The OECD conducted field research in the Apulia Region (Italy) to test the self‑diagnostic tool.1 The Apulia region leads the country in wind energy production: it hosts 1 726 wind turbines – mostly in the province of Foggia – and has seen the largest recent capacity increase despite a national slowdown2. Yet, regional and local stakeholders noted specific regulatory and administrative hurdles related to spatial planning and the issuance of permits, including grid connection, that can delay projects and deter investment. While the Diagnostic tool was subsequently refined to incorporate these practical insights, studying Apulia also provides broader insights for other EU regions into how institutional arrangements affect the deployment and scaling up of onshore wind generation.
Diagnostic Toolkit for Reducing Regulatory Barriers to Solar, Wind and Pumped Hydro Storage in the European Union
Apulia plays a strategic role in Italy’s energy transition and offers a relevant test case for examining regulatory barriers to renewable energy deployment. The region has seen a marked increase in renewable energy generation in recent years, supported by favourable natural conditions and strong institutional engagement. According to the EC Joint Research Centre (JRC), the share of renewables in Apulia’s energy mix has risen significantly, consolidating its position as a national leader in clean energy deployment (Armenise, 2023[1]).
Strong economic performance and a robust energy base reinforce Apulia’s importance in Italy’s energy mix. In 2023, the region accounted for approximately 4% of national GDP and ranked ninth overall. Although per capita GDP remains below the national average, Apulia recorded the highest growth rate in southern Italy – 6.1% over 2019-23. It leads the country in wind power generation, with 2.6 GW installed (20% of national output), and holds 2.8 GW of PV solar capacity.3 Key cross-border infrastructure, including the Apulia–Greece HVDC interconnector, further strengthens its role as a regional energy hub.
Effective mobilisation of public and private actors has enabled Apulia to scale renewables, but regulatory pressures are growing. OECD fieldwork confirmed that permitting processes have increasingly aligned with regional development goals, and national and EU funds have been leveraged effectively. Yet, as project volumes increase, the existing regulatory architecture is facing capacity and coordination strains. Further refinement is needed to maintain momentum and support increasingly complex project pipelines. Table 13.1 shows some preliminary regulatory identified.
Source: OECD analysis
Apulia plays a central role in Italy’s deployment of onshore wind. With strong natural resources, a robust renewable energy base, and ambitious regional targets, the region serves as a useful case for assessing permitting, spatial planning, and grid connection frameworks in practice. This section outlines Apulia’s current contribution to wind generation, describes its policy ambitions for 2030, and presents selected projects recently authorised.
13.2.1. Current deployment of onshore wind in Apuglia
As of 2024, the region has installed approximately 2.6 GW of onshore wind, equivalent to approximately 135 MW/km2. This puts Puglia well above the median and mean of NUTS2 regions, EU-wide. It represents approximately 20% of Italy’s total onshore wind capacity, which equals 12.9 GW in 2024.
Note: The heatmap uses Fisher breaks to define 9 categories. Fisher (1958) applied an algorithm to group continuous data samples into groups where data points are as similar as possible within a given group, and as different as possible from other groups.
Source: OECD database
If one compares Puglia’s installed capacity with the other NUTS-2 regions in Italy, Apulia remains the leading Italian region in wind energy production in 2024. The region currently hosts 1 726 wind turbines and the sector provides substantial employment opportunities, with estimates of 3 500 jobs in development and services, 4 271 in industry, and 3 843 in operation and maintenance. 4 Grid connection requests for onshore wind have surged, reaching a total capacity of 26.3 GW by the end of 2024. 5 This pipeline reflects both growing investor interest and the need for improved permitting and grid access mechanisms.
Source: OECD database
If NUTS-2 regions in Italy are compared in terms of density (kW installed capacity per km2), Puglia ranks high, but no longer the highest (seeFigure 13.3). It is second only to Campania (144 kW/km2) and Basilicata (145 kW/km2).
Note: The heatmap uses Fisher breaks to define 9 categories. Fisher (1958) applied an algorithm to group continuous data samples into groups where data points are as similar as possible within a given group, and as different as possible from other groups.
Source: OECD database
13.2.2. Future potential and projects under development
When looking at the future deployment of onshore wind, one can look at (i) the technical potential (the maximum amount of onshore wind capacity that can be installed based on the physical and technological constraints of the area), and (ii) the projects that are publicly announced or currently in (pre-)construction (projects “in the pipeline”). Moreover, it would be interesting to compare the current installed capacity and the projects in the pipeline with the nationally set objectives and the technical potential.
According to GEM data6, only 7 of Italy’s 21 NUTS2 regions have onshore wind projects in the pipeline. Total installed capacity of projects in the pipeline to 2030 totals 1 014 MW, or about 8% of current installed capacity. Puglia leads among Italy’s NUTS2 regions in terms of projects in the pipeline: 41% of the capacity planned comes from Puglia, and most of this (54%) is in pre-construction.
However, the roughly 1 GW of onshore wind projects in the pipeline to 2030 is significantly less than Italy’s 2023 NECP target of 28.1 GW for wind (onshore and offshore) (see Figure 13.4). Apulia’s 2030 targets aim to double wind production through revamping and diversification. The updated Regional Energy and Environmental Plan (PEAR) sets a goal to fully phase out coal by 2030 while increasing wind and solar production.7 The strategy includes repowering – replacing ageing turbines with higher-capacity models – and expanding battery storage to support renewable integration.
