This second edition of the Consumer Finance Risk Monitor shows that consumers of financial products and services continue to face a complex financial landscape, characterised by a range of evolving issues and risks. As such, it is important for policymakers and national authorities responsible for financial consumer protection, as well as relevant international bodies, to understand and monitor intelligence about consumer issues and risks, track sources of potential consumer detriment, and share effective approaches to address risks and harms. This report builds on the 2024 edition to support these objectives and understand global trends. This chapter presents the objectives and methodology of the Consumer Finance Risk Monitor, provides an overview of recent economic and financial trends and summarises the policy context.
Consumer Finance Risk Monitor 2026
Abstract
This second edition of the Consumer Finance Risk Monitor shows that consumers continue to face a complex and dynamic financial landscape, characterised by a range of evolving opportunities and risks. These may stem from the broader economic context (i.e. risks arising from the operating environment), the characteristics and circumstances of consumers themselves (i.e. demand-side risks) or from the behaviour and actions of financial services providers (i.e. conduct-related risks).
Despite a relatively stable economic outlook compared to the period covered by the 2024 edition of the Consumer Finance Risk Monitor (2022-2023), consumers around the world are facing a significant amount of uncertainty in the near-term, which can affect their financial well-being (OECD, 2025[1]). The rapid expansion in digital financial products and services presents both opportunities and challenges for many consumers, with rising levels of financial scams and frauds posing significant risks. At the same time, elevated interest rates and inflation relative to pre-COVID-19 pandemic levels in several jurisdictions are driving up borrowing costs and putting a strain on many household budgets. When these macroeconomic pressures interact with pre-existing household vulnerabilities, such as low financial and digital literacy, elevated debt levels and limited incomes, they heighten risks to individual and household financial well-being. Conduct-related risks, such as unclear disclosures, poor financial advice or dishonest sales practices, exacerbate the issues faced by financial consumers.
In this context, it is important to monitor the issues and risks facing financial consumers, identify sources of potential consumer detriment and share effective approaches that can help mitigate these risks and harms. The OECD Working Party on Financial Consumer Protection, Education and Inclusion (WPFCPEI) developed the Consumer Finance Risk Monitor (also referred to as “the Risk Monitor”) to support these objectives, assist with prioritisation of resources and contribute to the evidence base to inform policy, regulatory and supervisory approaches. This second edition of the report builds on the findings from the Consumer Finance Risk Monitor 2024 (also referred to as “the 2024 edition”) and synthesises the perspectives of 60 jurisdictions on the issues and risks facing financial consumers, focusing on data from 2025 and projections for 2026.
The objectives of this report are to:
1. Identify and track trends over time: The Consumer Finance Risk Monitor serves as a tool to identify and track issues and risks facing financial consumers globally. It captures the perceptions and experiences of policymakers, regulators and supervisors, as well as the measurement of key issues and risks, serving as a tracker of common challenges that may require attention. By monitoring trends over time, the Consumer Finance Risk Monitor highlights which risks may be increasing, stable or decreasing. As the second edition of this report, it provides multiple data points to help national authorities assess the direction of these trends.
2. Assist with prioritisation: The Consumer Finance Risk Monitor, along with other inputs, can help inform the priorities of the WPFCPEI and other bodies. It may also be used to inform efforts to measure the effectiveness and implementation of the G20/OECD High-Level Principles on Financial Consumer Protection (the G20/OECD Financial Consumer Protection Principles). In addition, where relevant, national authorities can also use the Consumer Finance Risk Monitor to inform their risk-based supervision and market monitoring activities by combining a deductive approach (i.e. activities based on risk assessments of their own markets) with a top-down approach (i.e. improving supervisors’ capacity to prepare for and assess global risks that are not yet be present in their markets but may emerge soon).
3. Give more weight to the voice of financial consumer protection policymakers and authorities in international policy debates and contribute to the available evidence base: The Consumer Finance Risk Monitor provides a structured evidence base to highlight the most important risks faced by consumers globally, based on the assessment of national authorities responsible for financial consumer protection. By sharing this evidence in international and national policy discussions, the Consumer Finance Risk Monitor amplifies the consumer protection perspective and complements work carried out by other international policy and standard-setting bodies (e.g. Financial Stability Board, International Monetary Fund, Group of Twenty (G20), World Bank) to build a holistic and global picture of the risks facing consumers in the financial services market.
