strengthen and develop the competence of education providers.
Serve as a gathering point for members.
Disseminate information and promote HVE to stakeholders and recipients.
Membership is open to current and prospective organisers of vocational college education, as well as those with an interest in vocational college education in Västernorrland. The association's board meetings and chairman rotate among its members, with the number of members ranging from 13 to 16 depending on the active education providers in the county.
Source: MYH (n.d.[27]), Network Training Provider, www.myh.se/yrkeshogskolan/for-utbildningsanordare/anordnarstod/natverk-utbildningsanordnare.
Each HVE programme has a management group that ensures the alignment of education with targeted skills
The management groups in HVE have the overall responsibility for ensuring that the education leads to the right set of skills. Each HVE programme2 (of which there are currently over 800 advertised on line) has a management group that consists of representatives from both the workforce and the training provider. If a training provider is responsible for several HVE programmes, the management group may be jointly accountable for overseeing all of the HVE programmes (Sveriges Riksdag, 2009[28]).
The management group consists of:
Representatives of the industry sector targeted by the training programme. Industry representatives must be able to ensure the professional relevance of the HVE course content.
At least one representative of the school system. The school system includes both public and private educational actors. The purpose of the representative is to have knowledge of upper secondary school provision as well as of adult education in the region.
At least one student representative. It is important that in the management group the student representative can participate on the same level as the other members. The students must be given the opportunity to delve into the operations and to influence the content and execution of the education.
If the education leads to an advanced HVE diploma, at least one representative of a university or college must also be on the management team. The representative contributes with knowledge of quality assurance of post-secondary education as well as with knowledge of the region's offer of higher education. The university or college is responsible for appointing this representative. The regulations also give room for the education provider to appoint members who do not belong to any of the above-mentioned categories. However, the majority of the members of a management group must be industry representatives.
Management groups play a significant role in shaping the educational provision of HVE. The management group is tasked with shaping the delivery of education and training in HVE programmes so that it responds to relevant skills needs. The management group shall:
Admit the applicant to the training programme. The management group must decide on the admission of applicants to a HVE programme. The task of making such a decision should not be delegated or handed over to any other stakeholder. However, the task of screening applicants during the admission process (i.e. eligibility testing) can be delegated. The management group makes the ultimate decision to accept the applicant.
Validate students’ prior learning and professional experience. The management group is responsible for examining requests about credit transfers. Credit transfer allows students to waive specific components of their education if they can demonstrate documented equivalents, such as prior learning, professional experience, or other relevant sources. A credit transfer can be made for the entire course or for parts of a course. Credit transfer can take place via validation, which entails carrying out a survey, assessment and evaluation of an individual's actual knowledge, skills and competences.
Issue diplomas and training certificates. The management team must issue diplomas and training certificates as part of the HVE programme.
Conduct systematic quality work. The management team is responsible for maintaining systematic quality assurance measures and ensuring that the educational offerings meet their overarching objectives. The management group ensures that it receives the required information to assess the quality of the educational provision. It should be clear from the management group's working order what role different parties have in the development and management of the quality work.
Develop course plans and syllabus for HVE programmes. The management team's engagement is crucial in the training provider's operations, particularly in developing and finalising course plans. Any modifications necessitate the management team's initiation of a new syllabus, which should be documented accordingly. It is incumbent upon the management group to ensure that syllabus for all courses within the education programme are finalised prior to the commencement date of the education.
Management groups meet regularly to oversee HVE training provision at a provider. During the initial meeting, the management group clarifies and decides their respective areas of responsibility. This information should be documented and formalised in a working order, detailing the roles of each representative and their expected contributions. The working order should clearly distinguish between decisions based on information points and those resulting from consultations. It is advisable to appoint a chairperson for the management group, ideally from among the labour market representatives. In urgent situations, the management team can convene remote meetings.
In Denmark focused HTE content is co‑ordinated by government and the social partners
HTE provision in Denmark has been reformed over the years to streamline programme numbers and increase clarity for students and employers. It is marked by a good co‑operation between HTE institutions (mainly business academies), and local and national social partners. The provision of HTE is centred around two streams of vocational higher education, which are separated to ensure that adults returning to education whilst working have a “parallel” ability to undertake vocational higher education, in a different stream than those students continuing directly from upper secondary education. Although these two groups of programmes end in the same level of diploma, they are different programmes with different features. These programmes types are now briefly discussed to provide insight into their features.
Academy profession programmes (“Erhvervsakademiuddannelser”) are full-time courses, most often two years in length, and designed for those continuing general upper-secondary or VET. In addition to entry requirements on upper-secondary education, many programmes may also require specific attainment levels in maths and English. The programmes are grouped into six broad disciplines:
bio- and laboratory engineering
design
economic-commercial
IT
social science
technical.
Within these six areas, 27 separate programmes are differentiated (UG, 2024[29]). For example, within the IT categorisation, there are programmes for computer scientists, IT technologists and multimedia designers.
Reform of business academy processes was implemented in 2000 to streamline choices, offer clear differentiation and improve homogeneity for students. The reform reduced their number from 75 to 15 (Cort, 2002[30]). This has gradually increased over time into the 27 academy profession programmes that now exist.
Academy profession (part-time) programmes (“Akademiuddannelser”) offer shorter (one year full-time equivalent, delivered part-time and on a modular basis) courses designed for adults with some labour market experience. Academy profession (part-time) programmes are organised into five broad disciplines:
administration and management
management
mercantile area
engineering, production and service
welfare, education and health.
Within these five areas, there is further specialisation so that there are 37 separate streams in total. For example, the management discipline has three separate programmes for human resources, general management and management in the military services. Access to these courses generally only requires a relevant vocational education or basic education for adults (GVU, or equivalent), alongside at least two years of work experience. The particular courses that are offered as academy profession (part-time) programmes are decided upon by the institutions that want to offer them, subject to local demand, employer engagement and being approved by Ministry of Higher Education and Science.
Top-up programmes lower the cost of continuing education to ISCED 6
One of the features of the Danish programme composition is the existence of “top-up” programmes (“Overbygninguddannelser”), which offer strong pathways from HTE to ISCED 6 qualifications. These programmes are for academy profession programmes graduates. They are full-time 1.5-year programmes (corresponding to 90 ECTS points) that lead to a professional bachelor’s degree in the subject field. This offers a direct pathway between HTE and higher education and allows students to reduce the additional time needed to complete a higher level degree.
Strategic framework agreements between the business academies and the ministry help education providers to plan their development and implementation
All higher education institutions in Denmark, including the eight business academies and two university colleges that provide academy profession programmes, have a strategic framework agreement. The frameworks usually run for four years, with the current framework set running in the years 2022-2025. The agreements set significant strategic goals for the institutions’ core activities. They aim to guide the development and prioritisation within each institution and thereby highlight the institution’s contribution to fulfilling societal goals. The strategic goals are based on the individual institution's strategy, challenges, and strengths. The agreements are used as an instrument to enhance the strategic dialogue between the Minister/Ministry of Higher Education and Science and the individual institutions.