Note: Data available distinguished between three types of projects in the pipeline, with increasing likelihood of realisation: projects (publicly) announced, projects in pre-construction and projects in construction. In this chapter, a distinction is being made between “announced projects” and projects in pre-construction and construction (which are considered to be “in the pipeline”).
Source: Pipeline data: GEM, OECD database
Addressing regulatory barriers in the Italy would significantly increase the likelihood that Puglia could close the gap between current trajectories and policy ambitions. As a result, it contribute to meeting the national targets for the deployment of onshore wind. The regional energy transition is also intended to deliver local economic benefits. Apulia seeks to reinforce self-consumption and strengthen its renewable supply chain, enhancing territorial resilience and stimulating local industry.
Multiple wind projects have recently been authorised, illustrating growing deployment momentum (see Table 13.2).
Note: The construction for both RWE projects is expected to begin in the second half of 2025, with commissioning scheduled for the following year.
Source: OECD desk research
13.3.1. Brief overview of the Italian legal system
Italy operates under a decentralised, multi-level legal system shaped by ongoing constitutional reforms. The governance structure includes the State, Regions (five with special statutes), Provinces (two autonomous), Metropolitan Cities, and Municipalities. The 2001 constitutional reform clarified the distribution of legislative powers, particularly relevant for environmental and energy matters (OECD, 2017[2]). More recently, parliamentary debate on differentiated regional autonomy has gained momentum, especially following a Constitutional Court ruling. 8 Draft legislative decrees are expected to define essential service levels in key areas, including environmental protection, national energy production, infrastructure, and cultural heritage.
The Constitution distinguishes between exclusive, concurrent, and residual legislative competences. Exclusive powers rest with the State; concurrent powers allow regions to legislate within the State’s guiding principles; and residual powers are fully devolved to the regions (Palermo and Wilson, 2013[3]). Municipalities, Provinces, and Metropolitan Cities hold competences over the organisation and implementation of their assigned functions.
Energy and environmental governance falls under shared State-Regional competences. The State retains exclusive authority over the protection of the environment, ecosystems, and cultural heritage, while regions share responsibility for spatial planning, cultural assets, and energy production and distribution. Subnational authorities – particularly Provinces, Metropolitan Cities, and Municipalities – carry out key administrative tasks, including permitting, support for local energy efficiency measures, and land-use decisions. 9 Agriculture is a matter of residual legislative competence of the regions.
13.3.2. Legal framework on energy in Italy and Apulia (main legislation)
Italy has recently consolidated national permitting rules to support renewable energy deployment. Legislative Decree No. 190 of 25 November 2024 streamlines authorisation procedures for new renewable energy installations, aiming to reduce administrative burdens and accelerate investment. The decree introduces a unified framework for permitting processes, including provisions for environmental assessments and grid connection.
Regional procedures continue to apply in cases requiring environmental assessment. In Apulia, the Regional Environmental Authorisation Procedure (PAUR), based on Article 27-bis of Legislative Decree No. 152/2006, remains in force. This mechanism allows the region to consolidate environmental and other permitting steps into a single authorisation process, although its application can vary across project types and administrative jurisdictions.
National spatial planning guidance defines suitable areas for renewable energy deployment. The Ministerial Decree of 21 June 2024 (“Decree on Suitable Areas”) establishes uniform national criteria for identifying land eligible for renewable energy development. Regions must incorporate these into their territorial and landscape plans. However, implementation has proven difficult in practice. In Apulia, for example, draft Regional Law No. 222 of 23 October 2024 remains blocked due to a lack of stakeholder consensus and ongoing judicial challenges.
Environmental assessment procedures are regulated under EU and national law. Environmental Impact Assessment (VIA) was introduced through transitional legislation following Law 394/1986. Under EU directives, projects likely to cause significant environmental impacts must undergo an EIA, either at national or regional level depending on their scale and location.
Grid connection is governed by an independent regulatory authority. The Regulatory Authority for Energy, Networks and Environment (ARERA) establishes rules for connecting renewable projects to the national electricity grid. These rules are implemented through TSO Terna’s Codice di Rete and further detailed in a suite of technical and economic regulations.
The main regulatory instruments for grid connection include TICA and TIC. The Integrated Text on Active Connections (TICA), the Integrated Text of Economic Conditions for Grid Access (TIC), and Resolution No. 281/05 collectively define the obligations and procedures for connecting projects above 1 kV to the grid. These include timelines for grid operators, fee structures, and transparency requirements. Challenges remain, particularly for regions like Apulia where high volumes of renewable capacity are under development.
Stakeholders
Despite its growth in renewables, Apulia’s regulatory environment presents important legal and administrative challenges. Developers face fragmented permitting processes involving up to 30 authorities, with no unified digital interface or one-stop shop for submission and tracking. This administrative complexity delays approvals and increases costs, especially for small and medium-sized entrants.