The findings in this report are based on primary data collected from 60 jurisdictions representing the views of 107 government ministries and financial authorities on ongoing and emerging issues and risks facing financial consumers, complemented by secondary data sources.
The primary data collection was conducted through a Reporting Template. Respondents included 27 OECD Member countries, 11 G20 member countries, 5 G7 member countries, and 9 of 21 APEC members. The 2024 edition received responses from 43 jurisdictions, of which 34 also responded to the 2026 edition, reflecting a 79% retention rate. Throughout the report, figures are presented as percentages of total responses to the applicable question.
The Reporting Template collected information on three key types of risks to financial consumers. The three categories of risks are those stemming from the broader economic context (i.e. operating-environment risks; see Chapter 2), the characteristics and circumstances of consumer themselves (i.e. demand-side risks; see Chapter 3) and the behaviour and actions of financial services providers (i.e. conduct-related risks; see Chapter 4). For each of the three categories, respondents were asked to choose the three most significant risks to financial consumers in their jurisdictions in 2025 and indicate if they anticipated that the risk would increase, decrease, or stay the same in 2026. For each conduct-related risk selected, jurisdictions were also asked to identify the regulatory and supervisory actions they had taken in response.
The Reporting Template also captured granular information across five product sectors: banking and payments; credit; insurance; investments; and pensions. This provides more detailed insights and helps sectoral regulators and supervisors respond to the Reporting Template from the perspective of their specific market. For each product market, respondents were asked to identify the three products and services giving rise to the most consumer detriment in 2025 and indicate whether such detriment was expected to increase, decrease or stay the same in 2026 (see Chapter 5). Respondents also reported data on financial scams and frauds (see Chapter 2) and consumer complaints (see Chapter 6).
Data collection took place between July and November 2025. A full list of participants, including the authorities that contributed data, can be found at Annex A.
Today’s consumers of financial products and services are exposed to economic uncertainty driven by global events, including ongoing trade developments and the application of tariffs, elevated costs of living (including housing) and labour market uncertainties (OECD, 2025[1]).
Against this backdrop of heightened uncertainty for consumers, global economic trends further illustrate the shifting conditions shaping household finance. Global GDP growth is projected to slow from 3.2% in 2025 to 2.9% in 2026, before rebounding to 3.1% in 2027 (Figure 1.1) (OECD, 2025[1]). These estimates reflect a slight downward revision from the earlier forecast of 3.3% growth in both 2025 and 2026 (OECD, 2024[2]). Although ongoing geopolitical and policy uncertainty may continue to dampen domestic demand in many economies, global growth is expected to recover through 2026 as the effects of higher tariffs fade, financial conditions improve, supportive macroeconomic policies take hold and inflation normalises (OECD, 2025[1]).
Note: ‘Advanced economies’ include OECD member countries except Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Mexico, and Türkiye, plus
Croatia. ‘Emerging markets and developing economies’ comprises all other economies.
Source: OECD Economic Outlook 118 database; OECD Economic Outlook 117 database; OECD Interim Economic Outlook 118 database; and
OECD calculations.
Relative to peak levels in 2022, global inflation has moderated due to a decline in worldwide commodity prices, an easing of supply chain disruptions and monetary policy tightening by central banks. Headline inflation is projected to fall from 3.4% in 2025 to 2.9% in 2026 in G20 economies, as economic growth moderates and labour market pressures ease (OECD, 2025[1]).
Notwithstanding the easing of headline and core inflation, price pressures remain a concern. In emerging markets and developing economies, headline inflation has declined to levels around those seen in 2019, with projected further declines in 2026 and 2027 (Figure 1.2). Inflation levels in advanced economies, however, remain higher than pre-pandemic levels. Despite these generally positive projections, underlying inflation (i.e. the persistent component of inflation) has not yet fully returned to target in many jurisdictions, and the pace of disinflation has slowed while inflation expectations have increased. The risk of higher inflation is increased by easier global financial conditions, higher geopolitical tensions, wider trade restrictions and rising prices for some key items, such as food (OECD, 2025[1]).
Source: International Monetary Fund (2025), World Economic Outlook - Global Economy in Flux, Prospects Remain Dim, https://www.imf.org/en/publications/weo/issues/2025/10/14/world-economic-outlook-october-2025.
