Gender Equality in a Changing World

1. Introduction

Abstract

This chapter presents an overview of the main findings of the report Gender Equality in a Changing World: Taking Stock and Moving Forward, which provides a comprehensive stocktaking of gender gaps in education, employment, unpaid work, leadership, health, violence, the green transition and the digital transformation in European Union (EU) and OECD countries – and suggests ways to move forward. The report serves as a call to policy makers, stakeholders and societies at large to reaffirm and advance the EU’s historic commitments to gender equality.

1.1. Gender equality in a changing world: Meeting commitments and moving forward

The pursuit of gender equality is, first and foremost, a moral and legal imperative. In a time of rapid social and economic transformations, gender equality also serves as a cornerstone of economic growth. Technological advancements, population ageing, the climate crisis and evolving social structures are reshaping our societies (OECD, 2024[1]). These changes have sometimes been accompanied by a resurgence of attitudes that resist the transformative potential of gender equality. In some places, this has led to policy rollbacks or superficial changes that fail to address inequities meaningfully.

This environment demands a critical re‑evaluation of established policies and the development of robust, integrated policy combinations that can adapt to and drive gender equality as part of a broader societal transformation. While women have made tremendous strides over past decades, persistent inequalities highlight the need for renewed commitments and innovative policy actions (OECD, 2023[2]).

This report presents a comprehensive analysis of gender equality in European Union (EU) and OECD countries and suggests paths forward. It is a call to policy makers, stakeholders and societies at large to reaffirm and advance the EU’s historic commitments and progress towards gender equality. This includes Directives on work-life balance, gender balance in leadership of listed companies, pay transparency, and combating violence against women and domestic violence; the EU accession to the Istanbul Convention; and the adoption of Council Recommendations on new Barcelona targets for early childhood education and care and on access to affordable high-quality long-term care.

Most recently, building upon the EU Gender Equality Strategy 2020‑25 – which laid out the promotion of gender mainstreaming throughout all EU policy fields, combined with specific actions for gender equality including the gender equality legislative acquis of the EU – the European Commission adopted the “Roadmap for Women’s Rights” in March 2025. The Roadmap puts a new focus on today’s gender equality challenges – in society, economy, and the revolutionary aspects of digital technologies – and sets out the key principles for women’s rights for the EU. Outside of the EU, strong legislative and policy measures to advance gender equality have also been (and continue to be) taken in other OECD countries included in this report.

Central to this report is the further deepening of gender mainstreaming as a strategic approach to institutional reform. Gender mainstreaming involves the systematic incorporation of a gender perspective in all policy processes and at every step, ensuring that diverse needs and experiences are considered in every aspect of governance. This approach entails adapting the mechanisms through which policies are conceived, implemented and evaluated. By establishing effective institutional mechanisms, governments can better respond to the complex interplay of factors that perpetuate gender gaps.

The report also stresses the need for multi-stakeholder involvement – from policy makers at different levels of governments to the private sector, academia, social partners, civil society and the voices of women – to fully advance gender equality through a combination of top-down (e.g. legislation) and bottom-up (e.g. workplace practices) approaches supporting change.

A variety of policy measures to support gender equality are already in place, but there is great variation in terms of design, implementation and (evidence of) impacts. Alongside advancing efforts to ensure the best possible implementation of existing measures, a critical dimension addressed in this report is the concept of building policy combinations to advance gender equality. Traditional policy silos often fail to capture the interconnected nature of gender issues. For instance, progress in educational attainment, paid and unpaid work, and leadership and representation is interwoven with health outcomes and experiences of gender-based violence (GBV), yet policy design often looks in isolation at only one or two of these factors. Furthermore, the emerging challenges posed by the green transition and the digital transformation require that gender considerations be integrated into emerging policy solutions. Through a holistic approach, policy makers can design and implement priority interventions that are mutually reinforcing, ensuring that progress in one area propels advancement in others.

This report explores specific policy issues that are crucial for achieving gender equality. In education, equitable access to quality learning is fundamental to empowering girls and boys and fostering a skilled workforce. Gender equality in the labour market demands policies that address inequalities in paid employment and foster the reconciliation between work and private life, including by ending inequalities in the often‑overlooked realm of unpaid work – work that is still disproportionately borne by women. In leadership, the underrepresentation of women in decision-making roles remains a critical barrier to achieving balanced governance and inclusive progress.

Health and GBV are equally central to the discussion. Ensuring that health systems are responsive to the unique needs of women and men in both prevention and care is vital, as is the development of effective strategies to combat GBV – a pervasive and transversal issue that undermines the safety, dignity, and potential of at least one in three women throughout EU and OECD countries and that affects gender equality in every single policy area.

As the world navigates the challenges and opportunities of the green transition and the digital transformation, this report also explores the degree to which existing indicators enable a gender lens and how a well-co‑ordinated gender angle can support better and more effective policies moving forward. Looking at “new” and emerging issues through gender-disaggregated data is crucial to ensure that economies and societies drive innovation by leveraging the diverse talents, perspectives and experiences of all people.

Similarly, the report consistently highlights the need to adopt an intersectional approach to gender equality, acknowledging the diverse and overlapping forms of discrimination that individuals may face based on gender and age, ethnicity, disability, socio‑economic status, family configuration and other identity factors, as well as their different levels of exposure to GBV and poverty, among other risks. This approach is essential to ensure that policies are inclusive, equitable and responsive to the specific needs of all women and their lived experiences.

In a context of emerging political priorities – such as security and competition – gender equality should continue to be mainstreamed rather than be treated as a competing priority, to ensure no one is left behind.

To support policy makers in transforming gender equality goals and data into outcomes, this report provides a conceptual framework that guides the consideration of gender in policy combinations. The framework provides policy makers with tools and methods to evaluate the impact of their decisions on women and men across diverse sectors and policy areas. With the aim to support the best possible gender equality outcomes, it also provides policy makers with a “gender equality continuum” tool to categorise policies, and their combinations, according to their gender equality impact – on a scale ranging from “gender negative” (causing harm and implying a risk for gender equality) to “gender transformative” (meaningfully changing gender norms and power relations).

It is challenging to reinvigorate gender equality efforts at a time when progress is threatened by both longstanding structural barriers and emerging social and economic shifts. The stakes are high. Yet this only heightens the importance of historic EU commitments and renewed efforts to meet them.

This report’s detailed analysis of gender mainstreaming, policy combinations and quantitative indicators provides policy makers with the tools and insights needed to forge a more gender-equitable future. It is incumbent upon policy makers and societies at large to seize this moment, rethink, reconfigure and recommit to a path where gender equality is not just an aspiration but a tangible reality for all.

1.2. Report findings and recommendations

1.2.1. Gender equality in educational outcomes remains elusive (Chapter 4)

Gender gaps in educational attainment and skills arise in early childhood, reflecting gendered socialisation processes. From an early age, girls and boys, on average, expect to pursue different careers, mirroring existing occupational segregation in labour markets. Gender gaps in basic skills – including reading, mathematics and science – also appear relatively early.

In nearly all EU and OECD countries, women have now attained higher levels of education than men, reflecting several interrelated factors, including perceived differences in labour market opportunities for women and men. These are influenced, in part, by occupational and industrial segregation, changes in social norms and economic opportunities, and educational systems and occupational degree requirements. Despite women’s tremendous progress in tertiary education, notable segregation by field of study persists, with women being far less likely to pursue studies in engineering, mathematics, information and technology.