The small number of educational providers makes it relatively easy for the government to have a coherent strategy across all providers, which is well mapped out by these framework agreements. For reference, roughly equating population sizes, these eight providers would be equivalent to around 76 for a population size of England. By contrast, England has around 200 FE colleges (and around 600 HTE providers in total, counting the many small private providers). The relatively large number of English providers is also covered in Chapter 3. Such a large number makes it more challenge to achieve such a coherent and unifying planning cycle.
The HTE providers focus in their agreements on producing skilled graduates with competencies relevant to the future labour market, enhancing students' well-being, and ensuring strong learning outcomes. Goals include strengthening the knowledge base in education, addressing future skill needs through targeted training, and promoting knowledge translation into practice. Initiatives such as increasing digitalisation, green development, and knowledge collaborations, and ensuring relevant regional training supply are pivotal. These agreements can also include placing a more general emphasis on developing social cohesion and responsibility, diversity and sustainability. This allows the academies freedom to implement changes in these domains in a style and manner that works appropriately in their unique circumstances. Box 2.5 provides examples of these agreements for two business academies.
Monitoring progress on the strategic agreements relies on a mixture of reviewing indicators stemming from student surveys and on ongoing annual dialogue between the Ministry of Higher Education and Science and the individual institutions to discuss the institution’s activities to achieve the objectives set out in their agreements.
A vocational council advises the government on matters related to HTE
The Council for Academy Profession Programmes and Professional bachelor's Programmes (REP council) helps to shape academy profession programmes and professional bachelor's programmes. The council provides expert advice directly to the Minister for Higher Education and Science. Its advisory responsibilities encompass a broad spectrum of ten critical areas, which include:
the development of education
alignment of educational offerings with market needs and the implications of shifting labour market demands
the structural framework of education
entry requirements for programmes
quality assurance and development and insights from international education.
The council must meet at least twice a year according to legislation- and in practice meets quarterly (UFM, 2019[31])- to discuss its responsibilities, with a written annual report to the Minister. The report contains an overall status of the education area as well as proposals for new initiatives within academy profession programmes and professional bachelor's programmes and related further education courses. Box 2.6 provides an example of how the council interacts with its stakeholders to advise on VET policy and implementation.
The membership of the council is led by the Minister for Higher Education and Science, who is responsible for appointing its members (up to a maximum of 21) and a broad membership is ensured through legislation. The Minister directly appoints the chairman, who is chosen for their specialised knowledge in the council's area of advice. Eighteen of the members must be directly recommended by large employer and business associations; the two largest trade union confederations; student organisations; business academy rectors; and municipality representatives.
The council's composition can be further refined by the Minister, who holds the discretion to appoint up to two additional members personally. This allows for the inclusion of specific expertise or representation as deemed necessary. Furthermore, the Minister has the authority to appoint deputies from advisory bodies and professional associations to contribute to the council's work, ensuring that a wide range of perspectives and expertise are represented, and that the council's recommendations are well-rounded and informed by a diverse set of stakeholders.
A recent government finance bill re-allocated resources from the state administration to services closer to citizens. The Ministry of Higher Education and Science (UFM) is contributing to this reallocation by cutting 35 positions, partly by reducing administrative tasks. As part of this the REP council will be closed, and will be replaced by more flexible frameworks for dialogue (UFM, 2024[32]). It will be paramount that these new frameworks replicate the ability to feed development views properly into the educational planning process.
All of the strategic frameworks include objectives- usually numbering 3-4- and goals that sit underneath these objectives. A motivation and ambition for each of the objectives is provided, and metrics for measurement of achieving that objective. Many of the metrics are monitored via the use of a bi-annual national student survey.
The Copenhagen School of Design and Technology (KEA) must have realistic, sustainable and locally-rooted study environments
Its agreement has four goals 1) to ensure study environments reflect the industries of the programmes and attract a diverse student population, 2) education should contribute to sustainability, including the green transition, 3) education should be flexible and contribute to development of businesses and 4) sustainable programmes outside of Copenhagen must reflect local needs.
For example in goal one, using the previous 2018-21 framework contract, KEA formulated ten common pedagogical principles and prepared educational didactics and a strategy for the further development of its labs. In goal one of current contract it aims to strengthen this approach by improving lab teaching facilities further. This will be measured using the student survey, looking at learning outcomes, study intensity, dropout rates and ratings on study environments.
In goal four, KEA plans to establish local education supply in Hillerød, to meet local needs there and has a general aim to uncover greater potential outside of Copenhagen, by looking for local collaborations. Whilst it has a specific indicator on how this may be achieved in Hillerød, via the monitoring the volume of students on its structural design course, there is no indicator that would specifically allow KEA to monitor the delivery of its aim for the broader “potential” outside of Copenhagen. Monitoring progress on this second objective will rely more on a qualitative dialogue between the Ministry and KEA staff.
In Dania there is a focus on digitalisation, green development and meeting relevant regional needs
Dania business academy’s agreement has goals to 1) commit to the highest possible learning outcomes, 2) a regionally relevant education supply, 3) increased digitalisation within programmes and 4) gain a larger share of green development and knowledge collaboration.
For its first goal, the academy plans to achieve its goal on learning outcomes by having the teachers in professional learning communities systematically share knowledge, and collaborate on students' learning and well-being readiness for the labour market. The measurement of these objectives is conducted though the national bi-annual student survey, capturing students assessment of learning outcomes, lecture feedback and well-being, alongside metrics on drop-outs and the time spent studying by students.
Whilst in goal four, Dania will ensure a relevant regional education supply by educating well-qualified graduates and ensuring access to relevant and in-demand upskilling. It will measure progress by reviewing metrics including students assessment between learning outcomes and skills demanded in current or future jobs of students and firms assessments of interns competencies in their company.
Source: UFM (2021[33]) Business Academy Dania - Strategic framework contract 2022-2025, https://ufm.dk/uddannelse/institutioner-og-drift/strategiske-rammekontrakter-og-tilsyn/strategiske-rammekontrakter/erhvervsakademi-danias-strategiske-rammekontrakt-2022-2025.pdf, UFM (2021[34]), Copenhagen Business Academy - Strategic framework contract 2022-2025, https://ufm.dk/uddannelse/institutioner-og-drift/strategiske-rammekontrakter-og-tilsyn/strategiske-rammekontrakter/keas-strategiske-rammekontrakt-2022-2025.pdf.
Changes on prior experience for academy professions diplomas were implemented to widen access after review by stakeholders
The Council for Academy Profession Programmes and Professional Bachelor's Programmes recognised that a stipulation on previous experience was limiting access to academy profession programmes for those individuals which had completed a academy profession (part-time) programme.
