Discrimination on the grounds of ethnicity, race, disability, religion, and sexual orientation remains a persistent challenge in the European Union. In most countries, self-reported discrimination rates have increased over the past five years. This trend reflects a combination of demographic shifts, social and political dynamics, recent major events, and a growing public awareness of rights and discrimination. While self-reported data cannot definitively confirm whether discrimination itself is increasing, they offer valuable insights into the risks people face and the nature of their experiences. Groups most at risk include racialised communities, LGBTI individuals, persons with disabilities, and religious minorities – many of whom encounter overlapping forms of prejudice in public spaces, employment, and online environments.
Combatting Discrimination in the European Union
Abstract
Despite challenges in measuring discrimination (Chapter 1), available evidence suggests that it remains a widespread and persistent reality for many in the European Union (EU). Surveys consistently show that around one in four Europeans aged 18 to 64 report experiencing discrimination in the past year, with rates highest among racialised communities, persons with disabilities, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) people, and religious minorities1 (Figure 2.1). Repeated editions of the Discrimination in the EU Eurobarometer surveys reveal a clear upward trend in self-reported discrimination over the past five years. In 2023, 56% of respondents who identified as part of an at-risk group – based on their ethnicity or skin colour, disability status, religion, sexual orientation or gender identity – stated that they had experienced discrimination in the previous year, up from 46% in 2019.
Discrimination is rarely a one-off experience. It occurs repeatedly and across multiple domains – when seeking employment, in the workplace, in public spaces, and online. According to the Opportunities Module of the 2022 OECD Risks That Matter Survey, nearly a third of respondents from racialised communities in Europe who reported experiencing discrimination said it occurred “most or all of the time”. People from racialised communities are also likely to experience multiple and overlapping forms of discrimination, often based on sex, religion, and age, in addition to their skin colour or ethnicity. Multiple discrimination is also common among other at-risk groups, including LGBTI individuals.
This chapter draws on a range of data sources to examine the extent and nature of discrimination in the EU – identifying who is most at risk, the forms discrimination takes, its frequency, and the settings in which it occurs. First, Section 2.1 examines self-reported discrimination rates across EU countries, and explores possible drivers of recent trends, including the growing diversity of European societies, increased public awareness of rights and discrimination, and new opportunities for exclusion and bias linked to recent geopolitical tensions and the COVID-19 pandemic. Where possible, the chapter introduces new evidence to help explain trends and highlights the most common forms of discrimination occurring in EU countries (Annex 2.A).
Then, Section 2.2 analyses who is most likely to report discrimination, and the circumstances in which it is experienced. Where data allow, the analysis adopts an intersectional lens to understand how different personal characteristics – such as sex, age, and minority status – combine to increase the risk of experiencing multiple forms of discrimination. Women and young people (under the age of 35) are particularly likely to report such experiences, especially when they also identify as lesbian, gay or bisexual, or belong to a racialised community. These individuals are exposed to intersecting forms of discrimination based on sex, sexual orientation, ethnicity, and skin colour (Annex 2.B).
The analysis presented in this chapter – on the extent, nature and patterns of discrimination, particularly its multiple and intersectional dimensions – has important implications for understanding its effects (Chapter 3) and for shaping effective legal and policy responses (Chapter 4). As Chapter 3 discusses, frequent and multiple experiences of discrimination are strongly associated with worsened mental health outcomes, reduced well-being, and limited participation in the labour market and wider society. Understanding what drives discrimination, and who is most affected, is essential for developing targeted, evidence-based responses. Chapter 4 reviews anti-discrimination legislation and policies across EU OECD countries and highlights good practices that can serve as models for more inclusive policymaking.
Recent surveys tell a coherent story about the experiences of discrimination in the EU. After adjusting for differences in the coverage of countries and age groups in surveys, approximately one in four people aged 18 to 64 in Europe report2 experiencing discrimination in the past year (Figure 2.1). The consistency across surveys strengthens the case for using self-reported discrimination rates as a reliable source of evidence, particularly in light of the use of robust survey design methods. For example, the Opportunities Module of the 2022 OECD Risks that Matter Survey provided respondents with definitions of discrimination and harassment prior to data collection, a technique that, as discussed in Chapter 1, can enhance the validity of self-reported estimates by promoting a shared understanding of what constitutes discrimination.