Gender gaps in literacy and numeracy also evolve over the life course, reflecting that women and men use different skills at home, at school and at work. Women and men report similar levels of participation in adult education and training. Yet among women and men who are not participating in education and training, women are much more likely than men to report that family responsibilities are the barrier to engaging in learning opportunities.

This report focuses on policy combinations governments are using to address two issues: gender segregation by field of study and gender gaps in lifelong learning and adult skills.

To overcome gender segregation by field of study, governments have implemented a range of interventions, including gender sensitive learning materials, teacher training and career counselling, dedicated career pathways, industry partnerships and targeted financial incentives. To close gender gaps in lifelong learning and adult skills, governments are turning toward flexible learning options and short-cycle programming at learning institutions, as well as policies and programmes that support a better balance between work, family and education.

Recommendations to ensure equal access to good-quality education

EU Member States and OECD Member States are encouraged to act on, and the European Commission is encouraged to support progress at the EU and Member State level in:

• Communicating with parents, schools and society around the importance and impact of gender stereotypes and norms and adopting a gender-balanced perspective at all levels of education, including in curricula, teaching materials, textbooks, teacher training and guidance.

• Ensuring zero-tolerance for GBV, harassment and bullying in all levels of education (see Section 1.2.5).

• Supporting the role of boys and men in advancing gender equality by promoting role models, challenging harmful gender stereotypes, and fostering positive attitudes towards gender equality from an early age – starting with targeted interventions in educational settings.

• Ensuring women and men have equal opportunities to access post-secondary education or training, such that no one is left behind in the changing world of work.

• Reducing gender segregation in fields of study and in jobs – which has consequences for pay and advancement – by encouraging girls and women to participate in “science, technology, engineering and mathematics” fields (STEM) and encouraging boys and men to engage in education, health and welfare fields (see Section 1.2.1) through awareness campaigns, adjustments to educational resources, industry partnerships, social protection programmes (e.g. family leave, childcare, out-of-school care), and more.

• Promoting a better balance between women and men teachers by attracting more men into the education field by challenging stereotypes as well as improving working conditions – including wages – in teaching profession across all levels of education.

• Promoting the role of all educational stakeholders – from teachers to school directors and students, families, academia, policy makers, and others – as drivers of change in combatting gender stereotypes and gender roles.

• Ensuring equal opportunities and access to upskilling and reskilling, paying particular attention to periods when gender gaps are likely barriers (e.g. parenthood) and to the role of different stakeholders (education providers, employers, etc.) to support this process.

• Promoting gender balance in leadership roles within educational institutions, such that education policies and practices reflect diverse perspectives, including more marginalised voices (see Section 1.2.3).

• Creating action plans for the improvement of gender equality in education (see Section 1.2.7) that promote integrated, cross-sectoral policy combinations (see Chapter 3) and ensure the involvement of all relevant ministries, including but not limited to those working on education, health, GBV, social protection and youth.

• Ensuring that policies are inclusive and responsive to diversity among girls and women by identifying and addressing intersecting forms of discrimination based on factors such as age, ethnicity, disability, migration status, socio‑economic background and family configurations, including via the provision of inclusive education for girls and women with disabilities, better access to learning and upskilling opportunities for women with a migrant background, and more, and by monitoring progress toward targeted objectives.

• Continuing to close gaps in (intersectional) gender data, research and measurement, including around the relationship between career expectations and education and occupation choices, as well as the impact of policy environments on gender norms and stereotypes relating to career expectations, job choices and the roles of women and men in society.

Going forward, the European Commission is encouraged to focus on combatting gender stereotypes and norms and on supporting women who are transitioning back into the workforce after a career break and who may require re‑training or re‑skilling to meet the demands of a changing labour market – also considering how different groups are affected. These are areas that could be strengthened or enhanced in the follow-up to the 2020‑25 Gender Equality Strategy. The European Commission is also encouraged to monitor and enforce the EU Work-Life Balance Directive, to continue expanding flexible work arrangements for all and to combat the stereotype that work-life balance is principally for women (and men) with children. In the face of rapid technological changes, the European Commission is additionally encouraged to track and monitor the ways in which new modes of working may be either helping or hindering gender equality in these areas, and the ways in which policy changes may be able to play a role (see Chapter 9).

1.2.2. Gender gaps in paid and unpaid work persist (Chapter 5)

Women continue to fare worse than men across a range of labour market outcomes, including lower labour force participation and employment rates. Women workers also spend fewer hours in paid work and are more likely to work part-time than men, which affects pay, career progression and eligibility for contribution-based social protection (e.g. unemployment, family leave). Women, too, are less likely to be entrepreneurs than men, and even when they are self-employed, they are less likely to have employees than men. Occupational and industrial segregation is a continuing issue for both employees and entrepreneurs, as is the gender pay gap. Indeed, on average across the EU, full-time working women earned 9% less than full-time working men at the median in 2023 (OECD, 2024[3]).

These gender gaps in labour market outcomes accumulate throughout the life course to result in lower pension entitlements and lower pension income, which puts older women at greater risk of poverty and social exclusion in most EU and OECD countries.

The differences in men’s and women’s labour market outcomes reflect, in part, gender norms and stereotypes around paid and unpaid work. Indeed, one of the biggest obstacles to further gender equality progress in the labour market is women’s and men’s different roles in providing unpaid care, particularly for children. Unpaid care obligations affect labour force participation, part-time work, occupational and industrial segregation, earnings and pay, and labour market exit.

Norms and stereotypes in paid and unpaid work – and specifically care – interact with social, policy and economic environments that disadvantage women in the labour market, including inadequate access to affordable, high-quality childcare and out-of-school care; inadequate access to long-term care for relatives; low pay in traditionally women-dominated sectors; the poor design of family leave policies in terms of pay, access (e.g. for self-employed workers) and unequal distribution of leave; tax-benefit systems that disadvantage second earners; as well as gaps, fragmentation and sub-optimal implementation of existing policies.

To try to close gender gaps in paid and unpaid work, governments have implemented and continue to invest in work-life balance policies, including better access to high-quality affordable childcare and long-term care and better access to adequately paid parental leave for both parents. In addition, governments have intervened to build entrepreneurship ecosystems that seek to support women entrepreneurs and improve the quality of their businesses, to encourage or mandate gender pay gap reporting by firms, and to provide care credits to offset the negative impacts of care‑related leave on pension entitlements and earnings.

Recommendations to promote equal opportunities in labour markets

EU Member States and OECD Member States are encouraged to act on and the European Commission is encouraged to support progress at the EU and Member State level in:

• Adopting and implementing legislation guaranteeing equal treatment of women and men workers (e.g. ratification of ILO Convention 156) and protecting women from gender-based discrimination in employment, entrepreneurship and beyond (e.g. mainstreaming and implementation of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women – CEDAW).

• Challenging gender stereotypes and norms around paid and unpaid work through awareness campaigns, adjustments to media standards, family leave, and more.