A requirement for entry into academy profession programmes meant that part-time participation in the qualifying academy profession (part-time) programmes reset the qualification clock. This meant that even those individuals with many years of relevant professional experience would have to complete another two years of work after the end of their programme, before beginning a diploma.
The Council recommended to the Minister of Education and Research in 2018 for immediate access to diploma modules, as long as the individual had 1) several years of work experience (4-6 or more), 2) was in the relevant employment at time of admission and 3) for a full diploma, it was taken part-time over at least two years to ensure the mutual reinforcement of employment and learning.
The Minister sent this recommendation to the working group for adult/continuing higher education, which had been established by the tripartite agreement in 2017 and whose purpose is to follow the implementation of the tripartite agreement's initiatives on VET. This working group recommended to the Minister to implement a version of this proposal as a trial initiative for three years.
Source: UFM (2019[31]), The Council for Academy Profession Programmes and Professional Bachelor's courses - Annual Report 2018, https://ufm.dk/publikationer/2019/arsberetning-2018-radet-for-erhvervsakademiuddannelser-og-professionsbacheloruddannelser.
A tripartite agreement provides a joint foundation on which to further build HTE in Denmark
Denmark has a history of engagement with the social partners to build consensus on strategy and policy in vocational education. A tripartite agreement on strengthening and increasing flexible continuing adult education which ran from 2018 to 2021 was replaced with a new agreement on 12 September 2023 (UVM, 2023[35]). The previous tripartite agreement spearheaded a number of initiatives across the HTE landscape (see Box 2.7 for examples), demonstrating how a unified and concerted effort from government and the social partners can help to establish a shared evidence base of the requirements to further development higher technical education.
In the new tripartite agreement, the government and the social partners laid out plans for long-term investment in adult and continuing education and training. The agreement aims to equip the workforce for the future and the needs of the labour market. It includes the allocation DKK 360 million annually to a lasting boost to continuing education efforts in Denmark. Whilst the agreement covers adult training more generally (across ISCED levels beyond higher technical education), it also contains a number of initiatives in the higher technical education area.
The agreement centres around four agreed benchmarks on future-proofing the VET system to support the current and future needs of the labour market: a national action plan and strengthening of basic skills; a more flexible adult VET system; and increased digitalisation of education. To achieve these benchmarks, the agreement includes action to improve basic skills, strategic management and user-friendliness of the adult VET system, a national strategy for digital learning investment, strengthening high technical education, and decreased bureaucracy.
The tripartite agreement made a number of commitments in HTE. A transition fund to provide student subsidies for part-time education was made permanent and expanded so that those already with a Bachelor’s level of education could access the fund to undertake training. A free assessment of prior competency was extended to all applicants for HTE to encourage participation. To better respond to quickly labour market demands, the possibility of creating separate education modules (not already being part of existing higher education programmes) was made permanent.
The previous tripartite agreement on strengthening and increasing flexible continuing adult education, signed in 2018, established a working group to advise across a wide domain of issues on adult and continuing higher education. The working group had membership across industry bodies and regional and educational partners.
The working group published a compendium of its work in a main report in 2022. The report contains four analyses on activity, supply, coherence and barriers within HTE as well as the research and development projects that the working group funded from its annual budget for knowledge and development activities.
The working group co‑ordinated a range of activities in adult education domain, supporting 24 trial and development activities and commissioning a range of research reports to provide evidence for the development of the sector. Examples relevant for HTE include:
One study investigated the how well adult/continuing higher education met labour market demand and identified five areas (data security, industrial technology, building technology, financial management and digitalisation in education) where a lack of suitable training meant that the labour market was not being well served by existing provision.
Research was also commissioned on barriers to the uptake of adult/continuing higher education for adults. This research highlighted personal and employer driven barriers, in which the lack of a good overview of competence needs and understanding of the value of training limited demand. This was combined with a general lack of awareness of educational provision available, the opportunity costs for companies of allowing employees to engage in training, and a mismatch between teaching and training contents and the needs of employers.
These analyses were supplemented by research into the supply-side of education, looking at factors which limited educational providers from participating in higher technical education. The research highlights the high costs and slow progress of new tenders for offering programmes; the prevailing cultural viewpoint of the superiority of general education, which limited universities from participation and the perceived lack of commitments from firms who do not inscribe employees, even where they have expressed a need for training.
Source: VEU working group (2022[36]), The work of the VEU working group 2018-2021, https://ufm.dk/publikationer/2022/opsamlingsrapport-for-veu-arbejdsgruppens-arbejde-2018-2021; Andersen et al (2019[37]), The connection between existing VVEU programs and labor market demand https://ufm.dk/publikationer/2019/filer/vveu-rapport-final_v2.pdf; Oxford Research (2020[38]), Barriers to using advanced VEU, https://ufm.dk/publikationer/2020/barrierer-for-deltagelse-i-videregaende-veu; Ramboll (2019[39]), Analysis of the supply of advanced VEU: Barriers, driving forces and potentials https://ufm.dk/publikationer/2019/analyse-af-barrierer-for-udbud-af-videregaende-veu.
Course availability in Danish HTE is also directly limited by imposed capacity constraints
Denmark operates a set of procedures designed to ensure the labour market relevance of its training and education supply by imposing limits on institutions on the number of places they can offer on their courses. These limits are imposed on the academy profession programmes, alongside Bachelor’s and Master’s degree programmes. Limits are decided upon across two dimensions (UFM, n.d.[40]).
Unemployment-based rationing: related to the employment prospects of recent graduates, where programmes with “systematic unemployment” of graduates may have a ceiling on participation imposed.
Education-based rationing: Limits are imposed- independent of unemployment calculations- for i) licensed professions (such as medicine and dentistry), ii) student internships (particularly in professional Bachelor’s), iii) new study areas without sufficient employment data to estimate unemployment-based rationing, iv) particular considerations surrounding competition between institutions.
Around four in five (81%) of the current limits imposed upon business academy programmes come via unemployment-based rationing. The limits are also forward-looking and currently run up 2027/28, to provide institutions with some degree of certainty in planning for their future offering (UFM, 2024[41]).
Unemployment-based rationing is decided upon using rules, with some flexibility offered to institutions
Programmes enter into unemployment-based rationing if they are either part of a group of programmes marked as having systemically high unemployment, or if the single programme has such high unemployment. High unemployment can be designated in two ways. Graduate cohorts with unemployment rates at least 2 percentage points higher than overall unemployment for graduates at that level are designated as high. But they can be designated as having high unemployment by virtue of past performance, even if recent graduates are not experiencing high unemployment. If at least 7 in 10 of the last 10 cohorts of graduates had unemployment rates two percentage points above the average then a programme is designated as high unemployment as well. The unemployment measure used in the model is the gross unemployment rate for cohorts of graduates measured in the 4th-7th quarter after graduation. There must be at least three unemployment measurements. Unemployment measurements are only calculated if there are at least 10 graduates from a programme.
