This chapter provides a brief description of the English higher technical education sector, describing its main features and recent developments. It describes how the higher technical education sector relates to the broader further and higher education sector in England (United Kingdom). The chapter puts the English system in an international context by providing comparative information and statistics on equivalent education and training programmes in selected OECD countries.
Higher Technical Education in England, United Kingdom
Insights from Selected International Experience
Abstract
In an increasingly competitive and skill-driven global economy, a well-educated, skilled and productive workforce is essential to deliver robust and inclusive economic growth for all. A key element supporting countries to achieve this is an education system that enables individuals to realise their full potential. Becker (1962[1]) first formalised a notion of investment in knowledge, skills and characteristics (or “human capital”) to boost individuals’ productive capacity. Individuals invest in education and training to boost their stock of human capital and to increase future earnings, by virtue of this greater productivity. For post-compulsory education, this means ensuring a coexistence of both academic and vocational qualifications that enable individuals with different goals, different skillsets and different interests to acquire education that enables them to access good jobs and thrive in them.
Over past decades England has experienced an unprecedented increase in enrolment in higher education (HE) (level 4 and above in the English qualification system, equivalent to levels 4 and above in the International Standard Classification of Education [ISCED]). This growth has been driven in the most part by participation of students studying academic degrees at ISCED 6 and above (The House of Commons Library, 2024[2]). Forecasts expect that the number of HE entrants in England will further rise by 13% between 2019/20 and 2025/26 (Waltmann et al., 2021[3]). To fund the expansion of HE tuition fees have increased, resulting in a higher level of student debt. Since student loans are guaranteed by the government, the cost of loan default is absorbed by taxpayers. The government previously estimated that only one quarter of students who started their undergraduate studies in 2020-2021 will repay their loans in full (DfE, 2024[4]). In response to these challenges the government introduced changes in post-secondary and HE funding arrangements. It increased the proportion of loans that will be paid off by the students and expanded alternative education and training provision (Department for Education, 2022[5]).
The Department for Education is introducing a new body, Skills England, to bring together and coordinate central and local government, employers, education providers and other partners across the skills system in England (DfE, 2024[6]). The body will work to form a coherent national picture of where skills gaps exist and how they can be addressed. It will work with stakeholders to unify the skills landscape and ensure that the workforce is equipped with the skills needed to support economic growth. It will bring together the Mayoral Combined Authorities and other key local partners, large and small businesses, training providers and unions to collectively address objectives. It will also shape technical education to respond to skills needs, including identifying the training accessible via the Growth and Skills Levy.
The introduction of Skills England is grounded in a context in England of a high degree of skills imbalances, where one in ten employers have a vacancy that is hard to fill due to a lack of skills, qualifications or experience among applicants (DfE, 2023[7]). This inhibits effective utilisation of labour to support its economy. The drive to form a coherent skills strategy, at local and national levels, can help to address these imbalances, with employers closely involved in its development.
The further backdrop to this new legislative agenda is a series of recent reforms to short-cycle technical (vocational) education in England at ISCED level 5 (levels 4 and 5 in the English qualification system). These reforms to “higher technical education” (HTE) in England were guided by the imperative to foster prestigious qualifications that are recognised nationally and resonate with both employers and students alike for the skills they impart. Their implementation was set amidst a diffuse system with a multitude of providers and course types, in which comparatively few individuals use these qualifications to prepare themselves for the labour market. Field (2018[8]) describes this as “a ‘missing middle’ of higher technical education at level 4 and 5 in the English education and training system”.
The reforms introduced a process of recognising new Higher Technical Qualifications (HTQs) offering accreditation of existing and new qualifications at levels 4 and 5, with a kitemark of quality assurance and a new branding. This is currently marshalled by the Institute of Apprenticeships and Technical Education (IfATE), which approves course content and design. The new Skills England body will shortly assume these functions (DfE, 2024[9]). The aim is to elevate the profile of HTE by indicating which programmes align with employer-led occupational standards, ensuring they become a positive and sought-after choice for a diverse cohort of learners, from young students embarking on their vocational journey to seasoned professionals seeking to upskill or retrain while in the workforce. This sits alongside the establishment of Institutes of Technology (IoT) by the Department for Education (DfE), with the aim to bring together employers, further education colleges and universities to deliver world-class higher technical education related to STEM (science, technology, engineering and maths) occupations.
A fundamental pillar of this suite of reform is the delivery of knowledge, skills, and behaviours that are tightly coupled with the demands of specific occupations and valued by employers. Qualifications must carry robust labour market currency, ensuring that they are not only understood and recognised by employers as hallmarks of quality but also that they foster student confidence. This is assured in the new HTQs by systematic and sustained engagement with employers in designing and reviewing the qualifications.
The alignment of HTQs with the content of defined occupational standards is a hallmark of HTQ accreditation, to ensure good links to labour market demands. The assurance that these qualifications will be esteemed by employers and acknowledged as a credible and prestigious alternative to direct degree entry is crucial. They are intended to be valued, targeted and well-designed qualifications, guiding learners towards fruitful and fulfilling careers.
The creation of the new Skills England body, which will have a broader remit than IfATE, offers the possibility to further reform the system. Its primary objective is to bring together “the fractured skills landscape”, with an emphasis on bringing together the social partners and delivering place-led local skills development while supporting the national Industrial Strategy. This offers encouragement that previous efforts to foster demand and engage with the labour market can be continued and enhanced. However, it is too early to offer much insight on its true potential as detailed plans for the body have not yet been set.
This report draws upon international examples to illuminate successful pathways for both the introduction of Skills England and broader reforms, to provide insight into how the UK Government’s objectives might be best achieved. The report presents a comparative analysis of five countries: Austria, Canada (Ontario), Denmark, France and Sweden, with different but exemplary practices in technical education and training systems. While in all five countries HTE aims to prepare individuals for skilled employment, there are differences in terms of the role of HTE, its goals and target population, and the way programmes and qualifications are provided. Each of the countries displays innovations: for example, Sweden has set up a successful post-secondary programme driven by employer demand; France has a well-developed HTE systems leading to strong labour market outcomes; Denmark uses labour market indicators to plan the provision; and Austria and Ontario) stand out as a countries where HTE is the primary vocational pathway (or an integral part of a larger pathway), enrolling a large share of individuals.
Through the lens of these international examples, the report explores the structural, pedagogical, and strategic elements that contribute to the high performance of technical education systems. In harnessing the best practices from countries with established and well-functioning systems, this report aims to contribute to the ongoing dialogue about how to shape a higher technical education system that is not only responsive to the needs of the English economy but also a robust contributor to the personal and professional growth of its participants.