• Combating all forms of violence and harassment related to work – perpetrated by co-workers, employers or third-parties (such as clients, customers, patients, service users, students or parents, members of the public, or other service providers) – to ensure equal and safe working conditions and opportunities for women and men in all sectors and occupations, including by fully implementing legislation to ensure a work environment free from violence and harassment (e.g. ILO Convention 190); supporting occupational health and safety, ensuring multi-sectoral social dialogue and multi-stakeholder co‑operation to counter violence and harassment at work; and promoting actions to tackle GBV at a broader societal level.

• Building strong, comprehensive and resilient care infrastructure across the life course (e.g. childcare, out-of-school care, and long-term care), while strengthening and improving existing policies on care and families (including ensuring adequate paid leave around childbirth and support for parents with disabilities) and ensuring fair remuneration of care jobs

• Tackling gender segregation by field of study (see Section 1.2.1).

• Implementing policies and programmes to ensure women and men have equal opportunities for career advancement (see Section 1.2.3), including encouraging and training companies to embed transparency and gender-equality criteria into selection, recruitment, retention and promotion processes (e.g. “opt-out” mechanisms for promotion, diversity and inclusion committees, tailored hiring practices, training, mentorship and networking).

• Closing gender pay gaps by addressing gender segregation in jobs; tackling the undervaluation of jobs largely done by women; eliminating discrimination; and promoting pay transparency to ensure equal pay for work of equal value.

• Encouraging gender equality within firms and supporting family-friendly workplaces by promoting or enforcing flexible working arrangements (e.g. part-time, flexible hours, teleworking and job sharing), including by granting all employees a right to request flexible working; encouraging social partners to cover workplace flexibility in collective bargaining agreements; and/or helping companies change their work organisation, through the exchange of best practice and information campaigns,

• Supporting employers as they embed gender equality into their workplace policies and practices.

• Ensuring gender-responsive design and governance of AI systems by requiring transparency in algorithms and auditing for discriminatory outcomes, as well as the involvement of diverse stakeholders throughout the development and deployment of AI technologies, paying attention to critical areas such as recruitment, performance evaluation, and the monitoring of flexible work arrangements.

• Supporting entrepreneurship ecosystems, ensuring that women have access to entrepreneurship assistance, networks, mentorship, counselling, knowledge and financial supports, incubators and accelerator programmes, including in green and digital sectors.

• Eliminating gender pension gaps by addressing gender pay gaps, promoting longer contribution periods of women, and promoting financial literacy among women and girls.

• Reforming tax and social protection systems to minimise disincentives for second earners (who are mainly women) to enter or return to work, such as through the elimination of family taxation and/or the promotion of individual taxation.

• Combating the constant connectedness facilitated by digitalisation by introducing and enforcing a right to disconnect (see Section 1.2.6).

• Supporting older women and men workers by ensuring access to a robust care infrastructure across the life course, including for spouses and younger and older family members.

• Encouraging employers to adopt supportive workplace practices for women experiencing menopause, such as flexible work options, awareness training, and adjustments to working conditions.

• Ensuring that the take‑up of family-friendly leaves and flexible working arrangements does not negatively impact long-term social protection entitlements, including by guaranteeing that periods of caregiving contribute to the accumulation of pension rights and by preventing any form of direct or indirect discrimination in career progression, pay, or pension accrual for workers who exercise these rights.

• Creating action plans for the improvement of gender equality in paid and unpaid work (see Section 1.2.7) that promote integrated, cross-sectoral policy combinations (see Chapter 3) and ensure the involvement of all relevant ministries, including but not limited to those working on education, labour, social protection, health and GBV.

• Ensuring that policies are inclusive and responsive to diversity among girls and women by identifying and addressing intersecting forms of discrimination based on factors such as age, ethnicity, disability, migration status, socio-economic background and family configurations, including via the provision of specific care and financial support for single mothers, among other actions, and by monitoring progress towards targeted objectives. This also requires sector-specific interventions that are tailored to different contexts and involve relevant stakeholders (e.g. policy makers, social partners, academia, civil society and the voices of women).

• Continuing to close (intersectional) gender data, research and measurement gaps, including around pay and earnings, wealth and the intra-household distribution of economic resources, as well as on the impacts of AI on gender equality in the labour market.

Going forward, the European Commission is encouraged to focus on monitoring and enforcement of existing Directives, including on pay transparency and work-life balance, including by supporting Member States with transposition, implementation, evaluation and course correction as needed in the short and longer term. The European Commission is also encouraged to advance and expand upon supports for women entrepreneurs, as this is an area that could be strengthened or enhanced in the follow-up to the 2020‑25 Gender Equality Strategy.

Recommendations to address inequalities in unpaid work

EU Member States and OECD Member States are encouraged to act on, and the European Commission is encouraged to support progress at the EU and Member State level in:

• Promoting the equal sharing of care responsibilities and household work between women and men, including by challenging gender stereotypes and norms (e.g. awareness campaigns, changes to educational resources, etc.) (see Section 1.2.1).

• Leveraging benefit systems to encourage the take‑up of family-friendly working arrangements and leaves, including by ensuring leave benefits replace a sufficient portion of income to make take‑up feasible for all workers and by providing both mothers and fathers with individual paid leave entitlements (e.g. maternal, parental and paternity leave).

• Promoting equitable access to hybrid and remote working arrangements by investing in digital infrastructure and training, and ensuring that digital work policies are designed in a way that supports gender equality rather than reinforces traditional gender roles.

• Preventing discriminatory stereotypes and unfavourable treatment of workers who take caregiving leave or use flexible working arrangements, such as hybrid and remote working arrangements.

• Investing in affordable, accessible, and good-quality early childhood education and care and out-of-school-hours care for all children, and investing in affordable, accessible and good-quality long-term care.

• Continuing to improve access to, and to spur investment on, digital tools and technologies that could reduce the burden of unpaid work.

• Improving pay and job quality and increasing formalisation of predominantly women-dominated caregiving professions and encouraging men to choose care‑related careers.

• Ensuring that policies are inclusive and responsive to diversity among girls and women by identifying and addressing intersecting forms of discrimination based on factors such as age, ethnicity, disability, migration status, socio‑economic background and family configurations, including via the provision of financial support for single mothers, women with disabilities, and more, and by monitoring progress towards targeted objectives.

• Continuing to close (intersectional) gender data, research and measurement gaps, including around the distribution of work within the household, time use and unpaid work.

Going forward, the European Commission is encouraged to focus on monitoring and enforcement of existing Directives around work-life balance, including supporting Member States with transposition, implementation, evaluation and course correction as needed in the short and longer term. The European Commission is also encouraged to support Member States in achieving the Barcelona targets and in the development of frameworks for long term care, including through the implementation of the European Care Strategy. In the medium to long-term, the European Commission could consider strengthening or enhancing existing Directives over time by expanding certain concepts (e.g. shared parental leave, a widening of flexible work arrangements) or gradually increasing targets.

1.2.3. Women still lag behind men in reaching leadership roles (Chapter 6)

Gender gaps in aspirations to leadership emerge early, as boys are more likely than girls to want to work in leadership positions. Recent data, for example, show that boys account for about two‑thirds of 15‑year‑old students stating that they expect to be working as managers and managing directors and chief executives by age 30. These gaps foreshadow women’s underrepresentation in leadership and decision-making positions in adulthood, with evidence of the leaky pipeline across all areas of private sector and public leadership. Indeed, women are underrepresented among board members, CEOs and presidents in the private sector; among legislators at all levels of government; among members of cabinet and ministers; and among country leaders (e.g. presidents, prime ministers or chancellors).