For programmes with marked and systematically high unemployment, a ceiling on admission is calculated on the basis of the historical intake at the individual institution. The ceiling is calculated on the basis of the average intake of the programmes over the past five years. The average intake is reduced by 10%, 20% or 30% depending on how high the unemployment rate has been over the past five years. Admissions can be reduced by a maximum of 30% of the total intake in the past year. If the total uptake in the past year is higher than the average uptake, the reduction rate is reduced.
The ceiling at each institution is set on the basis of the institution's average intake over the past five years. This means that institutions with an increase in admissions in the past five years must reduce more compared to the last intake than institutions with a stable admission. It also means that the reduction at the individual institutions may be greater than 30% compared to the last intake (it could even represent an increase in numbers, in the context of declining participation over time). There is no “accrual” such that any capacity under an annual limit cannot be used in a subsequent year to increase course limits (e.g. with an annual limit of 100 places, filling only 90 places one year will not allow the institution to offer 110 places in the subsequent year).
Institutions have some flexibility in how any reduction admission levels is distributed. Firstly, within all the programmes that have been identified as having high unemployment, they can distribute the total amount of places they have been allocated freely between these programmes (for example, if they offered three programmes with high unemployment, and were given 1 000 places for these three, they could distribute them in a manner of their choosing). Institutions have the freedom to close programmes and allocate places to other study programmes that are within.
Secondly, if an institution can demonstrate sufficient labour market demand for the programmes with the quota applied, they are able to re-allocate up to 15% of the proposed reduction to programmes that have not been subject to quotas. This is conditional on an assessment of the demand for this programme and relies on justifications, such as that programme meets unemployment demands in the area. In this way, local labour market needs can be accounted for. Quotas which are based on nationally estimated graduate unemployment may not otherwise reflect local needs appropriately. It is not possible to re-allocate across programme types (e.g. from a Bachelor’s to an Academy Profession programme). Despite the possibility of re-allocation of places, it does not happen that frequently in practice.
To prevent institutions inflating overall places, they are prevented from moving student places from unlimited programmes to those with limits by virtue of having a limit imposed upon the previously unlimited programme in the event of such a transfer (this limit will be equal to the previous student numbers in the unlimited programme minus the number of places transferred). The quotas for admissions to academy profession programmes are phased in linearly over a period of four years Sanctions can be applied for non-compliance, to ensure that quotas are adhered to.
If an institution admits students over its prescribed limits, it faces a reduction in its state educational subsidy. The decrease in the subsidy is directly proportional to the number of students over the limit (e.g. if an institution admits 10% more students than permitted, its subsequent subsidy would be reduced by 10%). This sanctioning is only performed for the first year of education, such that cohorts will be fully funded in the subsequent years of their education. This provides a balance of incentives to institutions to stay within allotted quotas, whilst protecting ongoing funding of existing students.
An evaluation of the unemployment-based rationing was conducted in 2018 but it did not consider some of the relevant points
The Ministry of Higher Education and Science in Denmark conducted an evaluation on the potential limitations of its model that constrained student numbers and published an evaluation in 2018 (UFM, 2018[42]). The report documents some of the choices made in the modelling of limits, such as how to group (and thereby implicitly compare) education, and the assumption of a national Danish labour market (which may have regional implications for unemployment levels and education provision).
In practice it may be difficult to precisely determine how an education programme contributes to a student’s employment. The recognition that local labour market needs may not be reflective of national averages speaks to this problem. Similarly, it might be that an educational programme in a particular area attracts students with a priori worse labour market prospects. In this situation, a programme may be very good at raising employment and earning levels of graduates, but still look “bad” when comparing to outcomes of the average student in that programme across the country.
The report by the Ministry of Higher Education and Science did not fully analyse all of these factors, and therefore it is still unclear whether or not the limits are completely effective in their intended objectives. A further study that considers these issues more comprehensively would help to ensure that future development of the rationing system is cognisant of the particular geographical and socioeconomic features of programmes and students.
The United States has proposed a similar system to reduce poorly performing college-based career training programmes, using student ability to repay loans based on expected earnings. It seeks to limit demand for education rather than constrain supply. This calculation abstracts away from some of the problems of estimating labour market demand and instead makes the calculation dependent upon individuals’ earnings prospects (see Box 2.8).
A rule has been proposed for career training programmes in the United States which will cut funding for programmes based on a notion of “gainful employment”. The rule came into effect on 1 July 2024. It is based on two metrics:
A debt-to-earnings ratio: compares the median earnings of graduates who received Federal financial aid to the median annual payments on loan debt borrowed for the programme. To pass, a programme must either show that debt payments are no more than 8% of annual earnings or 20% of discretionary earnings, defined as annual earnings minus 150% of the Federal poverty guideline for a single individual (about USD 21 870 in 2023). Programmes that do not meet the debt-to-earnings standards are considered “high-debt-burden.”
An earnings premium test: measures whether the typical graduate from a programme that received Federal aid is earning at least as much as a typical high school graduate in the labour force (i.e. either working or unemployed) in their State between the ages of 25 and 34. This is equal to roughly USD 25 000 nationally but varies across States. Programmes that have typical earnings lower than the median high school graduate are considered low-earnings.”
Programmes that fail either or both metrics in a single year would be required to provide warnings to students that the programmes could be at risk of losing eligibility for Federal aid in subsequent years. Programmes that fail the same metric in two of three consecutive years would have their eligibility to participate in Federal aid programmes revoked.
The share of enrolment in programmes that fail one or both of the GE metrics is higher at for-profit institutions, where virtually all programmes are covered by the accountability provisions. More than half (58%) of for-profit institutions have at least one programme that does not meet one of these standards. By contrast, the Department estimates that 93% of public institutions and 97% of private, non-profit institutions have no high-debt-burden or low-earning GE programmes, despite the fact that two-thirds of these institutions offer at least one GE programme.
The proposal estimates to benefit over 700 000 students annually, preventing them from enrolling in about 1 800 poorly performing programmes. Borrowers who attended programmes with high debt burdens are 25% more likely to default and struggle to repay their loans.
Source: Department of Education (2023[43]); www.ed.gov/sites/ed/files/policy/highered/reg/hearulemaking/2021/gainful-employment-and-transparency-fact-sheet.pdf ;Federal Register (2023[44]), Financial Value Transparency and Gainful Employment, www.federalregister.gov/documents/2023/10/10/2023-20385/financial-value-transparency-and-gainful-employment.
Austria also has an institutional set-up which directly integrates feedback on labour market demands into planning
In Austria, although HTE encompasses diverse pathways of study, it is co‑ordinated centrally by the Federal Ministry of Education, Science, and Research (BMBWF) and directly integrates labour market insights to facilitate strategic planning at a system level. This facilitates central government policymaking which is cognisant of the evolving skills demands in the economy and the underlying changes this necessitates in publicly-funded HTE training.