The remaining sections in this chapter provide further introductory context, so that the subsequent analysis is grounded by the present situation in England, its opportunities and its constraints. An outline of the proposed reforms to HTE in England provides the rationale for change and the motivation for the report. England’s labour market and the current education system is situated within an international perspective, to provide a more holistic framework to the subsequent assessment and to illustrate how HTE may play a different role in England’s labour market and human capital accumulation. Then a brief summary of the countries selected to provide the in-depth examples on which the report is based is given, outlining the criteria by which they were selected. The following chapters then go on to provide more detail on specific elements crucial to the reform programme in England, providing insight into the design of higher technical education systems (Chapter 2), the delivery of higher technical education (Chapter 3) and ensuring quality and attractiveness of higher technical education (Chapter 4).
Education policy in the United Kingdom is devolved, so the reforms to HTE only apply to England. However, most of the internationally comparable data are available for the United Kingdom as a whole. Where this is the case, tables and charts will refer to the United Kingdom, though the text will refer to England. The drawback of this is that data may not perfectly reflect the reality in England, which in 2021/22 made up only around 86% of all FE students in the United Kingdom (ONS, 2024[10]). Given that this percentage is relatively large, the data are likely to give a reasonable description of the landscape in England. The same would not necessarily be true of other countries in the United Kingdom, where their respective student populations are much smaller proportions of the total (for example, level 4 and 5 provision in Scotland (United Kingdom) is larger proportionally than England’s and would therefore by under-represented using a UK-wide statistic).
In this report, HTE programmes are classified following the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) that establishes equivalences between educational programmes in different countries and therefore allows a comparison of countries’ VET systems. In England, HTE qualifications are classified at level 4 and 5 and correspond to ISCED 5. In the five selected countries, the focus is on ISCED 5 programmes, but the study also considers ISCED 4 programmes, which often share similarities with certain English HTE in terms of duration and objectives.
In the education system of England, HTE is part of the post-secondary education landscape (see Box 1.1 for a description), fitting into the broader system above ISCED 3 qualifications and below under-graduate (ISCED 6) and post-graduate degrees (ISCED 7 and 8).
Before students reach the level at which they can undertake HTE, they go through several stages of compulsory education, starting at primary education beginning at age five and continuing to secondary education (or training and apprenticeships) until at least the age of 18. After completing secondary-level General Certificates of Secondary Education (GCSEs), usually at age 16, students can choose to pursue further ISCED 3 qualifications. A-levels offer academic qualifications at this level, whilst T-levels, BTECs and diplomas are their equivalent vocational counterparts. In the 2022/23 academic year, A-level students made up around two-thirds of learners (66%) at level 3, T-level students accounted for 1% and apprentices and other vocational students (including those studying applied general awards such as BTECs and diplomas) accounted for one third (33%) (DfE, 2024[11]). Students achieving level 3 by age 18 can then progress on to higher level technical or academic education programmes, apprenticeships or employment.
To set the scene for the subsequent analysis, Table 1.1 provides an overview of the different qualifications offered in the countries considered in this report. England and Austria are notable for the diversity of their different study options, with several different qualifications possible. However, what sets England apart from the others is the rather minimal entry requirements that are mandated. Often it can depend on the local provider to impose entry requirements. Other countries tend to stipulate minimum achievements in prior learning to confer eligibility for HTE programmes. Credits, although in different nomenclature for the different countries, are similar in nature, due to these qualifications being delivered at ISCED 5 level, which imposes a standardised requirement for the expected duration of courses in terms of content. Austria, and Ontario (Canada), Denmark, and Sweden all have relatively smooth pathways into these programmes for students continuing from secondary-level education. Whilst these pathways exist for individuals in England and France they are less directly linked with the system of secondary education. Like England, Austria, Denmark, and France have pathways that are designed to help working adults to continue their education at the HTE level after having started in the labour market.
Note: Programmes at the ISCED 5 level, except for the Master craftsperson qualification in Austria which are not classified in the ISCED qualifications but are offered at level 6 in the Austrian qualification framework. In England, further education colleges can provide higher education (in the context of higher technical education).
In England, the regulated qualifications framework (RQF) determines nine levels of qualifications that are broadly (but not exactly) comparable to the levels the International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) 2011 framework.
Higher technical education (HTE) is a term used in England to refer to education that provides individuals with the knowledge, skills and behaviours that are needed for one or more occupations (i.e. is vocational in nature) and situated at either level 4 or level 5 in its regulated qualifications framework (RQF) and is classroom-based. These include higher national certificates and diplomas, and foundation degrees. Both of the level 4 and level 5 awards are situated at ISCED 5, which denotes short-cycle tertiary education.
For the purposes of this report, HTE is used to denote education in all countries that is vocational in nature and delivered at ISCED 5 level, where the national name for that education is not directly specified.
Source: Gov.uk (n.d.[12]) What qualification levels mean, www.gov.uk/what-different-qualification-levels-mean; UNESCO (2012[13]) International Standard Classification of Education ISCED 2011 (UNESCO, 2012[13]) https://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/international-standard-classification-of-education-isced-2011-en.pdf.
HTE is delivered at ISCED 5 and comprises around 90% of the total learner numbers at these levels (Boniface, Whalley and Goodwin, 2018[14]), the remainder aligned to academic pathways (for example Foundation Degrees in academic subjects like History or English). HTE aims to meet employers' skill needs, offering a pathway to high-skilled employment. A specific exclusion in this report is apprenticeships, which are considered separate to HTE but can lead to qualifications at the same level. Apprenticeships in England are offered at ISCED 2 to ISCED 7, which is unusual relative to many other OECD countries where there is typically a narrower range of apprenticeship around ISCED 3 to 4. Unless specified otherwise, the high-level ISCED 5 data presented in the charts in this report will include academic qualifications, whereas our discussion and analysis is focused primarily on vocational HTE only.
Level 4 HTE includes Higher National Certificates (HNCs) and Higher Education Certificates and is typically one year (full-time) in duration, whilst level 5 HTE includes Higher National Diplomas (HNDs) and Foundation Degrees and is typically two years in duration. In 2021/22 there was a roughly even split between learner enrolments in level 4 and level 5 courses. These qualifications can be further topped up to a full undergraduate degree by continuing onto levels 6 and beyond, typically involving an additional one or two years of study.