Several factors contribute to the underrepresentation of women in leadership, including gendered perceptions of abilities and skills, motherhood penalties, gender differences in actual and expected behaviours, and experiences of harassment and discrimination. Other key factors play a role in specific areas. In business, they include a lack of transparency in selection criteria, gendered differences in work assignments and experiences, and a lack of women role models and mentors. In politics, gendered party recruitment, differences in electoral systems, gender gaps in campaign financing, violence and harassment of women public figures and differences in media coverage drive down women’s participation. Voter bias and (mis)perceptions about the electability of women also contribute to the underrepresentation of women in politics. For example, in a recent EU survey, one‑quarter of women and men in EU countries believe that men make better political leaders than women (Eurobarometer, 2024[4]), which may contribute to negative perceptions about women’s electoral chances and lead to strategic voting against women.

To tackle underrepresentation of women in leadership, governments have implemented disclosure requirements, quotas and targets supporting gender balance on boards and in politics. Simultaneous interventions to change social and policy environments in business have included promoting the transparency and objectivity of hiring and promotion procedures; engaging with social partners, civil society and educational institutions to raise awareness about gender equality in leadership; and introducing targeted sector-specific initiatives to tackle gender inequality, especially in men-dominated industries and occupations. In politics, governments implement rules around sitting times, offer on-site childcare for legislators, and work toward eliminating the violence and harassment experienced by women politicians.

Recommendations to ensure equal access to leadership

EU Member States and OECD Member States are encouraged to act on, and the European Commission is encouraged to support progress at the EU and Member State level in:

• Challenging gender norms and stereotypes, including through adjusted and revised learning materials and methods (see Section 1.2.1) and through awareness campaigns to encourage the participation of women in politics, increase the visibility of women leaders (including mothers) and ensure better understanding of the benefits of gender equality in representation.

• Supporting committed and representative leadership at all levels and across sectors – including political, public, civil society, and organisational spheres – to advance gender equality and drive policy implementation, particularly in the face of growing political backlash.

• Introducing, continuing and enforcing regulations and requirements supporting gender balance in management and in politics, including, for example, quotas and/or the application of parity-based nomination systems such as zipper methods (alternating women and men on candidate lists or appointments) to ensure sustained progress toward equal representation.

• Promoting opportunities for learning and skills development, including building networks of (women) leaders to facilitate mentorships and supporting training and skills development programmes for women considering positions of leadership.

• Implementing initiatives to combat inequalities in unpaid work (see Section 1.2.2).

• Implementing gender transformative legislation, regulations and procedures, such as equal pay, pay equity and pay transparency legislations (see Section 1.2.2).

• Ensuring the safety of women in public life and zero tolerance towards violence, hatred or harassment against women and girls, both online and offline, specifically addressing technology-facilitated gender-based violence (TF-GBV) through comprehensive legal, policy and educational measures, including the development and enforcement of legal frameworks that criminalise online harassment and abuse, the regulation of digital platforms to ensure rapid response and accountability, and the integration of digital safety and respectful online behaviour into school curricula and public awareness campaigns, with particular attention to protecting women and girls in public, professional, and political life (see Section 1.2.5).

• Creating action plans for the improvement of gender equality in leadership (see Section 1.2.7) that promote integrated, cross-sectoral policy combinations (see Chapter 3) and ensure the involvement of all relevant ministries, including but not limited to those working on education, labour, social protection, health, youth, and GBV.

• Ensuring that policies are inclusive and responsive to diversity among girls and women, by identifying and addressing intersecting forms of discrimination based on factors such as age, ethnicity, disability, migration status, socio‑economic background and family configurations, including via the provision of tailored solutions such as awareness raising and anti-discrimination actions to ensure diversity and representation among (women) leaders, and by monitoring progress towards targeted objectives. This also requires sector-specific interventions that are tailored to different contexts and involve relevant stakeholders (e.g. policy makers, social partners, academia, civil society and the voices of women).

• Continuing to close (intersectional) gender data, research and measurement gaps, including around women’s representation in all types of decision-making positions and GBV against women politicians and women in the workplace.

Going forward, the European Commission is encouraged to focus on monitoring and enforcement of existing Directives around gender balance on corporate boards, including supporting Member States with transposition, implementation, evaluation and course correction as needed in the short and longer term. The European Commission is also encouraged to develop mechanisms to support Member States in increasing the share of women in politics at all levels of government, as this is an area that could be strengthened or enhanced in the follow-up to the 2020‑25 Gender Equality Strategy. The European Commission is additionally encouraged to continue to monitor and tackle TF-GBV, including by working with online platforms and digital tools providers and developers.

1.2.4. Health and healthcare access is gendered (Chapter 7)

Gender inequalities in health are complex. Women tend to live longer than men, though many of their additional years are spent in poorer health. Over the life course, there are also gendered risks and areas of concern. Women and girls face higher rates of poor self-reported physical and mental health, specific gendered risks related to pregnancy and childbirth, lower rates of participation in physical activity and sports, and poorer experiences of healthcare – including unmet healthcare needs and misdiagnosis and underdiagnosis. In contrast, men are more likely to engage in more risky behaviours (e.g. smoking, drinking heavily, drug abuse), have higher rates of death by suicide, are more likely to be overweight or obese and exhibit a greater reluctance to use preventive medicine and seek care.

Gender norms and stereotypes around access to and use of healthcare, as well as healthy and health-reducing behaviours among both patients and healthcare providers, likely contribute to gender differences in health. Societal expectations of stoicism, for example, may be deterring men from preventive care, while women’s more limited inclusion in healthcare decision-making and research may be restricting women’s access to care and contributing to gaps in understanding of women’s specific health needs and challenges.

Overcoming gender gaps in physical and mental health requires a comprehensive approach throughout the life course, including efforts to combat gender bias in healthcare institutions that limit women’s access to healthcare and the quality of services they receive. This can be achieved, in part, by mainstreaming gender considerations into all healthcare settings – e.g. emergency, long-term treatment and preventive – and by continuing to invest in gender-disaggregated health data and research to support evidence‑based changes in policies and practices among governments and healthcare providers. Combatting gender stereotypes and norms through adequate health education for girls and boys and awareness raising and training among care providers regarding gender sensitivity and unconscious biases can also help ensure girls and boys and women and men can seek and receive adequate care when they need it.

Reducing and eliminating gender gaps in physical activity also requires a range of interventions across various domains and actors, such as early involvement of girls in physical activity and sports through school curricula and extracurricular activities; investments in safe and inclusive sports complexes, fitness facilities, recreational centres and active transportation methods; and equal and predictable media coverage of women’s sports to establish role models and encourage girls to see themselves as athletes.

Recommendations to ensure equal access to good health

EU Member States and OECD Member States are encouraged to act on, and the European Commission is encouraged to support progress at the EU and Member State level in:

• Understanding women’s, girls’, men’s and boys’ unmet needs in healthcare and designing tailored programmes to support specific groups.

• Challenging gender norms and stereotypes around access to and use of healthcare.