The responsibility for HTE programmes in Austria is shared among various stakeholders, including governmental bodies, regional boards of education (Bildungsdirektionen) in the nine provinces, educational institutions, and the social partners. The BMBWF, manages administrative tasks for vocational schools and adult education institutions falling under the responsibility of the BMBWF on the basis of statutory provisions. The Vocational Schools and Adult Education department is responsible for various pedagogical and vocational aspects of the educational provision, including curriculum development, oversight of educational content, school advancement, international relations and foundational matters in vocational education and training.
Curriculum development is informed by the needs of the labour market, with input from employers and industry experts to ensure that graduates possess the practical skills and knowledge necessary for success in their chosen fields. Studies on skill needs can focus on different factors, such as specific industry sectors (for example, the timber industry or IT), regions (such as federal provinces) or specialised education programmes (including certain specialisations of colleges for higher vocational education and dual VET). These studies are designed to benefit stakeholders within these sectoral or regional areas, along with curriculum developers and personnel involved in relevant vocational education and training in Austria (Cedefop, 2022[45]). In addition to this, a skills barometer is produced to map out the skills demanded in vacancies across Austria. This is used by to inform educational development (such as curriculum adjustments) alongside broader planning the in the Austrian public employment service (PES) (see Box 2.9).
The skills barometer of the Public Employment Service (PES) Austria (AMS-QB) is an online platform established in 2002 that compiles current and anticipated labour market trends and qualification demands. It provides open, accessible and structured information to stakeholders via an online tool.
The barometer covers the whole of Austria and includes detailed summaries for each province, along with analyses of job advertisements. Utilising data from existing studies on skill needs, labour market statistics, and expert interviews across various occupational sectors, the AMS-QB offers comprehensive insights into Austria's labour market landscape.
The barometer is run and developed via a collaboration between the public employment service (AMS), and Joanneum Research, which is responsible for the scientific evaluation and the quality control. The data are provided by Textkernel Bullhorn in the Netherlands. The initial tender development costs for the scientific and data elements amounted to approximately EUR 130 000 in 2022, with ongoing development and implementation costs averaging EUR 100 000 in 2023 and 2024. Special annual topics costs an additional EUR 30 000.
The barometer includes forecasts for the total number of available jobs by sector and occupation. It is designed to offer guidance to individuals from various backgrounds (for example PES employees, journalists, politicians, company representatives, and individuals seeking career guidance) in accessing and understanding information about the local, regional, and national labour markets. Other stakeholders, such as social partners, can initiate adjustments or create apprenticeship curricula, based on a number of sources and on skills anticipation results.
Source: Cedefop (n.d.[46]), AMS Qualifikations-Barometer, www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/matching-skills/all-instruments/pes-skills-barometer. Barometer cost estimates provided from internal management data from Arbeitsmarktservice Österreich (AMS).
The composition of HTE students in different countries depends upon both the target students in the education system and the composition of courses that are offered. Choices made on education content, such as those reviewed in the previous sections, influence the extent to which individuals choose one education type over another. For example, Denmark uses rationing to adjust course funding through limiting places. If it decides to limit or expand courses in certain subjects, it will likely drive different individuals to apply for differing provision. This contrasts to England, where the choice on which subjects to study is left completely in the domain of the educational providers and prospective students.
Similarly, differing entry requirements will influence who applies to HTE programmes. Programmes with higher entry requirements may preclude some individuals from studying, but will likely also raise average student ability in those courses. Moreover, the way in which programmes are designed and delivered also has an impact on the accessibility of the training, for example with modular programmes and part-time or distance learning facilitating access to working adults. This section considers how some of these factors combine to influence student participation in countries.
OECD data show that HTE students in England are comparatively old (Figure 2.2), with an average age of over 30. This reveals differences in the mix of students who participate in this type of vocational education. In terms of average student age, the system in England is closer to that in Denmark (29 years) and Sweden (30 years), than compared to the systems in France (20 years), Austria (22 years) and Canada (24 years), where the student populations are focussed at younger age groups. This story is largely replicated when looking at the age of new entrants to HTE3. Denmark, England and Sweden and have largely similar ages, ranging between 26-28 years old, whereas it is 19 years in Austria and France and 21 years in Canada.
Average age of students in ISCED 5 programmes
Note: Short-cycle tertiary relates to ISCED 5.
Source: OECD (2023[1]), Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators, Figure B1.3, https://doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en.
Turning to the age distribution of learners, it is clear to see that the dynamics in England are driven by two features (Figure 2.3). Firstly, it has the fourth largest proportion of learners aged 35 years and over in the OECD. Secondly, it has comparatively fewer individuals participating in their 20s. Whilst its proportion of learners aged 15-19 years old (17%) is fairly similar to the OECD average (18%), this drops away for individuals aged between 20-24 (23%) and 25-29 (15%) relative to other OECD countries (40% and 17%) respectively. In part this will be related to England’s high proportion of learners in university-based education, but considering how best to communicate and sell the advantages of HTE to young adults not currently participating in education could help to drive up participation and help equip these young workers with the skills needed to thrive in the labour market.
Age distribution of short-cycle tertiary students (2018)
Note: Data for Belgium (French Community) exclude participants in adult higher education.
Source: OECD (2022[47]), Age distribution of short-cycle tertiary students (2018), https://doi.org/10.1787/bd82ed89-en.
An important part of the narrative when considering the respective frequency of student numbers in HTE and their profile, is the education pathways of students. The route into HTE can be very different between countries and can influence the demand for such education. In some countries there is a direct continuation from secondary education (reflected in low average age of learners), while in others HTE primarily serves as an upskilling or reskilling pathway for individuals with some work experience. In some cases, the programmes are directly linked to lower-level vocational programmes, with the aim to develop higher level and/or more specialised skills in the same field.
England has a fairly typical distribution of vocational students at levels below that of HTE. Looking at the share of students at upper-secondary level enrolled in vocational, rather than general, education England has 36% of students in vocational education, compared to 39% for the OECD as a whole (see Figure 1.5 in Chapter 1). This level is similar to that of France (37%) and Sweden (33%) and higher than that of Denmark (19%). Austria stands out by this metric, with over two-thirds (68%) of its students in upper-secondary enrolled in vocational education. In this regard, England has a fairly typical pool of students for whom HTE could represent a continuation of education of previous vocational studies. However, one of the challenges that this report outlines is that the pathway into HTE from lower-level education is less distinct in England than it is for the other countries analysed in this report.