The educational landscape for HTE in England prior to the proposed reform (described below) was marked by a diversity of course choice and provider types and by a relative reduction in direct government funding over time. There were around 100 higher education institutions and a further 150 awarding organisations (see Chapter 3 for more details about the provider landscape) providing over 3 000 different level 4 and 5 courses and most courses were funded directly through employers or via student self-funding (DfE, 2019[15]). Between 2010/11 and 2015/16 the adult skills budget fell by 30% in nominal terms, affecting the amount that further education providers, traditionally the largest providers of HTE programmes, could devote to level 4 and 5 education (DfE, 2019[15]). To increase enrolment in HTE programmes, in 2016 advanced learner loans were expanded to enable all individuals studying in approved programmes, aged 19 and over, to receive government-backed loans, similarly to students in degree programmes. But, it is unclear to what extent these loans have been able to preserve student levels, relative to the provision of funding directly to the educational providers.
Amidst this backdrop, student numbers in HTE are relatively low and have declined in recent years (Figure 1.1). Entrants at (English RQF) levels 4 and 5 comprise only 17% of post-secondary student enrolments in 2022/23, having fallen from 21% in 2015/16. Absolute student enrolments in post-secondary education have increased by 16% in the period of 2015/16 to 2022/23, but this contrasts with a reduction in the number of level 4 and 5 annual enrolments from 153 000 in 2015/16 to 143 000 in 2022/23. This is driven largely by reductions in enrolments at level 5, which have decreased by 19% across the period (where by contrast level 4 enrolments have risen by 10%).
However, the aggregate picture of enrolments at levels 4 and 5 masks compositional differences, with larger falls to classroom-based provision. Overall enrolments have been supplemented by increases in apprenticeships. Level 4 apprenticeship enrolments have increased from 9 000 in 2015/16 to 37 000 in 2022/23 and level 5 apprenticeship enrolments from 17 000 to 28 000. Meanwhile, classroom-based level 4 enrolments have fallen from 56 000 to 35 000 (-37%) and level 5 from 70 000 to 42 000 (-40%) (DfE, 2024[16]). This nuance highlights the need for reforms to support demand for classroom-based HTE.
Annual post-secondary student entrants by academic year and RQF level
Note: Years refer to academic year, such that 2015 relates to the academic year 2015/16. Levels in the UK national regulated qualification framework (RQF).
Source: DfE (2024[17]), Higher Level Learners, https://explore-education-statistics.service.gov.uk/data-tables/permalink/b9cad888-17f3-4c84-1de2-08dd0254fb9b.
Government reforms aim to improve quality and encourage HTE uptake
The evident room for improvement in HTE provision in England has seen a multitude of tinkering to the system over recent years without any decisive long-term strategic approach (prior to the latest HTE reforms) (Field, 2018[8]). This culminated in an independent government review which reviewed the English system in the context of best international practices in the sector. It concluded that there was a lack of easy-to-understand technical qualifications that were stable over time and credible with employers. The numerous, diffuse pathways into HTE were cited as holding back HTE growth, whilst HTE itself had become divorced from occupations due to weak employer engagement (Independent Panel on Technical Education, 2016[18]).
To drive up student numbers in HTE, with a view to increasing demand from both employers and students alike, the previous UK government set out an agenda for reform (DfE, 2020[19]). It centred around a new approval scheme for qualifications, linked closely to employer needs. HTE employer panels define the knowledge, skills and behaviour requirements (compiled into a set of standards) of higher technical occupations and then approve higher technical qualifications (HTQs) if they align closely to these standards. It was intended that these newly approved courses would become the most popular choice at this level because of their labour market value and clear quality mark.
The roll-out of the reform started with digital HTQs in 2022, before construction and health and sciences were added in 2023. The remainder of the new course types will be rolled out over the course of 2024 and 2025. Reforms to course design were supported by some awareness raising, as part of a larger campaign around skills and careers. Alongside this a focus was given to improving course quality, working with the IoTs, colleges and course providers.
To support the delivery of the new HTQs the UK Government introduced a package of financial support worth up to GBP 117 million, to finance projects aimed at supporting providers to grow provision (DfE, 2023[20]). This included up to GBP 83 million for HTE skills injection and provider growth funds. This would finance capital and resource costs for providers, to support their delivery of education.
Whilst the previous section gave a short description of HTE in an English context, it is helpful to review this education and how it relates to labour market dynamics in an international perspective. This provides a broader context not only on how HTE exists now in England to support its business and workers to flourish, but also an inspiration for how the sector could develop in the future to better serve the needs of its labour market and bolster the productive capacity of the English economy.
Labour productivity in England has room to grow
HTE, and education more broadly, may help the English labour market to become more productive through better use of its labour force. Productivity in England in 2021 was only 11 percentage points above OECD average and was 4th highest among G7 countries (Figure 1.2). This represents a decrease of 10 percentage points, relative to its labour productivity against the OECD average in 2000. This was one of the largest falls in that period, for countries that had labour productivity above the OECD average in 2021. Of the comparator countries in this study, only Canada has lower labour productivity than England and even here provincial differences may diminish some of this gap. Labour productivity in Ontario, which is the focus province for the policy discussion in the remaining chapters, is some 4% higher than for Canada as a whole (Statistics Canada, 2023[21]).
The implications of the UK's relatively slow productivity growth are profound, bearing direct consequences on economic vitality and competitiveness on the global stage. A concerted effort to reverse this trend is imperative for securing the country's economic future. Ensuring a strategic focus on enhancing the skill set of the workforce will help to foster innovation and realise productive potential. A dynamic and well-equipped workforce is vital to drive higher value-added output and to position the UK as a leading economy that is resilient and responsive to the rapid changes characterising the 21st-century global market.
GDP per hour worked, percentage point difference from OECD average (OECD=0), current prices and PPP
Note: United Kingdom and G7 countries highlighted for comparison.
Source: OECD (2023[22]), OECD Compendium of Productivity Indicators 2023, Figure. 2.7, https://doi.org/10.1787/74623e5b-en.
Upskilling workers to support productivity is crucial in England
To further unpick the recent trend in the underperformance of English labour market productivity, it is insightful to consider skills mismatches in the economy, which can impinge upon the productive use of labour inputs. Workers in England suffer from both under and over qualification for their jobs. One in three workers (30%) in the United Kingdom are over-qualified for their job (Figure 1.3). This is the 5th highest rate in the OECD and the highest among the countries considered in this report. So, appropriate heed needs to be given to ensuring that individuals make the right choices in their education. Not doing so may also lead to the acquisition of a surfeit of skills, such that time out of the labour market to acquire education is not repaid via better jobs which properly utilise these skills.
Over-qualification may also be attributed to variations in the quality of education and training, with certain qualifications failing to adequately develop individuals’ expected knowledge and skills (OECD, 2016[23]). In this instance, shorter and higher quality education which is better aligned to labour market needs could reduce the time spent in education whilst at the same time ensuring employers find individuals with the appropriate skills demanded for their jobs. The importance of this is also underlined by the high levels of field of study mismatch in England, where 50% of individuals have education which education not related to their jobs. Post-secondary vocational education can provide an efficient and well-functioning mechanism to align workers qualifications with the needs of the labour market.