At the national level, the principal authorities responsible for policy development, permitting, and regulatory oversight include:
Ministry for Environment and Energy Security (MASE). Leads national-level authorisation procedures for renewable energy projects, especially where environmental impact assessments (EIA) fall under state competence. It also coordinates national energy strategy and regulatory alignment.
Ministry of Culture (MIC). Responsible for protecting cultural heritage and landscapes. Operates through 43 regional Superintendencies that issue binding landscape opinions as part of EIA procedures.
Ministry of Agriculture, Food Sovereignty and Forestry (MASAF). Provides technical opinions on offshore and land-based projects that may affect agriculture or fishing.
Ministry of Defense. Participates in permitting procedures where projects intersect with military zones or defence infrastructure, issuing security-related assessments.
Ministry of the Interior / Prefects. Prefects act as the State’s representatives at the territorial level and appoint the Single Representative in inter-institutional permitting conferences.
ISPRA (National Institute for Environmental Protection and Research). Provides scientific and technical input on environmental risks and supports both national and regional authorities with policy advice.
At the level of the Region:
Regions. Lead environmental permitting (PAUR), landscape authorisations, and the designation of suitable and unsuitable areas for renewable deployment. They are central to spatial planning and act as lead authorities when the EIA falls under regional competence.
ARPA (Regional Environmental Protection Agency). Provides technical-scientific opinions on environmental impacts (e.g. air, water, soil). Operates at the regional level and is a mandatory consultee in most procedures.
Regional Park Authorities. Manage protected areas and issue environmental compatibility opinions, ensuring alignment with conservation and biodiversity goals.
Local Authorities
Municipalities. Responsible for urban planning and serve as lead authorities for simplified permitting procedures (PAS). They also manage local expropriation processes and spatial alignment with regional plans.
District Basin Authorities. Oversee hydrogeological risk management, soil protection, and sustainable water use at the basin level, often crossing municipal boundaries.
National Park Authorities (when locally situated). While coordinated nationally by MASE, they work closely with local governments to ensure land-use compatibility with conservation rules.
Fire Department. Issues opinions on fire prevention and compliance with national safety standards, coordinated through local and regional branches of the Ministry of the Interior.
13.4.1. Spatial planning
The land-use planning system in Italy is decentralised. While the national government provides strategic guidance, regions are responsible for establishing the legislative and procedural framework for territorial planning. Regional legislation and planning acts govern how municipalities develop and implement local land-use plans. Regions are responsible for drafting Regional Landscape Plans, in coordination with the Ministry of Culture, to ensure that spatial development is consistent with the preservation of cultural and environmental values. Regions also prepare Regional Territorial Plans, which vary according to each region’s priorities and development strategy.
At the intermediate level, provinces (or metropolitan cities where applicable) act as coordinating authorities. They are responsible for drafting Provincial Territorial Coordination Plans, which aim to harmonise municipal planning decisions and guide major infrastructure development (OECD, 2017[2]). Metropolitan cities have replaced provinces in certain areas, inheriting their responsibilities for wide-area planning and coordination. 10
At the local level, municipalities hold primary responsibility for operational land-use planning. They adopt Local Development Plans that define zoning and land-use rules. Municipalities with fewer than 5,000 inhabitants are encouraged to collaborate through inter-municipal cooperation frameworks to ensure adequate administrative and technical capacity for fulfilling their planning functions (OECD, 2017[2]).
The designation of suitable areas for renewable energy installations faces legal and administrative challenges. The Ministerial Decree of June 21, 2024 (“Decree on Suitable Areas”) provides criteria and principles to guide regional authorities in identifying "suitable" and "unsuitable" zones for wind and solar power installations. It also outlines procedures to minimise environmental impacts, specifies maximum allowable land occupation per surface unit, and accounts for existing renewable installations and technically available land. Moreover, it defines methods for locating brownfields, decommissioned industrial sites, abandoned, and marginal lands that could host renewable energy facilities. Finally, the decree sets annual targets for each Region and Autonomous Province to ensure the cumulative national capacity goals for 2030 are met – the Apulia Region must reach 7,4 GW of newly installed capacity by 2030. See Box 13.1.
Regulatory uncertainty continues to delay Apulia’s identification of suitable areas. Draft Regional Law No. 222 (October 2024), which aimed to define suitable areas for renewable energy development, was suspended following stakeholder disagreements and legal challenges. Recent court rulings further questioned the legality of provisions such as wide buffer zones around protected areas. As a result, Apulia has yet to formally designate suitable, ordinary, or unsuitable areas or operationalise the national digital platform for spatial planning. It also remains unclear how the absence of suitable areas will affect the forthcoming designation of acceleration zones under national legislation.
In October 2024, the Region introduced Draft Bill No. 222/2024 to define suitable areas for renewable energy projects. To meet its share of the national target of 80 GW of new renewable capacity by 2030, Apulia must install 7.4 GW – but at the current annual rate of 339 MW, this goal would be delayed until 2042. The proposal prioritised already industrialised or degraded lands – such as brownfields, landfills, and infrastructure-adjacent sites – while also allowing projects in pending industrial zones, provided municipalities fast-track planning procedures.