Food and energy prices are a concern globally. In August 2025, food prices in the OECD were 46% higher than in December 2019, due to factors such as supply chain disruptions and the start of Russia’s war of aggression in Ukraine (OECD, 2025[3]). In the United Kingdom, for example, food prices increased by 37% between 2020 and 2025, and as a result, low-income families spent a greater portion of their money on food (Mistry and Moreau, 2025[4]). In Canada, forecasts suggest that increases in grocery prices could contribute to ongoing affordability pressures (Charlebois et al., 2025[5]). Among EMDEs, the steepest food price increases between 2019 and 2024 in countries such as Mexico, Nigeria and Pakistan were in the starchy staple foods that form the core of diets for the poorest households, and oils (FAO, 2025[6]). In EMDEs, food accounts for about 30-45% of expenditures, making households’ budgets highly exposed to food price changes (World Bank, 2022[7]). Additionally, despite a moderation in global energy prices, some markets remain vulnerable to volatility amid persistent geopolitical risks, especially in Europe (International Energy Agency, 2025[8]).
Finally, housing costs are a persistent source of financial stress in many jurisdictions, particularly for families with low incomes. In the OECD, nearly a third of the population in the lowest income quintile spends more than 40% of their disposable income on housing costs (Figure 1.3). Increases in food, energy, and housing costs, i.e. non-discretionary expenses, intensify pressure on many household budgets, with the heaviest burden falling on the lowest income consumers (International Monetary Fund, 2022[9]).
Note: The chart shows the share of the population in the bottom quintile of the income distribution spending more than 40% of disposable income on mortgage and rent, by tenure, in per cent, 2024 or latest year available.
Source: OECD (2025), OECD Affordable Housing Database - indicator HC 1.2. Housing costs over income, https://oe.cd/ahd.
Amid these broader macroeconomic dynamics, developments in labour markets provide further insight into the evolving pressures faced by households. The growth in unit labour costs in the OECD has slowed but remains elevated compared with many countries’ medium‑term inflation targets (OECD, 2025[1]). Reflecting the relatively high labour costs, job openings per unemployed worker have fallen below pre-pandemic averages in major economies, including Canada, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States (OECD, 2025[1]). Jobs reports since July 2025 have been much weaker than expected, showing a sharp slowdown in hiring. The global unemployment rate rose to 4.3% in August 2025, and signs of weakening labour market activity have emerged amid ongoing shifts in labour supply (International Monetary Fund, 2025[10]).
Notwithstanding, real wages have continued to rise relative to 2019 values in jurisdictions where strong nominal wage increases are paired with declining inflation, as seen in many euro area economies (Figure 1.4). In contrast, persistent inflation in some economies has caused real wage growth to level off and even slightly decline (OECD, 2025[1]). Although real wages in the OECD recorded positive year‑on‑year growth in 2025, they remained below 2021 levels in half of countries, with 2021 used as the reference point since pandemic‑related distortions in nominal wages had largely dissipated by that time, allowing for a more meaningful assessment of wage developments following the subsequent inflation surge (OECD, 2025[11]).
Note: The compensation rate of employees is deflated by the private consumption deflator except for Brazil, where it corresponds to real labour income (usual earnings). The latest historical point corresponds to Q3 2025 for Brazil, Japan, Spain and the United Kingdom, and Q2 2025 for remaining jurisdictions except Israel (Q1 2025).
Source: OECD Economic Outlook 118 database; CEIC; and OECD calculations.
These labour market trends coincide with evolving financial conditions, particularly those related to rising sovereign debt levels and long‑term yields. Since 2010, emerging market economies have seen their total sovereign debt jump fourfold in dollar terms, and in the median country it has nearly doubled relative to GDP (OECD, 2025[1]). In most emerging markets, long-term yields on sovereign bonds declined in 2025. Conversely, sovereign bond yields in advanced economies increased, modestly for ten-year maturities and more markedly for thirty-year bonds. Persistent budget deficits in many advanced economies have raised concerns about growing public debt and its sustainability, contributing to these higher yields on long‑term government bonds. Ongoing fiscal shortfalls mean private investors will need to continue absorbing large volumes of new sovereign debt, especially in countries where central banks are still reducing their balance sheets (OECD, 2025[1]).