On the other hand, 12% of workers are under-qualified for their jobs. This leaves room for continuing adult education to play a role in improving productivity in England through ensuring that learning helps to equip workers with the skills that are needed to flourish in their jobs. Moreover, it calls for opportunities for individuals to have the skills that they acquired outside of the formal education system, recognised towards a qualification.
Percentage of workforce with qualification levels above or below those required in their job
Source: OECD (2019[24]), Skills Matter: Additional Results from the Survey of Adult Skills, http://doi.org/10.1787/1f029d8f-en.
Comparatively few individuals have vocational education as their highest qualification in England
In many countries vocational education and training (VET) is primarily offered at the upper-secondary level but a few countries also feature a large HTE system. HTE can be offered either as a complement to a robust upper secondary VET system, as seen in Austria, or as the primary vocational pathway in the absence of upper-secondary vocational education, as observed in Ontario. In the other focus countries of this report, i.e. Denmark, France and Sweden, HTE enrolment is lower than enrolment at upper-secondary level, but still represents at least 20% of all VET participation. Taking the suite of education at upper- and post-secondary levels together, England has fewer individuals that have participated in vocational education than average in the OECD.
England has a relatively healthy share of individuals that participate in HTE, but there is room for growth. The proportion of new tertiary entrants in England in 2021 who participated in HTE programmes was 24%, slightly above the average in the OECD (19%) (Figure 1.5). This proportion has also been growing over time, increasing from 18% in 2015. Still, it lags someway behind two of the country examples used in this report, Austria (42%) and Canada (38%). Due to England’s categorisation of all post-secondary vocational courses as short-cycle tertiary (ISCED 5), this may overstate its position relative to countries that also offer vocational courses at ISCED 4. Similarly, England does not have a system of professionally orientated ISCED 6 programmes (it categorises its professionally orientated two-year foundation degrees at ISCED 5) whereas other countries do offer such programmes. This being said, the data suggest that at the least, England does suffer unduly from low numbers of learners entering into HTE at the outset.
Share of first-time entrants to short-cycle programmes among all first-time tertiary entrants (2015 and 2021)
1) Year of reference differs from 2021. Refer to the source table for more details.
2). Short-cycle tertiary data refer to the Flemish Community of Belgium only.
Source: OECD (2023[25]), Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators, Indicator B4.1, https://doi.org/10.1787/d7f76adc-en.
Looking at the dynamics of vocational education through the lens of the highest qualifications of individuals, England has slightly fewer individuals with a vocational education than the OECD average. This is owing both to fewer individuals with vocational upper secondary education, and fewer with vocational ISCED 4 or ISCED 5 (Figure 1.5). Considering both post-secondary non-tertiary (ISCED 4) and short-cycle tertiary (ISCED 5) together, the proportion individuals with those as a highest qualification is 6% in England, around half that of the OECD average (12%). For those individuals with an upper-secondary vocational qualification as their highest, England (16%) has around 20% fewer than the average in the OECD (20%). In total, England has just over a fifth of adults aged 25-34 with a vocational education as their highest (22%), this compares to the highest comparator country, Austria, who has over half (54%).
Percentage of individuals aged 25-34 who have a vocational orientation as their highest level of education
1. Data for upper secondary attainment include completion of a sufficient volume and standard of programmes that would be classified individually as completion of intermediate upper secondary programmes (9% of adults aged 25-34 are in this group).
2. Year of reference differs from 2022.
Countries are ranked in descending order of the share of 25-34 year-olds who attained vocational upper secondary, vocational post-secondary non-tertiary (ISCED 4) or vocational short-cycle tertiary education (ISCED 5).
Source: OECD (2023[25]), Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators, Table A1.3, https://doi.org/10.1787/d7f76adc-en.
Although England has fewer individuals than the OECD average with a vocational highest qualification, this is not due to a lack of vocational learners at the upper-secondary level. Despite lagging someway behind Austria (68%), England (36%) has a fairly typical proportion of learners at upper secondary who undertake a vocational, rather than academic, course (Figure 1.6). It is comparable to the proportion in France (37%), only slightly lower than the OECD average (39%) and above that of both Sweden (33%) and Denmark (19%).
Proportion of upper secondary students, 15-19 year-olds, who are taking vocational qualifications
Source: OECD (2023[25]), Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators , Figure B1.1, https://doi.org/10.1787/d7f76adc-en.
Part of the story for England lies in its emphasis on higher education attainment, manifested primarily through participation in Bachelor’s, Master’s and Doctoral programmes. This has persisted since the turn of the century when the then Prime Minister, Tony Blair, set a target in 1999 for at least 50% of young adults going into higher education. This has manifested itself today with the United Kingdom having one of the highest levels of tertiary attainment of 25-34 year-olds (58%) in the OECD (Figure 1.7), which has continued to grow over time.
Trends in tertiary attainment of 25-34 year-olds (2015 and 2022)
Note: In most countries data refer to ISCED 2011. For Argentina and India data refer to ISCED-97. See Definitions and Methodology sections for more information. Totals for men and women are available for consultation online. Data and more breakdowns are available at http://stats.oecd.org/, Education at a Glance Database.
1. Data for tertiary education include upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary programmes (fewer than 5% of adults are in this group.
Source: OECD (2023[25]), Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/d7f76adc-en.
Although a low proportion of vocational orientation in education is not a problem in itself, in the context of declining relative labour market productivity and skills mismatches in England it offers some pause for thought on how vocational education may help to improve labour market dynamics. Vocational ISCED 5 courses are quicker than Bachelor’s degrees, reducing their costs and speeding up the transition to employment. Vocational education also offers a route by which to more directly link the skills attained by learners to those demanded by employers, such that changing labour market needs are better reflected in the learning that students undertake. It is for this reason that some countries- for example Austria and Denmark in this report- have systems which specifically cater to adults returning to education whilst in the labour market. Greater utilisation of vocational education and HTE in particular in this context may help England to better align individuals’ skills to jobs and help to improve the productivity of its workforce.
Those individuals with higher technical education do not enjoy a large employment uplift
When focusing on the individuals in England that do have HTE as their highest qualification, OECD data suggest there is not a large employment gain relative to their less educated peers (Figure 1.8). This contrasts with countries such as Austria, France and Denmark where individuals with HTE (ISCED 5) not only exhibit higher employment rates than those with lower levels of education but also comparable or even superior rates compared to those with degrees at ISCED levels 6 or above. In England, the employment rate for those individuals with HTE is virtually identical to that of those with only secondary level education. The explanation for this is not solely down to high relative employment levels for those with secondary level education. England has the 4th highest employment rate for individuals with secondary level education but only the 16th highest for those with short cycle tertiary education.