The bill proposed faster permitting in designated suitable areas, with reduced authorisation timelines and non-binding opinions from landscape authorities. To protect cultural and ecological assets, large wind farms and ground-mounted solar panels are banned within 5 km of UNESCO sites and 1 km of scenic roads or viewpoints. Protected landscapes, wetlands, forests, dunes, and karst formations (e.g., caves, sinkholes) are also off-limits.
Importantly, the law introduced a three-tier zoning framework (suitable, ordinary, unsuitable) but included no specific carve-outs for onshore wind in agricultural areas – despite these making up the majority of Apulia’s land. Following public consultation and a ruling by the Council of State, the legislative process was suspended. Apulia must now revise the draft in line with national criteria and the Constitutional Court’s decision.
Source: OECD
Outdated regional legislation continues to govern wind planning in Apulia. In the absence of an updated regional law, Regulation No. 16 of 6 October 2006 remains the primary legal framework for wind energy siting. This regulation mandates the identification of unsuitable areas and requires municipalities to adopt regulatory plans for wind development – individually or in cooperation. It outlines the documentation to be submitted as well as criteria such as for environmental and landscape constraints and includes a control parameter based on the total diameter of turbines in relation to municipal land area. However, it does not reflect recent technological developments or national decarbonisation targets.
Legal rulings at the national level have introduced further complexity. In late 2024, the Council of State suspended several provisions of the national Decree on Suitable Areas. These included the delegation of powers to Regions to exclude specific areas from renewable energy development. The rulings emphasised the need to balance regional autonomy with legal consistency and the imperative to meet EU renewable energy targets, creating additional uncertainty for regional planning in Apulia.
Court rulings have invalidated broad exclusions and buffer zones for renewable siting. The Lazio Regional Administrative Court clarified that categorically banning renewable installations in "non-suitable" areas contravene Italy’s climate targets and EU obligations.11 It also struck down provisions that would have allowed Regions to define overly broad buffer zones – up to 7 km – around protected areas without prior specification by national legislation. The Court underscored that only the national legislator may define such quantitative constraints, particularly when they affect authorisation processes.
The decree must now be revised, and regional frameworks adapted accordingly. The Court criticised the decree’s lack of technical and objective criteria for identifying suitable and non-suitable areas and failure to include transitional measures for ongoing permitting procedures. It ordered the national government to revise the criteria. Until these revisions are finalised, regions like Apulia must pause their own spatial planning processes.
These rulings carry direct consequences for regions such as Apulia. The suspension of Apulia’s Regional Law No. 222 and broader judicial rulings have stalled regional efforts to designate suitable areas. These developments signal a shift toward greater national coordination but may limit regional autonomy in the short term. Stakeholders noted that these unresolved legal questions are significantly delaying spatial planning updates and undermining investor confidence.
Updated guidance is needed to balance landscape protection and renewable expansion. Several municipal plans remain outdated, with limited consideration of renewable energy. Stakeholders emphasised the need for clearer national and regional guidelines to align local planning with renewable deployment, particularly concerning land suitability mapping, setback rules, and the integration of landscape objectives.
Acceleration areas face delays due to unresolved governance and data gaps. Under RED III, acceleration zones must be designated to streamline permitting. The GSE is responsible for national mapping by May 2025, with regions then adopting corresponding territorial plans. However, no national mapping has been completed and regional designations will require strategic environmental assessments by August.12 These delays are compounding uncertainty around project pipelines.
Lack of coordination mechanisms risks delaying acceleration area designation. Stakeholders noted that the relationship between acceleration areas and suitable areas remains unclear, with no mechanisms in place to integrate spatial data across government levels. This gap raises concerns that the designation of Renewable Acceleration Areas (RAAs) may be delayed. Participants recommended prioritising public land and using renewable potential per surface unit as a siting criterion. They also called for GIS-based tools to flag regulatory conflicts early and streamline permitting.
Municipal discretion remains a source of fragmentation and delay. Municipalities can influence project outcomes through local siting decisions, yet no harmonised guidance exists to steer this discretion. The regional plan dates to 2015, and many municipal plans remain outdated or misaligned with national energy and grid development strategies. Uncertainty over substation locations and upgrade schedules further complicates effective site planning and infrastructure reuse.
13.4.2. Permitting
Legislative Decree 190/2024 introduced a consolidated framework for renewable permitting. The decree simplifies administrative procedures for new renewable energy plants, including modifications and repowering. It defines three permitting regimes based on project type and location: (i) free building (no permit required outside protected areas); (ii) the Simplified Authorisation Procedure (PAS); and (iii) the Single Authorisation (AU), which includes environmental impact assessments (EIA). The construction of renewable energy plants is designated as a matter of "overriding public interest.
Wind power installations are subject to different authorisation requirements based on capacity, height, and location relative to protected areas. Smaller turbines (≤20 kW, ≤5m height) outside protected areas fall under free building rules. Projects between 20 kW and 60 kW require PAS, while larger wind farms (60 kW to 300 MW) or those within protected zones must follow the AU procedure. Even projects under the free building regime must still comply with hydrogeological, seismic, and landscape protections. Delays in responses from relevant authorities may trigger tacit approval after 30 days, though this is subject to specific procedural conditions.13
Single Authorisation processes are time sensitive. The lead authority (typically the Region, but this depends on type of project, see below) coordinates submissions to other relevant agencies, which have 20 days to identify missing documents and 10 further days to request additional materials. The applicant must then respond within 30 days (extendable once by 90 days). Cultural and environmental authorities have 45 days to issue opinions; silence is considered consent if deadlines are not met. the applicant submits the request to the municipality through a digital platform, using a standard form adopted by decree of the Minister of the Environment and Energy Security. Where multiple municipalities are involved, the one hosting the largest part of the project takes the lead and consults others.