• Integrating gender-specific health needs into healthcare systems and workplace policies, through all healthcare settings, including prevention and long-term care, and throughout the life course, by improving access to information, diagnosis and treatment for gender-specific conditions (e.g. menopause, endometriosis) and by training healthcare professionals to recognise and address gender biases in medical treatment.

• Improving health outcomes for women by continuing to invest in gender-disaggregated health data (see last bullet), better incorporating women in medical research, and improving diagnostics for women.

• Creating action plans for the improvement of gender equality in health (see Section 1.2.7) that promote integrated, cross-sectoral policy combinations (see Chapter 3) and ensure the involvement of all relevant ministries, including but not limited to those working on education, health, labour, social protection, GBV, environment, sports and more.

• Building national policies and action plans that recognise the relationship between gender, climate change and health (see Section 1.2.6).

• Ensuring that policies are inclusive and responsive to diversity among girls and women, by identifying and addressing intersecting forms of discrimination based on factors such as age, ethnicity, disability, migration status, socio-economic background and family configurations, including via the provision of tailored solutions to meet the specific needs and realities of different groups – such as language support for foreign women during pregnancy, etc. – by monitoring progress towards targeted objectives. This also requires sector-specific interventions that are tailored to different contexts and involve relevant stakeholders (policy makers, social partners, academia, civil society and voices of women suffering from different forms of discrimination, etc.).

• Continuing to close (intersectional) gender data, research and measurement gaps around health, including but not limited to chronic conditions related to the reproductive system and health support for victims/survivors of GBV, including TF-GBV.

Going forward, the European Commission is encouraged to focus on (and support Member States in) investing in gender-sensitive health research in the EU, building gender-sensitive healthcare policies and promoting gender-sensitive training among healthcare professionals, as these are areas that could be strengthened or enhanced in the follow-up to the 2020‑25 Gender Equality Strategy. The European Commission should also invest in expanding gender-disaggregated data collection on healthcare access, healthcare experiences and health outcomes.

1.2.5. Gender-based violence and violence against women remains pervasive (Chapter 8)

GBV remains a pervasive problem in every country. In EU countries, 36% of ever-partnered women report having experienced intimate partner violence (IPV) in their lifetime and 34% of ever-working women report having experienced sexual harassment at some point in the workplace. Violence and the threat of violence affect the day-to-day lives of millions of women across the EU, with 32% of women reporting feeling unsafe while walking alone at night. These numbers should be considered low estimates, as underreporting is a serious problem for measuring GBV prevalence. The majority of victims/survivors of GBV are women and the majority of perpetrators are men.

Violence against women (VAW) has become an increasingly important issue since the OECD began surveying governments on gender equality priorities in 2016. This issue has jumped from a top-three priority for 68% of the 31 OECD countries responding to the OECD questionnaire in 2016 to a top-three priority for 86% of the 43 OECD and EU countries responding in 2024. Yet the continued prevalence of VAW on the ground seems to indicate that this prioritisation has not resulted in adequate policy or programme actions, including budget commitments.

The causes and consequences of GBV are complex, and addressing such violence – including workplace harassment, IPV and sexual assault – requires co‑ordinated and collaborative efforts across policy domains and across the life course. Policy combinations to tackle GBV have focused not only on providing support to victims/survivors, but also on preventing violence, addressing the perpetrators of violence, and building capacity across society to comprehensively prevent, identify and respond to violence. This means involving educational institutions, healthcare providers, social protection systems, employment supports, justice institutions, frontline service providers, and more. Emphasising integration and information sharing (while protecting data and privacy) across actors can help victims/survivors navigate a seamless network of supports and services without feeling re‑traumatised at every re‑telling. Campaigns on the prevalence and impacts of GBV, including sexual harassment in the workplace, may help raise awareness of the fact that such issues persist in all EU and OECD countries.

Recommendations to support women in leading lives free from violence

EU Member States and OECD Member States are encouraged to act on, and the European Commission is encouraged to support progress at the EU and Member State level in:

• Preventing and combating all forms of violence against women and girls, including domestic violence, femicide, sexual violence and TF-GBV through prevention programmes, awareness campaigns, and perpetrator programmes.

• Ensuring robust legal structures to address GBV, including implementing, amending or strengthening laws to protect women and men from all forms of violence and harassment.

• Investing in justice systems that are sensitive to GBV, including improving access to justice and strengthening the capacity of justice systems to appropriately manage cases related to GBV.

• Designing victim/survivor-centred, integrated and accessible supports and services, including the provision and take‑up of integrated services (e.g. single point of access, data sharing, network structures, subnational co‑ordination).

• Building the capacity of service providers to identify and address GBV, including by providing training and tools – including (digital) risk assessment tools – to relevant actors (e.g. employers, schools, unions, medical staff, legal practitioners, service and support organisations, law enforcement, etc.) to improve identification of GBV; facilitate early and targeted support; and provide an appropriate response.

• Ensuring employer support of victims/survivors, such as through regulations or obligations for employers to combat sexual harassment and discrimination in the workplace (including in telework settings) and regulations for employers to support victims/survivors of GBV both inside and outside of the workplace (e.g. offering paid leave and/or flexible working arrangements for victims/survivors) (see also Chapter 5).

• Combating TF-GBV as an integral part of GBV prevention and response strategies, including by updating legal frameworks, enhancing law enforcement and judicial capacity, ensuring digital platforms implement robust safety and reporting mechanisms, and expanding support services.

• Creating action plans (see Section 1.2.7) that promote integrated, cross-sectoral policy combinations (see Chapter 3) and ensure the involvement of all relevant ministries, including but not limited to those working on education, health, labour, social protection, GBV, environment and sports.

• Ensuring that policies are inclusive and responsive to diversity among girls and women, by identifying and addressing intersecting forms of discrimination based on factors such as age, ethnicity, disability, migration status, socio-economic background and family configurations, which further expose women to the risk of GBV and by monitoring progress towards targeted objectives. This also requires sector-specific interventions that are tailored to different contexts and involve relevant stakeholders (policy makers, social partners, academia, civil society and voices of women suffering from different forms of discrimination, etc.).

• Continuing to close (intersectional) gender data, research and measurement gaps, including around gender norms and stereotypes around GBV; childhood maltreatment and abuse; abuse of older women; TF-GBV; workplace harassment and sexual assault; the nature and scope of IPV, as well as access to and use of support services and justice systems; and experiences of violence among groups of women who could be at increased risk of violence due to intersecting characteristics, such as migrant and disability status.

Going forward, the European Commission is encouraged to focus on supporting Member States in the transposition and implementation of the Istanbul Convention and the ILO Convention on violence and harassment in the world of work, including supporting Member States with evaluation and course correction as needed in the short and longer term. The European Commission is also encouraged to focus on harmonising legislation to ensure consistent protections for victims/survivors and on ensuring adequate funding of supports and services for victims/survivors.

1.2.6. Looking ahead: The green transition and the digital transformation present challenges and opportunities for gender equality (Chapter 9)

Achieving gender equality requires not only looking at past outcomes – it also means looking ahead at where gaps are likely to emerge. This report therefore considers two fundamental megatrends affecting EU and OECD countries: the green transition and the digital transformation.

Climate change and climate change mitigation have produced and will continue to generate significant health, economic and social costs (and benefits) across EU and OECD countries. As a result of occupational and industrial segregation, for example, job losses linked to the green transition are expected to be more pronounced for men than for women, and women are less likely to benefit from growing job opportunities in expanding green sectors. The net impact is unclear ex ante and requires close monitoring through gender-disaggregated data.