Turning to the educational background of students on entry to HTE, the majority of students in England come from secondary-level education, but there is a sizeable minority with existing tertiary education (Table 2.5). For HTE students around two thirds enter with existing level 2 or 3 qualifications (corresponding to secondary and upper-secondary education). This level is slightly higher for levels 4 qualifications (71%), than it is for level 5 qualifications (63%). Just fewer than one in ten HTE students are returning to education following having completed programmes at Bachelor’s level of above. This level is similar for both level 4 (9%) and level 5 (8%) qualifications.
Distribution of student’s previous educational level for level 4 and 5 qualifications, 2022/23
Note: Levels defined as those in the national qualification framework in the United Kingdom. Levels 4 and 5 correspond to higher technical education (ISCED 5). 2022/23 refers to the academic year.
Source: ONS (2024[4]) England Higher level learner statistics academic year 2022/23, https://explore-education-statistics.service.gov.uk/data-tables/permalink/655e65ce-2433-4c66-1e0c-08dd0254fb9b.
When reviewing entrants to HTE relative to other OECD countries, England has fewer students entering with previous vocational education (Figure 2.4). Only 15% of students enter with an upper- or post-secondary vocational education, compared to 34% for the OECD as a whole. Here, the strong pathways that Austria produces really stand out, with over three quarters (76%) entering from vocational upper- or post-secondary education.
Distribution of educational attainment of students in short-cycle tertiary programmes (2017-2019 pooled)
Note: Data include only students aged 34 or less or who obtained their highest qualification up to 15 years prior to the survey. Averages refer to unweighted averages of available countries.
Source: OECD (2022[48]), “Distribution of educational attainment of students in short-cycle tertiary programmes (2017-2019 pooled)”, https://doi.org/10.1787/02a2f23c-en.
The following sections turn to look in more detail at how Austria and Denmark organise their HTE to attract different types of students and offer different perspectives. Austria has a comparatively younger student body, relative to England, whilst Denmark’s average HTE student age is more similar to England.
Austria has a wide spectrum of HTE designed to cater to different individual needs
Austrian HTE caters to a wide spectrum of needs, whether it be for individuals seeking to attain higher qualifications, young adults exploring career paths, or those endeavouring to re-enter the workforce after a period of unemployment. It has a diverse HTE offer with different programmes that explicitly target different audiences tailored to address specific skills, professions or demographic groups. While HTE in England also offers a diversity of programmes, there is less of a structure to how the different qualifications precisely target different groups of individuals.
HTE in Austria provides specialised vocational and technical training programmes typically lasting two to three years (depending also on part-time study). These programmes focus on practical skills development and are designed to prepare students for immediate entry into the workforce or further academic advancement. The educational offering at HTE level is primarily represented by colleges of higher vocational education and training (BHS), which offer a double qualification in the final two years. These courses comprised two-thirds of total enrolments in 2020/21 (CIRCABC, 2023[49]). It also includes add-on courses (Aufbaulehrgänge), post-secondary VET programmes (Kollegs) and courses for people in employment (Schule für Berufstätige). There are also special schools such as the industrial master college (Werkmeisterschule) and the building craftsperson school (Bauhandwerkerschule).
The master craftsperson courses (Vorbereitungskurse) offer preparation for the master craftsperson examination (Meisterprüfung). The Meisterprüfung caters mostly for graduates of the dual training system and provides entitlement to becoming an entrepreneur, and permits the training of apprentices. It is not ISCED classified, but sits at level 6 in the Austrian NQF, corresponding to a bachelor’s degree.
Despite a range of HTE courses that might bear some similarity to England, in Austria these courses are differentiated by the individual circumstances of students. Courses allow individuals to continue directly from upper-secondary vocational education straight into HTE. But they also allow vocational students that did not initially envisage HTE to pursue it later. These “add-on” courses ensure fluidity between those students taking shorter vocational education and the longer HTE courses, by allowing conversion of their studies into a more advanced HTE course via use of this “bridging” course at a more advanced level. Whilst the Kollegs courses target those who studied academic upper-secondary qualification, rather than prior vocational students. Similarly flexible programmes allow individuals in the labour market to pursue HTE. So a range of options exist, each carefully differentiated to appeal to different types of individuals, to provide a holistic set of solutions of HTE provision.
Higher vocational colleges (BHS) in Austria provide specialised vocational training that ends in an HTE qualification
The higher vocational colleges (BHS) in Austria provide a strong base for individuals to continue on directly to study HTE programmes, but also allow flexibility and give students access to higher education on an academic track. BHS occupy a unique position within the Austrian education system, as they overlap upper secondary and post-secondary education – therefore typically attracting young leaners. After lower-secondary general education, individuals can choose to attend a higher vocational college (BHS) for a five‑year programme. These colleges provide comprehensive general education alongside specialised vocational training including practical training within schools (all schools are equipped with workshops) and internships during summer holidays. The make-up of the education system in Austria is such that students can enter the BHS from a suite of different entry points. Students who have completed either the 4th grade of compulsory secondary school, the 4th grade of an academic secondary school, or up to the 9th grade of pre-vocational school are eligible to attend colleges of higher vocational education. In certain cases, an entrance examination might be required. The colleges of higher vocational education also offer programmes for working individuals through evening schools.
The programme culminates in the Reifeprüfung (the general upper-secondary qualification) and a Diploma Examination (at ISCED level 5). This double qualification means that students gain a full professional VET qualification giving access to regulated professions, and an academic qualification giving access to the higher education (including in universities, universities of applied sciences and university colleges of teacher educations). By being specialists in their field, the colleges are able to offer a strong, focused offer to prospective students (Box 2.10).
There is an array of educational fields but institutions specialise in narrower areas
Training opportunities in the BHS span a diverse array of fields. Different institutions specialise in different areas of education. Higher technical and commercial schools offer programmes in disciplines such as art and design, aviation technology, biomedical engineering. Other higher education institutions specialise in areas like fashion, art and design, product management, and tourism, providing specialised training tailored to the demands of these industries. The commercial academies (HAK) offer BHS focusing on high-level business professions, with concentrations in information technology, finance, marketing, and international business, among others. These academies also offer specialised tracks like digital business and communication and media information, catering to specific career trajectories.
Furthermore, higher educational institutions for commercial professions prepare BHS students for roles in business administration across various sectors, including social services, health, culture, and hospitality. Similarly, agricultural and forestry educational institutions offer training in agriculture, forestry, biotechnology, and environmental management. Educational institutions for elementary and social education provide pathways to become elementary teachers or social education workers, equipping individuals to work in after-school care, socio-educational institutions, and extracurricular youth programmes.
This means that whilst the BHS offer a standardised educational format, the institutions that provide this education are grouped around particular specialisms. This is unlike the situation in England, where by and large institutions are not specialised and tend to offer education across an array of different subjects.