In the case of Single Authorisation, decision-making varies by project characteristics. For wind power plants between 60 kW and 300 MW or those located in protected areas (including Natura 2000 sites), the competent authority is the Region or a delegated body such as the Province. Timelines for required opinions differ depending on the authority involved. If the opinion falls within the municipality’s competence, it must be issued within 45 days, after which tacit consent applies. If other authorities – such as ASL, ARPA, the Superintendency, or the Fire Department – are involved, the municipality must convene the service conference within five days of submission.
Apulia applies the national framework pending regional transposition. Although Apulia has not yet adopted Legislative Decree 190/2024 through a dedicated regional law (unlike regions such as Marche), the national framework is already in use. For instance, the Apulia Region recently authorised a 21 MW wind plant under the new regime in the Municipality of Bovino.14 The decree allows 180 days from its entry into force (30 December 2024) for regional adaptation. Even if not transposed within this timeframe, the decree’s provisions will apply directly.
Legal fragmentation risks regulatory uncertainty. Regions may choose whether and how to transpose the decree, creating discrepancies across Italy and legal uncertainty for developers. Further, projects initiated before the decree face particular ambiguity over which rules apply, potentially leading to delays or inconsistent treatment across jurisdictions.
Discretionary municipal practices introduce uncertainty and variability in the permitting process. Although municipalities lack formal competence over environmental or landscape assessments, stakeholders mentioned that negative local opinions can inform or influence regional decision-making. Additionally, while compensation measures for host communities are capped at 3% of annual revenue, their request and administration vary considerably between municipalities, resulting in inconsistent expectations and further uncertainty for developers.
The absence of a transparent registry for project applications results in overlapping claims and inconsistent prioritisation. According to stakeholders, overlapping project areas, often submitted by competing developers, are typically only identified at the conclusion of the permitting process, leading to wasted resources and procedural disputes. The lack of a public registry or transparency platform prevents developers from ascertaining prior claims or pending applications in a given area. Although the chronology of applications is intended to determine project priority, this rule is applied, according to some stakeholders, inconsistently and remains subject to significant degree of administrative discretion, creating legal uncertainty and the potential for conflict between competing projects.
13.4.3. Coordination between permitting authorities
Multi-level governance complicates coordination in permitting procedures. The authorisation process for renewable energy projects involves multiple authorities whose roles vary depending on project type, location, capacity, and applicable legal procedures. At the national level, the Ministry for Environment and Energy Security (MASE) leads procedures requiring state-level environmental impact assessment (EIA), while the Ministry of Culture (MIC) oversees cultural heritage protection, and the Ministry of Agriculture is involved in offshore projects. Regional authorities lead where regional EIA applies. Municipalities remain responsible for urban planning and lead authorities for expropriation procedures and simplified permitting (PAS).
Service conferences serve as a key coordination mechanism. Where a project triggers approvals from multiple authorities, the municipality must convene a "service conference" within five days of submission. Other authorities may request clarifications from the applicant within ten days, suspending the deadline until the applicant provides the requested material (within a maximum of 15 days). Authorities must then issue their opinions within 45 days of the conference’s start. If no objections are raised within 60 days of the project’s submission, the permit is deemed granted automatically – unless a competent authority for environmental, cultural, or safety protection raises a substantiated objection.
Defined timelines vary depending on EIA status. For projects not requiring EIA, the service conference must be held within 10 days of document review and concluded within 120 days. Deadlines may be paused – up to 60 days if environmental screening is underway, or up to 90 days if a full EIA is required.
EIA procedures require an additional public consultation phase. Where EIA is applicable, the environmental authority must publish a public notice within ten days of completing the review. The public then has 30 days to provide comments. If significant changes are requested, the applicant has 30 days to respond. Upon completion, the lead authority convenes the service conference. In Apulia, if the project spans multiple provinces, the province where most of the facility is located leads the assessment, while others provide supporting opinions.
Digital coordination tools remain underdeveloped. The SUER (Sportello Unico per le Energie Rinnovabili) platform was created to centralise permitting applications and facilitate interaction with multiple authorities. Originally established by Legislative Decree 28/2011 and reinforced by Decree No. 190/2024, SUER is intended to improve permitting transparency and efficiency. However, its implementation is uneven. Several regions operate independent platforms, and lack of standardised procedures hampers interoperability. Greater procedural alignment at all levels is needed to ensure SUER’s effectiveness.
One-stop-shops exist in form but not always in practice. Despite formal mechanisms, one-stop-shops remain inconsistently applied across regions. Stakeholders reported difficulties in discovering overlapping project zones due to the absence of a centralised registry or transparency platform – an issue that often emerges only at the end of the permitting process.