Environmental degradation, natural disasters and climate change can also lead to increased mortality for both women and men. Current estimates suggest that men are more likely to die from air pollution, while women are more likely to die from natural disasters. At the same time, however, mortality alone is a narrow definition of health impacts. To better understand the gendered health impacts of climate change, natural disasters and environmental degradation beyond mortality, governments must invest in effective monitoring and in the production of gender-disaggregated data.

The digital transformation, too, will have gendered impacts on the labour market, with women and men experiencing different degrees of change (e.g. skills requirements, job tasks) and having different capacities to deal with workplace digitalisation (e.g. learn new skills or tools). As with the green transition, this is in large part because of occupational and industrial segregation. Although there is agreement that labour markets will be disrupted, there is little consensus yet on the net gendered effects.

Digital technologies that facilitate flexible working arrangements and telework are further expected to have gendered impacts, but the direction of impact is also unclear ex ante. Flexible working arrangements and telework may further entrench existing patterns of unpaid care and household responsibilities, but they may also support greater take‑up among men.

Additionally, in both the green transition and the digital transformation, women are underrepresented in leadership and in research and innovation. And while opportunities and risks exist for women and girls in digital environments, TF-GBV presents a significant and growing risk, especially for women public figures.

To promote gender equality in the green and digital transitions, governments must introduce policies that span across government and across the life course. Key policy measures relate to gender stereotypes and norms around career expectations, skills and abilities and sustainable consumption. Re‑training and re‑skilling are also needed to adjust to changing skill needs in the labour market throughout the green transition and the digital transformation, both for those who lose their jobs and for unemployed or underemployed individuals. This includes women who exited the labour market for caregiving and who could benefit from new job opportunities. Tackling gender bias in artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning systems – for example, through legislation – can also contribute to more equitable treatment of women and men across various systems and services, including employment, health, social protection, justice and more. At the same time, embedding gender considerations into infrastructure and emergency planning could enhance women’s safety, particularly by reducing the risk of GBV when using public transportation and during crises, including climate‑related disasters.

Recommendations to ensure equal opportunities in the green and digital transitions

EU Member States and OECD Member States are encouraged to act on and the European Commission is encouraged to support progress at the EU and Member State level in:

• Preparing for the climate transition with a gender lens, such as by embedding gender considerations into urban planning and infrastructure development and into disaster planning and risk preparedness, including around supports for victims/survivors of GBV (see Section 1.2.5).

• Investing in effective monitoring of the gendered health impacts of climate change, natural disasters and environmental degradation (see Section 1.2.4).

• Reducing gender segregation in fields of study and skills and fostering girls’ and women’s acquisition of digital skills and competencies to prepare for ongoing changes in the world of work, including in the use of AI and related to the climate transition (see Section 1.2.1 and Section 1.2.2).

• Tackling online violence, including cyberbullying and TF-GBV, through prevention and detection and support of victims/survivors (see Section 1.2.5).

• Creating sectoral action plans for the improvement of gender equality (see Section 1.2.7).

• Ensuring that policies are inclusive and responsive to diversity among girls and women, by identifying and addressing intersecting forms of discrimination based on factors such as age, ethnicity, disability, migration status, socio-economic background and family configurations, which may overexpose certain groups to the negative consequences of climate change or prevent them from keeping pace with the green and digital transformations, by monitoring progress towards targeted objectives. This also requires sector-specific interventions that are tailored to different contexts and involve relevant stakeholders (policy makers, social partners, academia, civil society and voices of women suffering from different forms of discrimination, etc.).

• Continuing to close (intersectional) gender data, research and measurement gaps, including around the employment impacts of green transition; the impact of the digital transformation on well-being; and gendered misinformation and disinformation.

Going forward, the European Commission is encouraged to ensure that gender considerations are embedded into all policies and programmes and sectoral and strategic action plans relating to climate change, the green transition and the digital transformation.

1.2.7. Gender mainstreaming and institutional mechanisms to support policy combinations that advance gender equality

This report illustrates and applies the concept of policy combinations – i.e. the combination of various interventions across policy areas – to tackle gender inequalities in social and economic life. The use of such policy combinations is becoming increasingly common across EU and OECD countries as governments shift to addressing policy issues through comprehensive solutions. But getting such policy combinations to successfully address their stated goals requires strong governance and institutions. This is where insights, practices and lessons from the field of gender mainstreaming prove particularly useful – especially those relating to strategic planning and whole‑of-government co‑ordination. These tools and approaches can help to overcome silos, ensure cross-cutting work and facilitate data sharing.

According to the 2024 OECD Questionnaire on Policy Combinations (see Box 1.1), most EU and OECD countries have adopted a gender equality strategy, with gender equality in paid and unpaid work and leadership as top-reported priorities. By contrast, aspects such as disaster prevention, social protection systems, natural resources and agriculture, and justice feature less frequently. Many EU and OECD countries are also increasingly embedding an intersectional focus into their gender equality strategies.

Sector-specific strategies (e.g. education, health, environment, etc.) and broader national strategies (e.g. data, foresight, disaster management, recovery and resilience, etc.) can be complementary tools to gender equality strategies. By integrating gender equality considerations into sectoral plans, governments can make substantial progress toward reducing or eliminating gender gaps and inequalities. Yet, across EU and OECD countries, gender equality considerations are rarely systematically embedded into sectoral plans.

There is no standard blueprint for whole‑of-government co‑ordination of gender equality policies across EU and OECD countries, with co‑ordination bodies taking many shapes and sizes, involving many different types of stakeholders, and using many different approaches. To ensure that efforts are not duplicated by multiple levels of government and that key concerns are not accidentally overlooked through a lack of communication or collaboration, both horizontal and vertical co‑ordination within and between governments can be useful.

Other tools and approaches within gender mainstreaming – such as gender impact assessments (GIAs), gender budgeting, legislative requirements, gender-sensitive data and evidence – can also be applied throughout the policy cycle and across policy combinations to ensure that all policies are gender-sensitive, both individually and collectively.

Gender mainstreaming may additionally need to be applied within subnational governments to ensure a comprehensive and complete application of gender considerations across all interventions.

Recommendations to ensure gender equality is effectively embedded and advanced in policy and decision making

EU Member States and OECD Member States are encouraged to act on, and the European Commission is encouraged to support progress at the EU and Member State level in:

• Supporting the continued development and implementation of stand-alone national gender equality strategies as well as the integration of gender equality objectives within sector-specific strategies (e.g. education, health, environment, etc.) and broader national strategies (e.g. data, foresight, disaster management, recovery and resilience, etc.).

• Ensuring gender equality strategies are enforceable, properly funded and resourced, and can be effectively evaluated, including through the use of independent equality bodies.

• Building and properly financing and resourcing whole‑of-government co‑ordination bodies for gender equality policies, such as a specialised institutional infrastructure for gender equality and gender mainstreaming, while ensuring co‑ordinating bodies have clear and accountable roles and responsibilities from the outset.

• Ensuring the right level of representation and the right level of resources for whole‑of-government co‑ordination bodies to appropriately and effectively influence broader policy and priority setting and translate decisions into concrete follow-up actions.