The labour market outcomes experienced by BHS graduates are notably positive
In Austria, 27% of upper secondary students enrol in a higher vocational college (BHS), entering from both academic and vocational tracks. There are 19 600 graduations annually and a large number of programmes for adults with currently some 3 600 graduations a year. According to the Federal Ministry of Education, Science, and Research (BMBWF), VET colleges have remained attractive throughout the years spanning from 2000 to 2019. The number of students has increased steadily from almost 124 000 students in 2000/2001 to more than 140 000 students in 2018/2019 (BMBWF, 2019[50]).
The labour market outcomes for VET college graduates are notably positive, characterised by low unemployment rates (as low as 3.6% based on 2010 Micro census data) and median hourly incomes comparable to those of individuals with foreman degrees and industrial master diplomas (EUR 14 per hour in enterprises with at least ten employees). Individuals with lower VET qualifications, such as VET school certificates or apprenticeship diplomas, tended to earn less, with a median income of EUR 12 per hour (Musset et al., 2013[51]).
Add-on VET courses target graduates from intermediate vocational school
For those individuals who have not undertaken a BHS course which automatically progresses on to HTE, “Add-on” VET courses target students who have successfully completed programmes of intermediate vocational education (Berufsbildende mittlere Schulen, BMS) or an apprenticeship (ISCED level 3). After graduating from intermediate vocational school, students can opt for an add-on course to pursue the Reife- und Diplomprüfung examination.
Add-on VET courses include both a general education element and specific vocational training. Add-on VET courses usually last three years (two years in some disciplines) and are offered at various vocational secondary colleges (BHS). These include commercial schools, schools for economic professions, schools for tourism, schools for fashion and clothing technology, schools for agriculture and forestry, technical commercial schools and arts and crafts schools.
The training comprises both classroom-based and workplace-based learning, dependent on the precise school. For example, it can include learning in kitchens, workshops, laboratories, training companies, or other suitable professional locations. The students must complete a compulsory paid internship in a company (4-12 weeks) where they gain their first professional experience.
In addition to immediate employment in a specialist area, individuals who successfully complete Add-on VET courses obtain the general higher educational qualification (Reifeprüfung) which confers eligibility to undertake a course of study at a University, University of Applied Sciences, University of Teacher Education or another type of higher education institution.
Post-secondary VET courses provide HTE to graduates of general secondary school
Post-secondary VET courses (Kollegs) in Austria target students who have graduated from academic secondary schools providing general education (AHS). This means that individuals who possess a higher education entrance qualification, can also enrol in a post-secondary HTE course. Kollegs enable graduates to acquire the technical content of the respective vocational higher school (BHS) in a relatively short time, that culminates in an HTE qualification.
Post-secondary VET courses provide a high-level vocational training programme in a variety of specialist areas. They last two years (full-time) or three years (part-time, evening classes) and are run at many vocational secondary schools (BHS). Post-secondary courses end with the diploma examination (Diplomprüfung) in the respective subject area, and at the same time provide completed vocational training. This means that graduates can immediately enter professional life.
The mixture of different pathways is designed to offer strong pathways to HTE regardless of students initial educational background
The key differences between BHS programmes and add-on or post-secondary VET courses lie in their educational focus and target audience. BHS emphasises both professional training and general education including preparation for higher academic studies. Add-on VET courses build upon intermediate VET qualifications, and post-secondary VET courses offer specialised vocational training to individuals with a higher education entrance qualification. Specifically, add-on VET courses and post-secondary VET courses diverge in that the subject-specific content has greater emphasis in Kollegs (target group of graduates of general secondary schools) while in Add-on courses there is greater emphasis on general education content (target group of technical/vocational school graduates). In this respect, the different courses aim to cater for the different existing skillsets of their participants and seek to ensure as far as possible, similar levels of general transversal skills. Recognition of previous general education allows Kollegs students to obtain a greater depth of technical education than their peers in the add-on courses.
Courses for people in employment provide VET for individuals already in the labour market
Alongside the strong pathways for individuals continuing initial education, “courses for people in employment” in Austria target adults who have already entered the labour market, or have completed a course of technical or vocational training. The entry requirements are being employed or having already completed initial vocational education and training (IVET) and have a minimum age of 17 years. The aim is to enable people who have already entered the labour market to pursue higher-level careers and to access university-level studies.
Most courses for people in employment offer higher technical and general education and the (part-time) training usually lasts for 3 to 4 years. The main subject areas are engineering, arts and crafts, business administration, early childhood education and social education. The majority of these courses are provided at vocational secondary colleges (BHS), adult education centres (VHS) and other adult education institutions. The primary options designed for working individuals in Austria are:
1. Technical and Commercial Evening Schools: Higher Technical Colleges (HTLs) and Commercial Colleges (HAKs) provide evening classes tailored for working professionals. These programmes offer vocational training relevant to the chosen field and the duration is typically four years.
2. Kollegs: These college-style programmes enable individuals to attain professional qualifications offered by various vocational higher schools (such as HTLs, HAKs, HBLAs, etc.). Kollegs typically span two to three years, with an additional half-year preparatory course before commencement.
Work and training are compatible due to the teaching times being adapted for people in employment. The courses are provided at times of the day that are suitable for adults to attend, mostly during the evening or online. After successful completion of the training, the general university entrance qualification and a final diploma (Reife- und Diplomprüfung) are awarded to students, so that student receive both the academic and vocational qualification.
There are specific HTE programmes that equip individuals with the specialist skills needed to master technical professions with exacting requirements.
In addition to the more general vocational programmes covering the range of technical subject, there are education programmes in specific craft professions that have a long history of technical requirements. The industrial master colleges, building craftsperson and master craftsperson schools target people over the age of 18 who have already completed vocational training in a subject-specific area, have practical professional experience and aim to expand their specialist knowledge.
The programmes in the industrial master colleges and building craftsperson schools are concluded with a final examination that confers access to that regulated profession. Graduates of the master craftsperson schools are eligible to sit the master craftsperson examination offered by Master Craftsperson Authorities at the regional economic chambers. The duration varies among the different specific HTE programmes:
industrial master colleges: mostly 2 years
building craftsperson schools: mostly 2 years
master craftsperson schools: 1 to 2 years.
The industrial master colleges provide in-depth practical and well-founded theoretical training in various specialist areas and provide graduates with diverse labour market opportunities in planning and organisation, project and production management, manufacturing, service, sales, etc. The industrial master colleges provide opportunities for graduates to attain middle-management positions.
Building craftsperson schools enable people to carry out advanced work in the construction industry (bricklayer, stonemason, carpenter). In addition to deepening general education, the core subject areas of building trade training typically encompass building construction, structural analysis, building operation and construction exercises in conjunction with applied computer science. Each specialist area includes specialist compulsory subjects for bricklayers (steel, reinforced concrete and timber construction, technical construction and surveying), for carpenters (timber construction, technical construction and surveying) and for stonemasons (stone construction, technology, restoration and modelling, stylistics and writing).