25-64 year-olds; upper secondary education = 100, 2022
Note: Values in parenthesis refer to the employment rate of adults with an upper secondary education.
Source: OECD calculations based on the LSO data collected for OECD (2023[25]), Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators, https://doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en.
But those with higher technical education do earn more in England
Turning to the earnings of those individuals who are employed, individuals in England with post-secondary vocational education do enjoy relatively better earnings than those with upper secondary level education. Earnings for those with higher technical education in England are 21% higher than for those with upper-secondary education, which compares to 19% for the OECD as a whole (Figure 1.9).
The same is not true for those with Bachelor’s degree or equivalent, for whom the uplift over those with upper-secondary education is lower than the OECD average – although still relatively high at 32%. This implies the relative earnings pay-off of short-cycle education, compared to Bachelor’s degrees is relatively high for students in England in an international perspective.
Relative earnings of tertiary-educated adults compared to earnings of adults with an upper secondary education
Note: Base year 2018. The following data points are not displayed on the chart because they are above 250: Chile (457 - Master’s, Doctoral or equivalent, 279 - Bachelor's or equivalent), Costa Rica (345 - Master’s, Doctoral or equivalent), Mexico (308 - Master’s, Doctoral or equivalent).
1. Year of reference differs from 2018.
2. Index 100 refers to the combined ISCED levels 3 and 4 of the educational attainment levels in the ISCED 2011 classification.
3. Earnings net of income tax.
Source: OECD (2020[26])), Education at a Glance 2020, https://doi.org/10.1787/26964602-en.
This report relies on a detailed qualitative analysis of five other OECD countries to illuminate the institutional, regulatory and practical dimensions to the provision of HTE in their jurisdictions. It aims to offer inspiration to England as it seeks to reform the design and implementation of its education. These countries are Austria, Denmark and Canada (Ontario), France and Sweden. Under the Canadian constitution, provinces and territories have primary responsibility for education. This means that it is necessary to consider provinces separately from one another. Here the focus is solely on the province of Ontario, given its very high ISCED-5 provision and its ability to provide salient examples to the English context. The report will reference Ontario specifically, but will refer to the set of example countries and Ontario as “countries” for expositional purposes.
The basis of selection for these countries is twofold. Firstly, that they have well developed and extensive education provision at ISCED-5 level and that they may offer good inspiration across the different dimensions studied in this report. The countries chosen here have a diversity of experience across dimensions such as having high rates of HTE study, clear pathways for higher technical education and a large proportion of HTE students relative to other post-secondary education, particularly at under and post-graduate degree level. They also have high levels of labour productivity relative to England. Many countries do not exhibit such characteristics and hence the set of potential countries reduces somewhat. The choice of countries in this report is utilising somewhat similar criteria as those in Field’s report on higher technical education in England (2018[8]), for which all of the countries in this report appear in his table reviewing inclusion against selection criteria. Secondly, those countries which the OECD Centre for Skills has worked with previously offer the opportunity to leverage pre-existing knowledge and links with country officials to ensure that the examples given are rich, cognizant of the education provision in that country and its peculiarities, and offer precise and nuanced reflections of their systems. The Pathways to Professions (OECD, 2022[27]) work programme started the discussions in this area by reviewing professional tertiary education delivery across OECD countries.
Table 1.2 provides contextual information on the demography and economies of the five selected countries and England. Background information on the countries’ HTE system is provided in the next section, and the remaining chapters of this report delve deeper into certain aspects of these systems.
Note: Purchasing power parities (PPPs) are the rates of currency conversion that try to equalise the purchasing power of different currencies, by eliminating the differences in price levels between countries. The basket of goods and services priced is a sample of all those that are part of final expenditures: final consumption of households and government, fixed capital formation, and net exports. This indicator is measured in terms of national currency per US dollar, https://data.oecd.org/conversion/purchasing-power-parities-ppp.htm. (1) Estimate for Ontario not available- OECD calculations scaling Canada GDP per capita by the difference in Statistics Canada (2024[28]) estimates of provincial household income per capita
Source: OECD (n.d.[29]) Data explorer, https://data-explorer.oecd.org/; Data for Ontario from Statistics Canada (2024[28]; 2024[30]; 2024[31]; 2024[32]).
Whilst conducting comparisons across countries, it is important to bear in mind the relative costs (and associated benefits) with different policies and systems. These considerations influence both the feasibility and desirability of implementation. However, such analysis is also challenging. Often benefits for particular systems or means of organisation have not been calculated, or costs of individual elements not disaggregated. For example, the councils, replete with membership of the social partners, that influence HTE design and delivery in Denmark and Sweden rely on participation from these social partners. This imposes implicit costs upon those organisations. The council membership relies on the strong fabric of social integration and participation that exists within these countries. But it makes an estimation of the cost of operation of the councils difficult to determine, without recourse to a full time and resource estimation. Similarly, the benefits derived from their operation are difficult to determine, without some kind of (quasi‑) experiment to determine their impact upon education delivery and outcomes. To this end, the analysis relies on qualitative evidence to draw together a picture of the impacts of different programmes and policies.
There is a diversity of set-up of VET across the countries analysed
This section provides a brief description of the set-up of VET in each of the example countries, to provide an initial overview in which to contextualise further analysis of the specific system features found later in the report.
Austria integrates HTE into its comprehensive vocational education at secondary level
In Austria, the rationale and objectives for HTE are embedded within the broader vocational school system which starts at secondary level. Therefore, schools and colleges in Austria offer education across a variety of levels from secondary through to post-secondary. This is similar to England, where colleges and (to a lesser extent) universities offer different levels of education. But unlike England HTE in Austria is embedded in much more coherent and consistent vocational pathways that provide clarity and spur demand.
The Austrian VET system has a very long tradition in its education system, which has allowed it to prosper as a core component within the education system as a whole. It has a vibrant “dual training system” which combines classroom instruction with hands-on training at the workplace. The central idea within this dual system of training at the workplace dates all the way back to the middle-ages, and the first VET school for school-based training was established in 1758 under Empress Maria Theresia (Graf, 2013[33]).
These roots have established a solid basis for VET in Austria to thrive, and this has resulted in one of the highest participation rates in vocational upper-secondary training today. Around three-quarters of age cohorts at age 16 participate in some kind of initial VET programme. Combined with solid pathways into HTE, this provides a fertile ground on which students can then progress into HTE. The design of the initial VET programmes in Austria can be broadly grouped into three types, all of which offer the possibility to progress into HTE, either directly or indirectly.