13.4.4. Environmental impact assessment
Duplicate landscape reviews undermine procedural efficiency and legal certainty. Despite the national environmental impact assessment (EIA) process, which already incorporates landscape considerations through the Ministry of Culture, regional authorities in Apulia frequently re-examine landscape authorisations when building permits are requested. According to stakeholders, this practice causes delays of one to two years, generates duplicative efforts and costs, and increases legal uncertainty, especially where objections have already been resolved by the Presidency of the Council of Ministers. 15 Regional offices of the Ministry of Culture have, in some cases, issued renewed negative opinions that contradict earlier national decisions. While municipalities hold limited formal authority in this domain, their informal opinions often exert substantial influence on project outcomes.
Judicial intervention has clarified the legal consequences of delays and duplications in the EIA process. In 2025, the Council of State upheld the annulment of an EIA denial for an 83 MW agrivoltaic project in Foggia, affirming that excessive procedural delays and duplications are unlawful. Under Article 25(2-bis) of Legislative Decree 152/2006, if statutory time limits are exceeded – such as the 130-day deadline for EIA decisions – authorisation is deemed granted. The ruling further clarified that once the Technical EIA Commission issues a positive opinion, the Ministry of Culture must respond within 20 days or be considered to have approved. This precedent strengthens the legal position of developers, particularly for priority projects such as large onshore wind farms. 16
The PAUR procedure consolidates regional EIA approvals. In Apulia, the PAUR (Regional Single Environmental Authorisation) procedure – governed by Article 27-bis of Legislative Decree 152/2006 – applies to projects requiring a regional EIAs. The PAUR process integrates all necessary permits via a “services conference” coordinated by the Region, though the decision-making authority remains with the relevant competent bodies. While PAUR was introduced to streamline permitting, its application and timelines vary across regions, and procedural uniformity remains a challenge.
Provincial delegation raises consistency concerns. In Apulia, the Region has delegated PAUR-related functions to the Provinces. This delegation, confirmed by TAR Lecce rulings and official regional communications, grants provinces full responsibility for initiating, managing, and concluding PAUR procedures. However, without some guidance to support some decision-making harmonisation this fragmentation risks inconsistency across the region, potentially affecting legal certainty for developers.
Administrative inefficiencies and inadequate coordination continue to hinder effective environmental assessment. Although ARPA’s (the regional environmental agency) opinions are not formally binding, they are invariably solicited and often duplicated within a single project, contributing to procedural redundancy. According to some stakeholders environmental assessments are conducted without a risk-based prioritisation framework or standardised guidelines, and digital tools such as GIS-based cumulative impact assessments are underutilised. Inconsistent coordination among authorities and overlapping planning layers lead to additional legal and procedural costs for developers. Stakeholders report instances where costly studies were commissioned only for projects to be rejected on unrelated aesthetic grounds, underscoring the urgent need for transparent, proportionate, and risk-based environmental assessment criteria, as well as for the digitisation and streamlining of proceedings.
13.4.5. Repowering
Repowering procedures for existing onshore wind plants remain complex, despite recent attempts at simplification. Simplified administrative procedures are essential to support the repowering and upgrading of renewable energy plants, enabling increased generation capacity while maintaining constitutional values such as landscape protection. However, in practice, repowering continues to encounter significant administrative hurdles, including overlapping procedures for new and existing plants, and burdensome requirements for associated grid connection infrastructure.
National Decree 190/2024 introduced administrative simplifications, but key limitations remain. The decree establishes that for repowering and revamping projects under the “free activity” regime or the PAS (Simplified Authorisation Procedure), the opinion of the authority responsible for landscape protection or the Superintendence is not required if the site is already occupied and works involve only minor changes in volume or area. This measure recognises the reduced landscape impact of such projects, but it is limited to minor modifications and excludes more substantial upgrades.
Environmental impact assessments (EIAs) for repowering projects are narrowly scoped, yet legal uncertainty persists. For repowering, environmental assessments are limited to the incremental impact of the modification compared to the pre-existing situation. However, the division of competences between regional and national authorities creates uncertainty, as only the State can determine which projects are exempt from EIA. Recent Constitutional Court rulings have invalidated regional attempts to further streamline repowering, reaffirming that administrative simplification is a State competence.
The absence of clear and consistent criteria distinguishing “substantial” from “minor” variations undermines legal certainty in repowering procedures. Landscape protection authorisation is not required for certain technical modifications to existing wind plants – such as technological upgrades or rotor replacements – provided these do not increase the area occupied and that the increase in blade size and service volume does not exceed 20%. While this exemption is intended to streamline small-scale repowering and encourage modernisation, it does not apply where more extensive modifications are contemplated, potentially limiting the realisation of significant increases in generation capacity on existing sites. Stakeholders have shown concerns that when a variation constitutes a “substantial” change requiring full re-permitting, as opposed to a “minor” modification allowed under the exemption is unclear and requires guidance. This ambiguity results in divergent interpretations by competent authorities and increases regulatory risk for developers, who may face inconsistent outcomes and procedural delays when seeking to repower existing installations.