• Supporting the use of gender mainstreaming in all policy areas and in budgets.

• Providing sustainable funding for gender equality policies, and for women’s rights organisations.

• Continuing to invest in gender-sensitive research, data collection, design and planning (with an intersectional approach), including the use of gender data strategies.

Going forward, the European Commission is encouraged to focus on building gender equality strategies, action plans and frameworks that are properly financed and resourced, enforceable and accountable. The European Commission could, for example, look toward building commitment trackers to highlight progress to date and anticipated or assessed impacts, thereby drawing attention to the importance of gender equality policies and programmes and promoting transparency.

In developing new strategies, action plans and frameworks, the European Commission should continue to advance on the many key gender equality policies and programmes that are already in place in most EU and OECD countries, including by improving their implementation or effectiveness (e.g. through adjustment to policy parameters or targeted low-cost complementary initiatives, such as increased awareness, information dissemination, administrative support).

The European Commission should also consider investing in more rigorous evaluation methods across policy areas, supporting or encouraging random or quasi-random evaluation methods to enable estimation of causal impacts and a deeper understanding of “what works” on the ground, and for whom.

1.3. A strong foundation: Building on existing Directives and Recommendations

The road to gender equality has been far too long, meandering and full of roadblocks. Yet key international commitments in EU and OECD countries have helped to build a foundation upon which shared values can produce meaningful change.

In recent years, the EU has made historic progress in advancing gender equality with a series of impactful legislation, including:

• the Work-Life Balance Directive (2019) (European Union, 2019[5]), which aims to improve work-life balance for parents and caregivers, with provisions like paid parental leave, flexible working arrangements, and the right to request changes to working hours (see Chapter 5).

• the Directive on Gender Balance in Corporate Boards (2022) (European Union, 2022[6]), which sets targets for increasing the representation of women on corporate boards, promoting gender diversity in decision-making roles within large companies (see Chapter 6).

• the Pay Transparency Directive (2023) (European Union, 2023[7]), which seeks to address the gender pay gap by requiring companies to be more transparent about pay structures and offering tools to employees to assess and challenge pay disparities (see Chapter 5).

• the Directive on Gender-Based Violence and Domestic Violence (2024) (European Union, 2024[8]), which aims to combat GBV, providing legal frameworks for preventing violence, supporting victims, and holding perpetrators accountable (see Chapter 8).

The EU also joined the Istanbul Convention in 2023 (European Union, 2017[9]; European Union, 2017[10]; European Union, 2023[11]; European Union, 2023[12]).

Important steps have additionally been taken by the EU to tackle gender gaps in paid and unpaid work through the adoption of the Council Recommendation on early childhood education and care (ECEC) (European Union, 2019[13]), revisions to the Barcelona targets for childcare (European Commission, 2022[14]), the adoption of the Council Recommendation on access to affordable high-quality long-term care (European Union, 2022[15]), related to the European Care Strategy for caregivers and care receivers adopted in 2022. The Council Recommendation on ECEC focuses on ensuring that all children have access to high-quality early childhood education and care, encouraging EU Member States to invest in ECEC systems that are inclusive, affordable, and supportive of children’s development, helping to close educational gaps and support working parents. The Barcelona targets, originally set in 2002, aimed to increase the availability of childcare services. The revisions – adopted in 2022 – include more ambitious targets for the provision of childcare for children under the age of three and for children aged three to primary school age, as well as recommendations on affordability, accessibility and quality and expanding services in, for instance, out-of-school care. The Council Recommendation on access to affordable, high-quality long-term care focuses on ensuring that people, especially older adults and those with disability, have access to affordable, high-quality long-term care. It encourages Member States to improve care services, enhance the quality of care, and make long-term care more accessible, particularly for vulnerable populations. This aims to address the challenges posed by an ageing population.

Most recently, the European Commission unveiled its “Roadmap for Women’s Rights” on 7 March 2025, outlining a comprehensive strategy to enhance gender equality across the EU (European Commission, 2025[16]). This Roadmap builds upon the past achievements of the EU (see above) and the 2020‑25 Gender Equality Strategy (see Chapter 2) (European Commission, 2020[17]), setting out eight key objectives, including freedom from GBV; the highest standards of health; equal pay and economic empowerment; work-life balance and care; equal employment opportunities and adequate working conditions; quality and inclusive education; political participation and equal representation; and institutional mechanisms to deliver on women’s rights.

Together, the EU’s recent actions, strategies and roadmaps reflect the EU’s ongoing efforts to foster gender equality and protect women’s rights. And these recent actions, strategies and roadmaps are part of a broader EU gender equality acquis that remains a key tool in preventing discrimination between women and men, including the Directive on Equal Treatment of Men and Women in matters of Employment and Occupation, the Directive on Safety and Health at Work of Pregnant Workers and Workers who have Recently Given Birth or are Breastfeeding, the Directive on Equal Treatment of Self-Employed Workers, the Directive on Equal Treatment in Social Security Systems, the Directive Prohibiting Discrimination based on Sex in the Access To and Supply of Goods and Services, Article 23 of the EU Charter guaranteeing gender equality in all areas, Article 157 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) on equal pay for equal work, Articles 8 and 10 of the TFEU on gender mainstreaming and combating discrimination, and much case law from the European Court of Justice.

The OECD is also committed to ongoing action to ensure gender equality, as evidence by the 2013 OECD Recommendation on Gender Equality in Education, Employment and Entrepreneurship (OECD, 2017[18]) and the 2015 OECD Recommendation on Gender Equality in Public Life (OECD, 2016[19]).

The 2013 OECD Recommendation on Gender Equality in Education, Employment and Entrepreneurship aims to eliminate barriers to gender equality and create opportunities in education, employment, and entrepreneurship, including ensuring equal access to education, delivering gender-sensitive curricula, eliminating gender stereotypes, reducing gender pay gaps, promoting work-life balance, combating discrimination and harassment, enhancing women’s career development, supporting women entrepreneurs, improving women’s’ access to finance, removing gender-biased legal and structural barriers, and promoting networking and mentorship.

The 2015 OECD Recommendation on Gender Equality in Public Life provides guidelines and best practices for improving gender equality in political and public decision-making processes, including increasing women’s representation in political and public life, promoting gender-inclusive policies, supporting work-life balance for political leaders, enhancing gender-sensitive governance, encouraging monitoring and accountability, and enhancing public awareness and education.

In 2023, the OECD advanced its work on gender equality when Ministers welcomed a formal gender strategy at the OECD Ministerial Council Meeting, titled “OECD Contribution to Promoting Gender Equality” (OECD, 2023[20]). This “OECD Gender Strategy” sets out the opportunities for the OECD to boost its actions in support of gender equality, structured around four main pillars: data, mainstreaming, policy and outreach. An important part of the Gender Strategy is that it focuses on mainstreaming gender throughout the OECD, including in Directorates that have not traditionally worked on gender.

Through these recommendations and this strategy, the OECD aims to help member country governments empower women, enhance their participation in the economy, and achieve inclusive and sustainable growth for all.

1.4. Guidance for readers

This report is structured in two main parts. Part 1 describes and discusses gender mainstreaming and institutional mechanisms to close gender gaps in EU and OECD countries. Part 2 practically applies these approaches to specific policy areas, emphasising the use of horizontal co‑ordination and policy combinations to improve gender equality and empower women and girls.