Around one quarter of each age cohort participates in vocational colleges (BHS – Berufsbildende Höhere Schulen). These five-year programmes (typically for students aged 15-19) offer a combination of general and vocational education and training. There is a wide range of subjects available, including a variety of technical subjects, but also extending to business administration, tourism education, fashion and design, preschool education and agriculture and forestry. Vocational training is conducted directly within the schools themselves (all schools are equipped with workshops), through compulsory internships in the summer holidays (ranging from two to eight months according to the subject) and includes co-operation with local companies during the school year. The final exam is a double qualification; a general upper-secondary exam offering access to all tertiary education institutions, and a diploma qualification giving access to the labour market, including to regulated trades. The first three years of the programme are classified at ISCED level 3, and the last two years are HTE at ISCED level 5.
A smaller proportion of students (around 15%), participate in shorter vocational school programmes (BMS – Berufsbildende Mittlere Schulen), which culminate in an ISCED level 3 qualification and provide access to separate HTE qualifications (such as “add-on” courses). The vocational school programmes are similar to the vocational colleges but shorter; typically, they last for three years (although some are shorter or longer in duration- up to four years). They also combine general education with vocational training and offer practical training in the schools, as well as through internships. There is a similar range of subjects available. As they are shorter the final exam does not give automatic access to tertiary education, but through add-on courses, or additional exams (Berufsreifeprüfung) students still can qualify for tertiary education later.
The final form of initial VET is the dual-training system, which accounts for around 35% of students and is the most popular form of education and training at upper secondary level. It combines training in a company (3-4 days a week) with training in a vocational school (1-2 days a week). In rural areas with no vocational school for apprentices in the vicinity of the training company there is also the option of a block system, where students attend the school for eight-week blocks (living in student residences) and spend the rest of the year in the company. Students have to find an enterprise willing to give them an apprenticeship contract. Students have to be at least 15 years old but it is not necessary to have completed lower secondary education and there are no other requirements. The company is responsible for the training, and also pays a small salary which increases over time. The company has to assign a trainer which is formally responsible for the apprentice and who has to ensure that the apprentice learns the whole trade as laid down in the curricula (Berufsbild), which are based on learning outcomes.
Whilst dual training usually ends directly in an ISCED 3 qualification, there is a direct possibility to undertake an additional preparatory course and sit the Meisterprüfung (master craftsmanship exam), which entitles the individual to open their own company and to train apprentices. These exams are, however, typically taken by after several years of relevant work experience. Over one third (36.4%) of these exams are taken after ten or more years work experience and a further fifth (19.1%) after more than seven (Dornmayr, Lengauer and Riepl, 2022[34]). Whilst not formally classified by Austria in the ISCED framework, these Meisterprüfung qualifications sit in their national qualifications framework at level 6 (equivalent to a Bachelor’s degree) and for the purposes of this report they are defined as part of Austria’s HTE provision.1 There are two main ministries responsible for the dual training system. The Federal Ministry for Education, Science and Research is responsible for the school-based learning, whereas the work-based training lies in the competence of the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs, Family and Youth. The regional economic chambers are actively involved into the administration of the dual-training system and also organise final apprenticeship exams.
Quality assurance in Austria’s vocational education system is maintained through a comprehensive framework involving several key organisations. The Austrian Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Research oversees the accreditation and quality standards of vocational programmes. Additionally, curricula are developed and regularly updated in collaboration with industry representatives to ensure they remain relevant to current industry needs. This close co‑operation between educational institutions and the private sector is fundamental to maintaining the high quality and relevance of vocational training in Austria.
Denmark has strong links to the labour market and social partners
Denmark's system of HTE is marked by a strong participation from social partners, funding linked to education quality and labour market demand (UFM, n.d.[35]), and a relatively narrowly focused set of provision and providers. The introduction of academy profession programmes (HTE programmes) and professional bachelor’s degrees in the 1990s was a key development, aimed at providing students with specialised vocational training that is closely linked to the labour market. These reforms were part of a broader strategy to enhance the quality of vocational education and increase its attractiveness to students. The Danish government has also focused on strengthening the partnerships between educational institutions and employers to ensure that the training programmes remain relevant and effective.
In Denmark, the HTE programmes are called “academy profession” programmes and are differentiated into two types to cater to different audiences. Academy profession programmes typically last about two years and focus on providing vocational skills in areas such as business and economics, technology, IT, laboratory technology, social sciences, and design. These programmes include internships or work placements, ensuring that students gain hands-on experience in their chosen fields. There are currently 27 of these programmes (UVM, 2024[36]), which is relatively few in international terms. Academy profession “part-time” programmes offer modular courses at the same level, to students returning to education whilst in the labour market (having at least two years of relevant professional expertise) and are designed to provide a “parallel” offer of education to those students continuing directly into the academy profession programmes from education. These two types of programmes are offered in the eight business academies (and two university colleges). Denmark also supports lifelong learning and continuous professional development through vocational programmes, which often have flexible learning options, including part-time and online courses, to accommodate working adults seeking to upgrade their skills or change careers. The separate academy profession (part-time) programmes are available only to learners with labour market experience, seeking specifically to offer re-training possibilities to individuals already out of education and in the labour market. This approach ensures that vocational education is accessible to a broader population, including those who are already part of the workforce.
The eight business academies that offer HTE in Denmark have evolved significantly from their origins in merchant and artisan schools in the mid-1800s. Initially created to provide practice-oriented education in business and technical fields, these institutions underwent numerous reforms and mergers, reflecting changes in educational priorities and economic needs. By the 1980s, inspired by German models, Danish vocational colleges (pre-cursors to the business academies) had developed higher-level education that integrated practical training with theoretical instruction. These courses- mostly either mercantile or in narrow technical fields- were inspired by the widespread desire to link companies and business more closely to the courses, ensuring that the education was relevant and that students had real-world work experience during their studies (DKEA, 2024[37]).
In 1982, Denmark established the first formal order for business academy courses, mandating that these programmes be developed in close collaboration with the business community, and typically lasting around two to two and half years. A crucial aspect was that half of the training occurred in companies, where students were employed and paid, ensuring practical experience. This dual approach aimed to create an alternative to traditional higher education, making graduates immediately employable. But the large financial contribution of the firms led them to reduce the availability of places for work-based learning and contributed to a particular sensitivity of supply to economic conditions. However, as successful academy courses could be lucrative for schools, they marketed them and created new programmes to further foster demand. By the 1990s, this had led to a proliferation of diverse and uncoordinated programmes (over 75 of which existed), prompting a need for reform (DKEA, 2024[37]).