The Volturara-Motta wind farm repowering highlights both regional efforts to simplify procedures and the current limits of regional legal competence. In this case, 19 existing turbines (total 11.4 MW) are being replaced with 8 higher-capacity units (each 6.6 MW, total 52.8 MW) in the municipalities of Volturara Appula and Motta Montecorvino, including related grid connection works. The procedure illustrates the present legal framework: any assessment of potential cumulative impacts must be referred to the competent national ministry, reflecting the current division of competences and the need to address unknown or cumulative environmental effects. The region’s role in the evaluation is now limited to considerations such as agricultural zoning, site suitability given the existing plant, and compliance with distance and area thresholds – provided there is no increase in occupied area of more than 20%. While the Apulia Region previously attempted to further simplify repowering authorisation, this effort was annulled by the Constitutional Court, and developers are now required to obtain a national EIA, with the regional opinion included as part of the process. This confirms that authorisation for such major repowering projects falls within national, not regional, jurisdiction.
Source: OECD
13.4.6. Grid connection
Grid connection procedures were also identified as a concern, particularly regarding coordination, transparency, and sequencing with permitting milestones. According to stakeholders, coordination between permitting milestones and grid connection procedures remains challenging, with significant variation in locally determined setback rules and a lack of systematic land suitability assessments. These inconsistencies result in fragmented implementation, generating avoidable disputes and delays. Overall, the case of Apulia demonstrates that strong regional performance can be achieved despite some remaining structural inefficiencies – and that targeted reforms can support even greater impact.
High grid connection costs and lengthy processes limit competition and investor access. The cost of obtaining grid connections, estimated at €150 000–€300 000 per project, together with extended timelines, creates significant entry barriers for smaller firms and cooperatives. Over 1.2 GW of wind projects are reportedly stalled in Apulia’s connection queue, underlining the severity of the bottleneck.
Significant new grid investments are planned to strengthen Apulia’s energy infrastructure. Terna’s investment plan allocates €1.9 billion for electricity infrastructure in Apulia over the next decade, making it the second highest-funded region in Italy for grid upgrades. Strategic projects include the 500 km Adriatic Backbone high-voltage direct current (HVDC) line, connecting Foggia to Forlì, a new 500 MW undersea interconnector with Greece, and a substation in Torremaggiore (Foggia). These projects aim to reduce congestion, enhance both domestic and cross-border transmission capacity, and reinforce Apulia’s role as an energy hub for southern Italy and beyond.
Grid expansion and authorisation is tightly controlled at national level, limiting regional input. High-voltage infrastructure authorisation falls under national competence, with regions involved only to the extent of issuing non-binding opinions, mainly concerning protected areas and landscape authorisations. Regional authorities have no direct role in the planning or approval of grid expansion projects, reflecting a centralised system.
Current grid planning processes are reactive, creating mismatches and inefficiencies. Terna, Italy’s transmission system operator, develops its national plan based on confirmed project authorisations rather than proactive, long-term modelling of grid needs. Investment decisions are thus reactive, and developers face uncertainty due to a lack of transparent, granular information on available grid capacity or upgrade timelines. As a result, some stakeholders referred to the fact that they may incur costs building grid infrastructure upfront with the expectation of reimbursement – a practice more difficult for smaller ones, especially given uncertainties around timing and cost recovery. Moreover, delays or changes in grid siting after environmental permits are granted can force developers to repeat the entire environmental impact assessment (EIA) process. The potential for reusing existing infrastructure from decommissioned industrial sites is underexploited, largely due to a lack of transparent mapping and information.
Reforms should improve transparency, planning, and incentives for grid development. To address these barriers, regular publication of regionalised grid availability and investment plans would be important, along with incentives for anticipatory grid investment and the fast-tracking of infrastructure development in designated areas. Improved transparency via platforms can also be an important tool (see Box 13.3).
GAUDÌ is a national digital platform, developed by Terna on mandate from ARERA, that identifies every electricity production plant in Italy. It enables monitoring of the full project lifecycle, from initial grid connection requests to plant commissioning. GAUDÌ collects key technical and operational data, streamlining administrative processes for both regulators and developers. The platform aims to enhance transparency, data traceability, and informed planning. Its full implementation is expected to reduce delays and support evidence-based decision-making.
TERRA is a digital portal created by Terna to support public administrations in territorial energy planning. It aggregates data on National Transmission Grid development, grid connection requests for renewables and storage, and tracks the progress of connection procedures. TERRA provides a centralised interface for monitoring infrastructure projects and planning grid expansion. The platform is designed to improve coordination between stakeholders and optimise regional infrastructure decisions. By consolidating planning information, TERRA will facilitate faster, more efficient grid development.
This assessment of regulatory barriers – based on stakeholder consultations in Apulia Region and desk research – identifies several challenges that are not unique to the region but reflect broader issues across regions in the EU. While tailored solutions will depend on national and regional contexts, a set of preliminary recommendations regarding the regulatory framework only can be proposed to support more effective deployment of renewable energy. This would include:
Clarify and Harmonise Spatial Planning Rules and Suitable Area Designations. Harmonise the definition and identification of “suitable areas” and acceleration zones across national and regional levels, adapting spatial planning legislation to recent court judgments. Establish clear, objective thresholds for state versus regional oversight to prevent strategic project sizing, reduce jurisdictional disputes, and improve legal certainty. Transparent spatial planning criteria will expedite permitting procedures and remove uncertainty regarding project siting.