Rising long-term government bond yields can lead to higher borrowing costs for households, since banks often use these yields, alongside central bank policy rates, as a reference point when setting interest rates on mortgages and other consumer loans (Eller and Reininger, 2016[12]).
Consumer sentiment broadly reflects these economic trends. According to the Ipsos Cost of Living Monitor 2025, a survey across 30 countries that monitors global sentiment about personal finances, 59% of consumers say they are just getting by (32%) or struggling (27%). Only 37% of consumers say they are living comfortably. Consumer expectations for the future were mixed. On average across the 30 countries, about a third of consumers expected their disposable income to rise in 2026, with the remaining two-thirds expecting it to stay the same (36%) or fall (31%). All countries with higher-than-average positive income expectations were in Africa, Asia or Latin America, while the five countries with the lowest share of consumers anticipating income growth were France (15%), Belgium (18%), Germany, Japan and Canada (20%) (Ipsos, 2025[13]). These results reflect the broader economic picture: although the global economy has been resilient and shown signs of improvement, vulnerabilities persist.
The WPFCPEI is the leading international forum for financial consumer protection policy.1 It comprises representatives of G20, OECD and FSB jurisdictions as well as relevant international organisations and standard setting bodies. The WPFCPEI is responsible for the G20/OECD Financial Consumer Protection Principles, the international standard.
In addition to the G20/OECD Financial Consumer Protection Principles, the WPFCPEI is also responsible for the OECD Recommendation on Consumer Protection in the field of Consumer Credit [OECD/LEGAL/0453] (the Credit Recommendation). The Credit Recommendation sets out recommended policy and regulatory measures relating to the life cycle of consumer credit products and services, to promote fair treatment of consumers via affordable and suitable credit products, and to prevent over-indebtedness. In 2024, the WPFCPEI undertook a review of the implementation, dissemination and continued relevance of the Credit Recommendation (OECD, 2025[14]). In 2025, the WPFCPEI proposed updates to the Recommendation to address recent developments and emerging trends in consumer credit markets.
1.5.1. G20/OECD High-Level Principles on Financial Consumer Protection
The G20/OECD Financial Consumer Protection Principles are the international standard for comprehensive and effective financial consumer protection frameworks and are included in the Financial Stability Board Compendium of Standards. The G20/OECD Financial Consumer Protection Principles were developed by the WPFCPEI and first endorsed by G20 Leaders in 2011 and subsequently adopted by the OECD Council in the form of a Recommendation [OECD/LEGAL/0394] in 2012. The G20/OECD Financial Consumer Protection Principles were updated in 2021-22 to take account of policy areas that had emerged since they were initially adopted, to ensure they continued to reflect best practices.
Note: Text in green colour denotes revisions made through the 2021-2022 revision of the High-Level Principles on Financial Consumer Protection.
Source: OECD (2012), “Recommendation of the Council on High-Level Principles on Financial Consumer Protection”, OECD Legal
Instruments, OECD/LEGAL/0394, OECD, Paris, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0394.
Financial consumer protection refers to the framework of laws, regulations and other measures designed to promote the fair and responsible treatment of consumers, prevent or mitigate harm arising from such things as asymmetries of information and market power, and contribute to positive consumer outcomes. By promoting transparency, fair conduct, and effective oversight (e.g. via market conduct supervision), financial consumer protection frameworks promote consumer trust and confidence, support financial inclusion, and enhance the financial resilience and well-being of households, especially during periods of economic stress or financial hardship. The G20/OECD Financial Consumer Protection Principles also emphasise that effective financial consumer protection contributes to financial stability and financial well‑being by supporting expanded access to financial services in ways that benefits consumers, protects them from harms, and supports healthy, competitive financial markets.
1.5.2. Objectives of financial consumer protection
To provide insights into the broader public policy context, the Reporting Template for the Consumer Finance Risk Monitor asked jurisdictions to identify the public policy objectives of their financial consumer protection regulatory and supervisory frameworks.
Note: N= 58. Percentages reflect the share of responding jurisdictions that selected each objective. FSPs = financial services providers.
Source: OECD Consumer Finance Risk Monitor Reporting Template 2025.