This history culminated in a comprehensive reorganisation in 1999 to streamline and standardise programmes, reducing their number and aligning them with national standards. The reforms also aimed to facilitate further education opportunities and regional co‑ordination. Legislative changes in 2007‑8 further established business academies as independent entities, legally separating them from the vocational colleges. In 2010, the Ministry stipulated that all academies were required to adopt a completely independent legal basis, which ended an alternative form of “light” independence, whereby the business academy still retained some links to the vocational colleges via the shared use of buildings and staff.
The Danish government reached a further agreement in 2013 to solidify the independence and profile of the business academies. This included granting them the right to offer professional bachelor’s programmes independently, ensuring board compositions included industry representatives, and refining the role of education committees to enhance the practical focus of programmes. The agreement emphasised the academies’ role in transferring knowledge to business through research and development, cementing their position as vital institutions in Denmark’s educational landscape. The business academies focus primarily on short-cycle higher education and collaborate closely with industries to ensure that the curriculum remains relevant to labour market needs.
These reforms to educational organisation exist within a strong underlying system of engagement, based on Denmark’s flexicurity system,2 which underpins HTE and helps to assure strong links to the labour market. Tripartite agreements between government and the social partners help to establish strategic priorities for the sector. This is supplemented by the Council for Academy Profession Programmes and Professional Bachelor Programme, which directly advises the Minister of Education and Research and is comprised of members from across the Danish labour market. Programme rationing, based on educational and employment needs in the labour market, directly links programme funding to labour market needs.
The high levels of trust in Denmark extend to quality assurance, where the business academies are afforded a high degree of autonomy to manage quality, subject to meeting regulatory requirements. The Danish Accreditation Institution oversees the quality assurance framework of HTE via its role in the accreditation of institutions. Once institutions have been accredited, they then manage their quality assurance processes independently. The accreditation process includes a self-evaluation report from the institution and site visits. During these processes, the institution’s quality processes are evaluated against required standards. An institution can be accredited on the basis that its quality assurance system meets the required national standards. After this point, institutions are free to manage and improve quality according to their own internal procedures. This gives them the flexibility to ensure quality and enhancement is aligned to their particular circumstances. Additionally, the Ministry of Higher Education and Science plays a role in overseeing the overall quality and effectiveness of its HTE provision on a system level.
France HTE is flexible and encourages work-based HTE through skills bodies
In France HTE is offered via the Brevet de Technicien Supérieur (BTS). BTS programmes span two years and are heavily focused on practical skills, incorporating significant work-based learning components. These programmes cover a wide array of fields, including industrial, commercial, and service sectors. As of 2011 there were 88 BTS programmes offered (MESR, 2024[38]). The programme flexibility means that BTS can be offered as initial training, continuing training and as training as part of an ongoing job.
Until recently, a second two-year post-secondary professionally-oriented programme existed, the Diplôme Universitaire de Technologie (DUT). However, the DUT programmes have now been transformed into three-year programmes, Bachelor Universitaire de Technologie (BUT). This was due to the fact that the large majority of DUT graduates (over 85%) continued their studies to obtain a professional bachelor level qualification (so the DUT and those professional bachelor programmes were merged into BUT) (OECD, 2022[27]). However, to preserve the option for students to study only a shorter-form tertiary education, those students who pass the second year can stop and be awarded the DUT. In terms of magnitude, the BTS formed the large majority of HTE students, outnumbering DUT students by over three to one in 2020/21 (CIRCABC, 2023[39]).
The creation of the Brevet de Technicien Supérieur (BTS) and the Diplôme Universitaire de Technologie (DUT) in the 1960s marked a significant shift towards formalising vocational training at the tertiary level. These programmes were introduced to bridge the gap between secondary education and the labour market, providing a pathway for students to gain advanced technical skills. Over the years, reforms have focused on enhancing the quality and accessibility of vocational education, with initiatives such as the establishment of professional advisory commissions and the integration of work-based learning to ensure that training programmes align with industry needs.
The BTS are offered in public, private, contracted and non-contracted high schools, apprentice training centres, continuing vocational training centres and distance-learning establishments. These institutions maintain close ties with industries to keep curricula aligned with the latest industry standards and needs. Eleven Opérateurs de Compétence (OPCO) were established in 2019 to support businesses to develop and engage with HTE. These replaced the Organismes Paritaires Collecteurs Agréés, reducing their number from 20 to 11 new OPCO and broading out responsibilities. The OPCOs help to finance apprenticeships, help regional branches build professional certifications and support SMEs to define their training needs. The system of both school-based and work-based BTS contracts are designed to offer in-work individuals with the incentives to upskill.
Quality assurance in France’s vocational education system is managed by several national bodies. A national agency, France Compétences, oversees the introduction, updating, and removal of state-recognised professional qualifications through its professional advisory commissions. These commissions, composed of industry and education representatives, ensure that vocational programmes remain relevant to labour market demands. Furthermore, the Ministry of Higher Education, Research, and Innovation provides regulatory oversight, ensuring adherence to national education standards.
To encourage student enrollment in vocational education, France offers various financial support mechanisms. Students can access grants and loans through the national student aid system, which helps mitigate the cost of education. Similarly employer levies for both apprenticeships and continuing training aim to increase employer and student demand for this training, and these levies fund (among other things) a recruitment subsidy of EUR 6 000 for new employees on training contracts.
Broader measures to enhance the attractiveness of vocational education include the integration of work-based learning as a core component of these programmes. Many institutions have established partnerships with employers to facilitate internships and apprenticeships, ensuring that students gain practical experience while studying. This approach not only enhances employability but also helps students build professional networks.
Ontario’s public colleges are HTE specialists
In Ontario, HTE is a purposefully distinct and separate offer to academic higher education and is delivered primarily through the 24 public colleges of applied arts and technology. Ontario is unique in the countries analysed in this report in that it does not have upper-secondary vocational education and its vocational pathways begin at post-secondary level, either at apprenticeship or college-based. The public colleges specialise in delivering HTE and allow Ontario to develop separate and distinct educational pathways between the vocational HTE and academic higher education pathways. This has allowed Ontario to enjoy high HTE participation, which is seen as an equal alternative to academic higher education programmes. However, despite this distinction there are significant initiatives to reduce the friction between HTE and academic higher education, recognising overlap in programme and allowing reduced curricula in degrees where the individual has already gained VET expertise.
The establishment of the public colleges of applied arts and technology in the 1960s marked a significant historical development, providing a structured pathway for students to gain advanced vocational qualifications. Over the years, the focus has been on expanding the range of programmes offered and incorporating work-based learning components to ensure that training is aligned with industry requirements.
The programmes offered at this level include diploma programmes, certificate programmes, and advanced diplomas. Diploma programmes last two years and provide a combination of hands-on training and theoretical knowledge in fields such as healthcare, engineering technology, business, and information technology, and they comprise the majority of HTE. Certificate programmes are shorter, usually lasting one year or less, and focus on imparting specific skills and competencies required for immediate employment in specific trades or professions. Advanced diplomas, extending over three years, offer more in-depth training, preparing students for specialised roles in their chosen fields.