Part 1 consists of two chapters: Chapter 2 reviews tools for building policy combinations to advance gender equality, including practices and approaches from the field of gender mainstreaming, focusing specifically on strategic planning and co‑ordination. Chapter 3 presents a conceptual framework for embedding gender considerations into policy combinations. A sample tool supports the operationalisation of selected priority considerations.

Part 2 focuses on specific policy areas: educational attainment and skills (Chapter 4); paid and unpaid work (Chapter 5); leadership and representation (Chapter 6); health (Chapter 7); gender-based violence (Chapter 8); and the green transition and the digital transformation (Chapter 9). Each chapter contains a background section and a policy combinations section.

The background sections of Chapters 4‑9 explore gender gaps in outcomes using a life course approach, emphasising that many gender gaps are the product of experiences accumulated throughout the life course. The background sections leverage gender-disaggregated data from multiple sources and use recent research to draw attention to key gender inequalities. Spotlights on intersectionality are presented to highlight that disadvantages may be compounding. An Online Annex with supplementary data is made available for each chapter to support the continued availability and accessibility of gender-disaggregated data.

The policy combinations sections of Chapters 4‑9 are structured around key gender equality goals and centre around policy tables. These policy tables are composed of policy options relating to the identified policy goals. These policy tables are designed to provide an overview of possible actions that EU and OECD countries have adopted or can adopt to make progress toward gender equality. In this respect, they are not intended as comprehensive lists and not all options may be relevant in specific contexts. The tables are instead designed to provide an entry point for understanding and conceptualising co‑ordinated action and interventions across domains and policy areas and to encourage integrated, cross-sectoral approaches for the achievement of gender equality. Although policy tables only present policy options relating to between two and four gender equality goals, the principles used to develop the policy tables (see Chapter 2 and Chapter 3) can be applied to any policy goal – whether narrow or broad in scope.

Structurally, the policy tables are designed to highlight two key features of policy co‑ordination: feedback loops and the importance of the life course.

• Feedback loops: Gender gaps in one area have repercussions in other areas. Gender segregation in fields of study (Chapter 4), for example, contributes to occupational and industrial segregation (Chapter 5), which itself contributes to gender gaps in pay, pensions, leadership and representation (Chapters 5 and 6) and gender differences in the impacts of the green and digital transition (Chapter 9).

• Life course: As individuals and families move through the life course, they experience different needs and life events – such as transitions from school into work, childbirth, retirement, etc. Governments need to ensure that all individuals and families are supported at all life stages. For example, care systems need to be well-developed to support parents from birth to old age, including in terms of childbirth, parental leave, early learning and childcare, school starts and out-of-school care. Families also need to be supported as their own parents age and require elder care and access to long-term care.

Case studies of policy combinations in EU and OECD countries follow the policy tables. These case studies, selected to showcase different policy approaches, are based on responses to the OECD Secretariat’s 2024 Questionnaire on Policy Combinations for Gender Equality (see Box 1.1) as well as desk research by the OECD Secretariat. The geographic diversity of the case studies highlights that all EU and OECD countries have important lessons that can be shared. Spotlights on intersectionality are also provided to highlight targeted policies, complementary programmes and mitigation strategies used to support people who face multiple disadvantage or discrimination.

Box 1.1. 2024 OECD Questionnaire on Policy Combinations for Gender Equality

In January 2024, the OECD Secretariat distributed the 2024 Questionnaire on Policy Combinations for Gender Equality to 43 EU and OECD countries. It was distributed to all 38 OECD countries through the Employment, Labour and Social Affairs Committee (ELSAC) and to the five EU countries that are not OECD members through the European Commission. Overall, 36 EU and OECD countries responded to the questionnaire throughout the first and second quarter of 2024. As needed, supplementary information on the remaining seven countries was completed via desk research and validated by delegations.

The questionnaire consisted of three parts: a) mainstreaming gender equality, b) gender equality policy mixes and c) key challenges for gender equality. The Ministries receiving the questionnaire – typically the labour and social affairs Ministries – were strongly encouraged to consult other Ministries in the completion of the questionnaire given the cross-cutting nature of gender equality priorities and policy responses.

References

[4] Eurobarometer (2024), Gender stereotypes, https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2974.

[16] European Commission (2025), The EU Roadmap for Women’s Rights: a renewed push for gender equality, https://commission.europa.eu/news/eu-roadmap-womens-rights-renewed-push-gender-equality-2025-03-07_en.

[14] European Commission (2022), Proposal for a Council Recommendation on the Revision of the Barcelona Targets on early childhood education and care, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52022DC0442.

[17] European Commission (2020), The Gender Equality Strategy 2020-2025, https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/just/items/682425/en.

[8] European Union (2024), Directive (EU) 2024/1385 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 May 2024 on combating violence against women and domestic violence, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/dir/2024/1385/oj/eng.

[11] European Union (2023), Council Decision (EU) 2023/1075 of 1 June 2023 on the conclusion, on behalf of the European Union, of the Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence with regard to institutions and public administ, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32023D1075.

[12] European Union (2023), Council Decision (EU) 2023/1076 of 1 June 2023 on the conclusion, on behalf of the European Union, of the Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence with regard to matters related to judicial coop, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32023D1076.

[7] European Union (2023), Directive (EU) 2023/970 of the European Parliament and the Council of 10 May 2023 to strengthen the application of the principle of equal pay for equal work or work of equal value between men and women through pay transparency and enforcement mechanisms, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32023L0970.

[15] European Union (2022), Council Recommendation of 8 December 2022 on access to affordable high-quality long-term care 2022/C 476/01, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=oj:JOC_2022_476_R_0001.

[6] European Union (2022), Directive (EU) 2022/2381 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 November 2022 on improving the gender balance among directors of listed companies and related measures, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32022L2381.

[13] European Union (2019), Council Recommendation of 22 May 2019 on High-Quality Early Childhood Education and Care Systems, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=oj:JOC_2019_189_R_0002.

[5] European Union (2019), Directive (EU) 2019/1158 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2019 on work-life balance for parents and carers and repealing Council Directive 2010/18/EU, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32019L1158.

[9] European Union (2017), Council Decision (EU) 2017/865 of 11 May 2017 on the signing, on behalf of the European Union, of the Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence with regard to matters related to judicial cooperat, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32017D0865.

[10] European Union (2017), Council Decision (EU) 2017/866 of 11 May 2017 on the signing, on behalf of the European Union, of the Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence with regard to asylum and non-refoulement, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32017D0866.

[1] OECD (2024), Megatrends and the Future of Social Protection, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/6c9202e8-en.

[3] OECD (2024), OECD Data Explorer - Gender wage gap, https://data-explorer.oecd.org/s/16q.

[2] OECD (2023), Joining Forces for Gender Equality: What is Holding us Back?, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/67d48024-en.

[20] OECD (2023), The OECD’s Contribution to Promoting Gender Equality, https://one.oecd.org/document/C/MIN(2023)17/en/pdf.

[18] OECD (2017), 2013 OECD Recommendation of the Council on Gender Equality in Education, Employment and Entrepreneurship, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264279391-en.

[19] OECD (2016), 2015 OECD Recommendation of the Council on Gender Equality in Public Life, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264252820-en.