The most common public policy objectives of financial consumer protection are ensuring the fair treatment of consumers (selected by 97% of respondents), maintaining trust and confidence in the financial system (95%), ensuring accuracy of information (91%) and addressing consumer harms (84%). These results are consistent with the economic and legal rationales of financial consumer protection policies (Sparrow, 2008[15]; Campbell et al., 2010[16]), and reflect the objectives identified in the G20/OECD Financial Consumer Protection Principles (OECD, 2022[17]). The objective of supporting or improving financial inclusion is a more frequent objective in low- and middle-income jurisdictions (84%) than in high-income jurisdictions (67%), which may reflect the lower levels of financial inclusion in such jurisdictions generally.
Supporting financial well-being
A number of jurisdictions identified supporting or improving financial well-being as one of the objectives of their financial consumer protection framework, among others. While financial well-being has long been part of overall well-being frameworks (OECD, 2024[18]), it has recently become an area of focus reflecting a growing awareness of the importance of focusing on outcomes for consumers as they make financial decisions and interact with the financial system.
In 2024, Brazil’s G20 Presidency and the OECD developed the G20 Policy Note on Financial Well-being (hereafter, G20 Policy Note) for the Global Partnership for Financial Inclusion, with contributions from the Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP) and the Office of the UN Secretary-General’s Special Advocate for Financial Health.
The working definition of financial well-being set out in the G20 Policy Note is:
“a state in which individuals are able to smoothly manage their financial needs and obligations, can cope with negative shocks, can pursue aspirations, goals and capture opportunities, and feel satisfied and confident about their financial lives, keeping in mind country specific circumstances.”
Approximately 30% of jurisdictions that responded to the Reporting Template have adopted an official definition of financial well-being, and among them, 78% have a definition aligned with the G20 Policy Note.
Measuring financial well-being
When asked how financial well-being is measured in their jurisdictions, a number of respondents highlighted their participation in the OECD/International Network on Financial Education International Survey of Adult Financial Literacy, Inclusion & Well-being (OECD/INFE survey). The OECD/INFE Adult Survey of Financial Literacy, Inclusion & Well-being 2026, open to all jurisdictions to participate, measures progress at the national level, identifies needs and priorities, and provides international benchmarking (OECD, 2026[19]). The OECD/INFE survey measures financial well-being, which is identified as outcome of financial literacy policies in the OECD Recommendation on Financial Literacy [OECD/LEGAL/0461]. The measurement of financial well-being aligns with the working definition of financial well-being in the G20 Policy Note on Financial Well-being (OECD, 2024[20]).
In addition to participating in the OECD/INFE survey directly, some respondents noted that the survey also informs how their own jurisdiction measures financial literacy and financial well-being, including Armenia, Finland, Hungary, Italy and Jordan. Other jurisdictions track or plan to track financial well-being through general national surveys and dedicated indices and barometers, for example Canada, Costa Rica, Ireland, Lesotho and Portugal. Finally, administrative data (e.g. data provided by financial services providers to financial authorities) can be used to measure aspects of financial well-being, as is the case in Malta, North Macedonia and the Philippines.
Nexus with financial consumer protection
Respondents were asked to describe how financial consumer protection regulatory or supervisory frameworks contribute to supporting or improving the financial well-being of households and individuals. In their responses, jurisdictions frequently highlighted transparency and disclosure, complaints and redress mechanisms and access to quality products as key channels through which consumers can safely and confidently engage with financial products and services and ultimately improve financial well-being. Responses also referenced fair treatment, responsible lending (including interest rate caps), prohibiting excessive fees and protecting consumers from fraud, false or misleading representations and mis-selling. Respondents explained that by strengthening market conduct supervision and enforcement practices, financial oversight authorities target and mitigate risks that could undermine financial well-being.
Both directly and indirectly, the policy and supervisory measures highlighted above protect and empower consumers, reduce vulnerabilities, and support positive financial outcomes, including improving individuals’ financial resilience and financial well‑being. This is consistent with the reference to financial well-being as a cross-cutting theme in the G20/OECD Financial Consumer Protection Principles.
Responses are also aligned with the forthcoming OECD policy paper on Protecting and empowering consumers to advance financial well-being (OECD, Forthcoming[21]). This is reflected both in their understanding of the broad public policy objectives of financial consumer protection (and financial literacy) as summarised in Figure 1.6, and in their articulation of how such policies can contribute to financial well-being in practical terms. Relevantly, the policy paper underscores that financial well‑being is influenced by a wide range of individual, household, community and structural factors, many of which are beyond the scope of financial consumer protection or financial education policies.