Quality assurance in Ontario’s vocational education system is ensured through several mechanisms. The Ontario College Quality Assurance Service (OCQAS) plays a crucial role in ensuring that colleges meet specific standards of programme quality and institutional effectiveness. OCQAS is unique in that it is wholly owned by the public colleges. Its existence is mandated by Ontarian legislation, which requires colleges to establish an external quality assurance service Its board structure designed to eliminate undue conflicts of interest with the individual colleges. The Ontario Ministry of Colleges and Universities oversees the accreditation of these programmes, ensuring they meet provincial standards. Furthermore, many programmes are guided by industry advisory committees composed of industry professionals who help align the curricula with current industry needs and standards.
To encourage student demand, Ontario has implemented several initiatives. The Ontario Student Assistance Programme (OSAP) provides grants and loans to help students cover tuition and living expenses (in partnership with the Canada Student Financial Assistance Program), with specific grants available for those in vocational programmes. Pathway programmes, such as dual credit initiatives, allow high school students to take college courses, earning credits towards both their high school diploma and a college certificate or diploma. College-led initiatives, such as Colleges Ontario, bring together institutions so that collaboration efforts can be applied strategically across the sector to encourage demand and drive up quality.
In Sweden HTE reform streamlined previously diffuse qualifications and a separate agency now has quality assurance responsibilities
In Sweden, the HTE system aims to provide a flexible and accessible pathway for students to gain advanced vocational qualifications. The introduction of higher vocational education (HVE) programmes in 2009 was designed to provide short-cycle tertiary education that is closely aligned with industry needs. This reform merged four different post-secondary education schemes for adults, including the HVE predecessor KY (Kvalificerad Yrkesutbildning) from the late 1990s.
The development of post-secondary vocational education, separate to universities, is a relatively recent phenomenon in Sweden. It emerged from a system in which a 1975 legislative reform had established a principle that all post-secondary education should occur within universities (Rättsdatablad, 2008[40]). Post-secondary education outside of universities was not possible until the introduction in 1995 of qualified post-secondary vocational education, following the recommendations of an inquiry on post-secondary education. These programmes could be offered by state universities and colleges, municipalities, county councils and individuals. In addition to these courses, a number of supplementary and extension VET courses existed that were also brought under the umbrella of qualified post-secondary vocational courses in 2005.
All of these changes, designed to increase choice, link-up with labour market demand and diversify post-secondary education away from purely academic university-based studies, culminated in a system marked by a lack of a coherent strategic vision. It meant that post-secondary vocational training outside of university was organised according to a number of different principals governed by several different government regulations, and included an array of public and private providers.
The genesis behind the introduction of HVE in 2009 was therefore to improve quality through simplification of regulations, increasing the clarity of a strategic vision for this education, and improving information to both students and labour market actors. Revising the regulations was intended to create a more efficient use of resources and clear prioritisation based around labour market need (Rättsdatablad, 2008[40]). These reforms have helped to foster a dynamic of rapid growth in the sector over recent years.
HVE programmes are offered by a variety of providers, including private organisations, and emphasise work-based learning and close collaboration with employers. In 2022 there were 231 training providers, of which 138 (60%) were private. This proportion has increased from around 50% 10 years earlier. Municipalities account for 85 out of the 93 public providers (MYH, 2023[41]). Continuous efforts have been made to ensure that vocational education in Sweden remains responsive to the evolving demands of the labour market, with regular updates to curricula and training standards.
The HTE programmes typically involve a significant component of work-based learning (known as Learning on the job, or LIA). The course design for these programmes is focused on practical and applied learning, with a typical duration ranging from one to two years. The curricula are developed in collaboration with industry stakeholders to ensure that the skills and competencies taught are directly relevant to current labour market demands. Many HVE programmes offer flexible learning options, including part-time studies and distance learning, to accommodate working adults seeking to upgrade their skills or change careers. This approach ensures that vocational education is accessible to a broader population, including those who are already part of the workforce. These initiatives have resulted in a strong growth in student numbers over time, with participation more than doubling over the past ten years (MYH, 2023[41]).
Quality assurance in Sweden's vocational education system is maintained through a rigorous framework involving several key agencies. The Swedish National Agency for Higher Vocational Education (Myndigheten för yrkeshögskolan, MYH) oversees the quality and relevance of HVE programmes. This agency ensures that the programmes meet national standards and are continuously updated to reflect changes in the labour market. For example, its area analyses determine demand for programmes at regional level. Additionally, regular evaluations and inspections are conducted to maintain high standards of education and training.
This chapter has shown that there exists a sizeable space for HTE in England to grow and transform such that it effectively supports the English workforce to provide a driving force for future productivity growth and economic output. Whilst the English economy has a number of positive features and on the whole has a decent level of productivity, it has stagnated somewhat in recent years. There is also a potential for higher vocational qualifications to grow, as they represent a relatively low proportion of overall education, relative to other OECD countries.
Despite the fact that individuals with short-cycle vocational qualifications in England who are employed earn more than individuals with only upper-secondary education, there is a greater scope to better link up individuals and employers. There is almost no employment uplift for those with short-cycle vocational qualifications. This suggests room for either better awareness of employers as to the skills conferred by those with short-cycle tertiary education, or for better alignment between the specific types of education at this level and the employment opportunities in firms. These are exactly the type of considerations that policymakers sought to address in England with the introduction of the new HTQs.
A complex landscape and weak employer engagement in HTE spurred a set of reforms that aim to provide secure pathways into HTE and introduce greater HTE standardisation, aligned to employers’ skills needs. This is hoped to lead to better prestige of the qualifications to both employers and students, facilitating the growth of the sector and helping to bring better alignment with labour market needs.
The countries analysed in this report demonstrate that, to deliver a successful suite of HTE, there is no one-size-fits-all and different countries have different approaches in the range of programmes offered, the institutions that offer them, and how measures are employed to encourage demand from individuals and firms.
The remaining chapters of this report illustrate how other countries manage to successfully deliver a suite of HTE which is popular with learners, equips them with skills needed for employment, and is aligned to labour market demands in their economies. These countries illuminate some of the possibilities for reform and augmentation of the existing system in England, such that tweaks to the delivery of HTE in England could be made to better achieve the objectives its reform.
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← 1. Such meister examinations are often classified at different ISCED levels by countries, as such being difficult to neatly summarise. More comparative information can be found in OECD (2022[27]).
← 2. Which supports easy hiring and firing for firms with a strong system of social protection and education measures to support individuals into jobs.