Preparatory courses for the master craftmanship examination cater to individuals across commercial, manufacturing, and service sectors. These schools offer preparatory programmes for the master craftsperson examination as well as opportunities to upgrade their skills. Upon completion of the examination, graduates gain the ability to manage their own businesses, mentor apprentices, and enhance their prospects in the job market. In Austria, passing the master craftsperson examination qualifies individuals to operate their own businesses in regulated trades (Meisterprüfung) and in regulated non-craft trades (Befähigungsprüfung) (Musset et al., 2013[51]). This examination serves as a crucial step for those individuals seeking to obtain official recognition and certification as master craftsperson, demonstrating their expertise and proficiency in their respective crafts (Cedefop, 2022[45]).
Denmark runs a parallel part-time system with two streams to differentiate learner pathways
As described earlier, the HTE system in Denmark has two tracks to differentiate learner pathways and encourage entry from different groups of individuals. The academy profession programmes cater for young people continuing education, whilst the academy profession (part-time) programmes cater for adult learners, returning to education whilst in the labour market. This is part of a broader strategy developed in 2000/2001 by the Danish Ministry of Education to have a separate system for adult education so that a distinction can be made between students who are continuing directly from initial education and those returning to education from work.
The separate adult higher education system is called “the parallel competence system”. This differentiation allows Denmark to provide specific guidance to students with different backgrounds to encourage participation in HTE either continuing directly from education, or to upskill and reskill those adults who have already commenced work. However, despite differences in the entry route and participation schedule (with part-time participation in many adult settings), both sets of student programmes end with an ISCED 5 qualification. Both of these forms of education are managed by the Ministry of Higher Education and Science, which provides some consistency in their administration.
The features of this parallel system in Denmark is a composition of student population that is younger in its makeup than in England (Figure 2.5). The age of participants in Denmark peaks for those aged 21‑24 years, before falling at older ages. This contrasts with the system in England, where these is almost an even share of those aged 30-39 and 40 and above, together accounting for 55% of total student numbers. Its ability to draw-in students via the continuation of education from upper-secondary stands in marked contrast to that in England, with relatively few students coming at younger ages. This is despite the relatively similar proportion in the two countries of students at upper-secondary level who participate in vocational education. The fact that students in the full-time business academy programmes do not pay tuition fees and students can access the state educational grant and loan scheme, may contribute to higher participation relative to the part-time programmes where students have to pay tuition fees.
Students participating in short-cycle tertiary education, 2021
Note: Data refer to academic year 2021/22. Denmark data include students in the academy profession and academy profession (part-time) programmes.
Source: ONS (2024[4]) Higher level learners in England - Academic year 2021/22; Statistics Denmark (2024[52]), UDDAKT40, www.statbank.dk/UDDAKT40.
Underlying the overall age distribution of HTE students in Denmark is the relative mix between students that are continuing their secondary-level education and those adult students that are upskilling following a period of work in the labour market. Table 2.6 provides a breakdown between academy profession programmes and the academy profession programmes (part-time) which shows how the programme type affects the student age distribution. Over four in ten of students in the academy profession programmes are under 25 years old, whilst the corresponding proportion is only 10% for academy profession (part-time) programmes. Almost half (46%) of students in the academy profession (part-time) education are aged over 40 years old, compared to less than one in ten (9%) for the academy profession students.
Note: The statistics contained in this table count courses, rather than FTE student equivalent and so these figures may not approximate to the overall age distribution of students in the higher technical education sector in Denmark.
Source: Statistics Denmark (2024[52]), UDDAKT40, www.statbank.dk/UDDAKT40.
Part-time education seeks to make it easier for adults returning to education whilst in the labour market
The target group for the academy profession (part-time) programmes is directly defined in legislation (Retsinformation, 2000[53]). Access is conditional on the applicant having either a general or vocational secondary education (GVU) and at least two years of relevant work experience after completing a qualifying education.
All students can ask for an assessment of prior learning, where professional competence is directly assessed with a view to substituting for academic qualifications (and can also confer credits in modules where professional experience is deemed to have satisfied requirements). This assessment is free for participants and is undertaken by the training institution, who have discretion on exactly how they might test the prior learning. Training applicants should submit evidence of their prior learning to the institution, who will then review the evidence and arrange an assessment. Institutions must publicise the prior learning assessment procedures on their websites. Assessment became free-of-charge for students in 2021. Prior to this, applicants with prior higher education had to pay to complete an assessment (Retsinformation, 2021[54]).
The academy profession (part-time) award is given to adults who have successfully completed a further education programme for adults that is standardised at 60 ECTS, equivalent to one year of full-time study. All of these programmes are part time, to accommodate individuals who are already working and who may have other family or care-related commitments. The programmes are comprised of singular stand alone modules, and many students do not complete a full programme.
A feature of the adult education system in Denmark is its permeability with the broader education system, such that students with academy profession (part-time) qualification can continue on into higher education system, for example by continuing on to study for a longer academy profession programme.
Academy profession programmes permit individuals to continue studies directly from upper-secondary education
Academy profession programmes are HTE programmes that last between 1.5 (90 ECTS) and 2.5 years (150 ECTS), although the majority are conducted at two years duration. Their teaching provides students with a mixture of theoretical and practical learning. All students in business academy courses must perform an internship as part of their studies, for a minimum duration of three months. Admission for these programmes is conditional on a successfully completed general or vocational upper secondary education, alongside the fulfilment of any specific requirements related to subjects.
Table 2.7 demonstrates that around six in ten students (58%) come from a VET background, whilst a further two in ten students have completed (at most) some kind of general upper-secondary education.
Distribution of short-cycle higher education student completers by previous educational background, 2022
Note: 2022 is the school year. Represents those individuals completing a course of study in the year, not all participants. Educational levels as defined by Statistics Denmark.
Source: Statistics Denmark (2024[55]), VEUHEL20, http://sdg.statistikbank.dk/VEUHEL20.
Due to their general requirements on having some kind of upper-secondary education, they differ from the academy profession (part-time) requirements (where accumulated professional experience can give rise to eligibility even in the absence of upper-secondary education). In this sense, the Danish system encourages the completion of upper-secondary level qualifications for those students who wish to study HTE. It constrains participation from those individuals who do not have upper-secondary qualifications or the requisite work experience requirements. Despite these restrictions being somewhat more stringent than those imposed in England (where many qualifications have no set minimum), Denmark has proportionally more of its students entering from younger ages. This suggests that the pathway from upper-secondary completers in Denmark is stronger than it is in England.
References
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← 1. STEM refers to the fields of science, technology, engineering and mathematics. This excludes the social sciences, journalism and information, and agriculture, forestry, fisheries and veterinary.
← 2. This refers to a programme at a specific institution, such that two different institutions offering the same course (for example, 3d printing) would be counted as two programmes.
← 3. This excludes those individuals who may have previously completed an HTE or other tertiary programme (including at ISCED 6-8).