Streamline and Integrate Permitting Regimes. Consolidate the current PAUR and AU authorisation regimes into a single, streamlined permitting framework with transparent criteria for regime selection. Ensure full integration of environmental impact assessment (EIA) decisions within the final permit, as required by Legislative Decree 190/2024, and eliminate redundant or fragmented sub-procedures. Clearly distinguish between “substantial” and “minor” modifications for repowering, with detailed guidance from national and regional authorities to reduce regulatory risk and promote efficient project modernisation.
Improve Transparency and Consistency in Permitting Procedures. Establish a central, transparent registry for project applications and strictly apply priority rules to prevent overlapping claims and enhance legal certainty. Standardise procedures for municipal input and compensation measures to reduce discretionary variability. Integrate environmental and landscape assessments to avoid duplication, formalise municipal roles, and ensure decisions are based on proportionate, risk-based criteria with early, binding opinions from competent authorities.
Ensure Regulatory Stability and Clear Transitional Guidance. Prioritise stable, coherent regulatory frameworks and limit incremental legislative reforms. Provide timely technical guidance and capacity support to regional administrations, particularly during legal transitions. Publish clear criteria distinguishing ongoing from new procedures to streamline permitting and reinforce investor confidence during changes in legal regimes.
Align Permitting with Grid Access and Strategic Investment Needs. Require grid operators, such as Terna, to improve transparency regarding current and projected grid capacity, and to regularly consult with national and regional authorities to better align grid planning with project development timelines. Coordinate the implementation of Legislative Decree 190/2024 with ARERA grid rules to reduce mismatches between grid availability and renewable project delivery, supporting strategic, long-term investment in Apulia.
References
[1] Armenise, M. (2023), Monitoring the SDGs in Puglia region, Italy, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
[2] OECD (2017), Land-use planning systems in the OECD: Country Fact Sheets.
[3] Palermo, F. and A. Wilson (2013), “The Dynamics of Decentralization in Italy: Towards a Federal Solution?”.
← 1. Following extensive desk research and preliminary discussions with public stakeholders in the Region, the OECD held detailed consultations from April 14 to 16, 2025 in Bari, Italy.
← 2. Losito, A., Fonti rinnovabili. Puglia, record di pale eoliche alla provincia di Foggia, La gazzetta del mezzogiorno, April, 23, 2025.
← 3. Statista Research Department, Installed capacity of wind power plants in Italy in 2024, by Regions.
← 4. Anev, Associazione nazionale energia del vento, 2024.
← 5. Open data from the Apulia Region: https://dati.puglia.it/ckan/dataset/richieste-di-connessione-alla-rete-per-impianti-da-fonti-rinnovabili-regione-puglia.
← 7. The updated PEAR was adopted by the Regional Council with Deliberation No. 1484 on November 4, 2024 and is the strategic planning tool by which the Apulia Region guides and coordinates energy interventions across its territory, aiming to balance economic and social development with environmental and landscape protection
← 8. Italian Constitutional Court, ruling n. 192 of 14/11/2024 and published on 4/12/2024.
← 9. See the portal on division of powers prepared for the European Committee of Regions by the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE) and CASE Center for Social and Economic Research, https://portal.cor.europa.eu/divisionpowers/Pages/default.aspx
← 10. See the portal on division of powers prepared for the European Committee of Regions by the London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE) and CASE Center for Social and Economic Research, https://portal.cor.europa.eu/divisionpowers/Pages/default.aspx
← 11. Ordinance no. 9168/2025, the Lazio Regional Administrative Court.
← 12. The most recent update - following the approval in the Council of Ministers on 19 May 2025 of the Infrastructure Decree (containing amendments to 190/2024) - considers industrial areas to be accelerated zones for plants.
← 13. If the project is located in a protected area or on a protected building, it can only proceed after receiving authorisation from the authority in charge of landscape protection. This authority must respond within 30 days of receiving the application, based on a binding opinion from the relevant Superintendence, which must respond within 20 days. The 30-day period can be paused once, if within 5 days the authority (or the Superintendence through it) requests additional documents or clarifications with specific reasons. In that case, the deadline resumes either from the 15th day or from the actual submission of the requested materials, whichever comes first. If the applicant fails to submit the requested materials on time, it is considered a withdrawal of the request. If the authority does not respond within 30 days, the authorisation is considered automatically granted with no conditions, and any refusal issued after that deadline is invalid.
← 14. Determinazione del Dirigente Sezione Transizione Energetica, 14 febbraio 2025, n. 39, bollettino ufficiale della Regione Puglia, n. 15 del 20 febbraio 2025.
← 15. Conflicts between the Ministry of Culture and the Ministry of the Environment and Energy Security during EIA procedures must be resolved by the Council of Ministers under Article 5(2)(c-bis) of Law No. 400/1988. This mechanism ensures harmonisation of conflicting public interests. The Council of State confirmed this in Judgment No. 2403 of 8 April 2024.
← 16. An onshore wind farm with a nominal capacity of at least 70 MW, pursuant to Article 8, paragraph 1-bis, letter c), of the same Decree is deemed a priority.