References
[16] Campbell, J. et al. (2010), The Regulation of Consumer Financial Products: An Introductory Essay with Four Case Studies Faculty Research Working Paper Series, http://www.hks.harvard.edu.
[5] Charlebois, S. et al. (2025), Canada’s Food Price Report 2025, https://cdn.dal.ca/content/dam/dalhousie/pdf/sites/agri-food/EN%20-%20Food%20Price%20Report%202025.pdf.
[12] Eller, M. and T. Reininger (2016), “The Influence of Sovereign Bond Yields on Bank Lending Rates: The Pass-Through in Europe”, Focus on European economic integration, pp. 54-78.
[6] FAO (2025), The state of food security and nutrition in the world, https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/e612e779-ec47-44c2-a3e0-499569c3422d/content.
[8] International Energy Agency (2025), Global Energy Review 2025 - Global Trends, https://www.iea.org/reports/global-energy-review-2025/global-trends.
[10] International Monetary Fund (2025), World Economic Outlook - Global Economy in Flux, Prospects Remain Dim, https://www.imf.org/en/publications/weo/issues/2025/10/14/world-economic-outlook-october-2025.
[9] International Monetary Fund (2022), Fiscal Policy for Mitigating the Social Impact of High Energy and Food Prices, https://www.imf.org/-/media/files/publications/imf-notes/2022/english/insea2022001.pdf.
[13] Ipsos (2025), Ipsos Cost of Living Monitor 2025, https://www.ipsos.com/en/ipsos-cost-living-monitor-2025.
[4] Mistry, P. and E. Moreau (2025), Why are food prices still rising by so much?, https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cyvn9z3y78lo.
[19] OECD (2026), OECD/INFE Toolkit for Measuring Financial Literacy, Inclusion and Well-Being 2026, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/92f2d439-en.
[1] OECD (2025), OECD Economic Outlook, Volume 2025 Issue 2: Resilient Growth but with Increasing Fragilities, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9f653ca1-en.
[11] OECD (2025), OECD Employment Outlook 2025: Can We Get Through the Demographic Crunch?, OECD Publishing, https://doi.org/10.1787/194a947b-en.
[3] OECD (2025), OECD headline inflation stable at 4.1% in August 2025 despite rising food and energy prices, https://www.oecd.org/en/data/insights/statistical-releases/2025/10/consumer-prices-oecd-updated-6-october-2025.html#:~:text=In%20August%2C%20food%20price%20levels,in%20Ukraine%20(Figure%202).
[14] OECD (2025), Report on the implementation of the OECD Recommendation on Consumer Protection in the field of Consumer Credit, https://one.oecd.org/document/C(2025)25/REV1/en/pdf.
[20] OECD (2024), G20 policy note on financial well-being, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/7332c99d-en.
[18] OECD (2024), How’s Life? 2024: Well-being and Resilience in Times of Crisis, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/90ba854a-en.
[2] OECD (2024), OECD Economic Outlook, Volume 2024 Issue 2, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/d8814e8b-en.
[17] OECD (2022), G20/OECD High-Level Principles on Financial Consumer Protection 2022, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/48cc3df0-en.
[21] OECD (Forthcoming), Protecting and empowering consumers to advance financial well-being.
[22] OECD (n.d.), Recommendation of the Council on Consumer Protection in the field of Consumer Credit, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/oecd-legal-0453 (accessed on 1 December 2025).
[23] OECD (n.d.), Recommendation of the Council on Financial Literacy, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0461 (accessed on 1 December 2025).
[24] OECD (n.d.), Recommendation of the Council on High-Level Principles on Financial Consumer Protection, https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/en/instruments/OECD-LEGAL-0394 (accessed on 1 December 2025).
[15] Sparrow, M. (2008), The Character of Harms, Cambridge University Press, https://www.cambridge.org/us/universitypress/subjects/management/organisation-studies/character-harms-operational-challenges-control (accessed on 26 October 2025).
[7] World Bank (2022), Is another food crisis unfolding?, https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/developmenttalk/another-food-crisis-unfolding.
← 1. This OECD body was known as the G20/OECD Task Force on Financial Consumer Protection during the development of the Consumer Finance Risk Monitor 2024.