Self-reported discrimination rates for various combinations of EU Member States and age groups, 2022 or 2023
Note: The surveys collect information from people of different ages in different countries. The 2023 Discrimination in the EU Eurobarometer surveys people aged 15 and over, respondents to the Opportunities Module of the 2022 OECD Risks that Matter Survey are aged 18‑64, and the 2022 and 2023 waves of the AXA Mind Health Survey cover respondents aged 18-75 and 18-64 respectively. In terms of country coverage, the 2023 Discrimination in the EU Eurobarometer covers all 27 EU Member States, the Opportunities Module of the 2022 OECD Risks that Matter Survey includes Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia and Spain, and the 2022 and 2023 waves of the AXA Mind Health Survey cover Belgium, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy and Spain. The bold-shaded bars represent the self-reported discrimination rates for the entire sample. The hatched bars restrict the age range and countries covered in the surveys for comparability purposes. As such, they represent the self-reported discrimination rates for respondents aged 18-64 in Belgium, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy and Spain. Whiskers denote 95% confidence intervals.
Source: OECD calculations based on the European Commission (2023[1]), Discrimination in the European Union, Special Eurobarometer SP535, https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2972; Opportunities Module of the OECD (2022[2]), Risks That Matter Survey, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://oe.cd/rtm/; AXA (2024[3]), “Mind your health in the workplace”, 2024 Mind Health Report, https://www-axa-com.cdn.axa-contento-118412.eu/www-axa-com/d41133bc-5fa9-4a5d-b664-316282190d78_axa_mind_health_report_2024.pdf; and AXA (2023[4]), AXA Mind Health Index and Survey White Paper, https://www-axa-com.cdn.axa-contento-118412.eu/www-axa-com/3cc6b13e-10c9-48d5-a7b1-90eb83e63ce5_axa_mind_health_index_2023.pdf.
According to the 2023 Discrimination in the EU Eurobarometer, the average self-reported discrimination rate across all EU Member States was just over 21% among the population aged 15 and over (Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.2). Reported rates varied widely, ranging from 10% in Portugal to 38% in Belgium (Figure 2.2). Countries with high overall rates typically reported elevated levels across multiple grounds of discrimination. For instance, Belgium recorded higher-than-average levels of discrimination on the basis of ethnicity and skin colour, religion, age, sex, LGBTI status, social status and physical appearance. Similarly, in Estonia, self‑reported discrimination based on ethnicity and skin colour, religion, age, disability, social status, political beliefs and physical appearance were elevated (Annex 2.A).3 Conversely, countries with lower overall rates tended to show lower levels of discrimination across most grounds. Notable exceptions include Ireland, Czechia, and Lithuania, which each reported higher‑than‑average rates in one specific area: ethnicity and skin colour in Ireland, political beliefs in Czechia, and age in Lithuania.
Self-reported discrimination rates (%), by EU Member State, respondents aged 15 years and over, 2023 and 2019
Note: Discrimination rates are based on the following question: “In the past 12 months have you personally felt discriminated against or experienced harassment on one or more of the following reasons? Please tell me all that apply.” The following grounds are covered: ethnic origin, skin colour, sex, sexual orientation, Roma, transgender, intersex, age, religion or beliefs, disability, political opinions, social situation, general physical appearance and other reasons. Cyprus, Luxembourg and Malta are not presented in the chart due to small sample sizes, but they are included in the population‑weighted European Union average, which is represented as EU 27.
Source: OECD calculations adapted from Hardy and Schraepen (2024[5]), “The state and effects of discrimination in the European Union”, OECD Papers on Well-being and Inequalities, No. 26, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/7fd921b9-en; European Commission (2023[1]), Discrimination in the European Union, Special Eurobarometer SP535, https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2972; and European Commission (2019[6]), Discrimination in the European Union, Special Eurobarometer SP493, https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/66ed1874-3d47-11ed-9c68-01aa75ed71a1/language-en.
The Discrimination in the EU Eurobarometers also show that self-reported discrimination has increased in recent years.4 Across the EU, the average discrimination rate among those aged 15 and older rose from 15% in 2019 to 21% in 2023 (Figure 2.2). Most EU Member States recorded an increase over this period, with Hungary being the only country to show a notable decline. National surveys echo this trend. For instance, 17% of people in Ireland aged 18 and over in 2019 experienced discrimination in the preceding two years, compared to 12% in 2014, 2010, and 2004 (Ireland Department of Children, Equality, Integration and Youth, 2022[7]). Likewise, in France, 18% of people aged 18-49 in 2019-2020 reported having experienced unequal treatment or discrimination, up from 14% in 2008-2009 (France Institut National de la Statistique des Études Économiques, 2022[8]).
Consistent with the broader trend of rising self‑reported discrimination rates across the general population, surveys conducted by the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) indicate that rates have also increased among several groups at risk of discrimination. For example, the FRA (2023[9]; 2024[10]) found that 34% of respondents of African descent surveyed in 13 European countries in 2022 experienced racial discrimination in the previous 12 months, up from 24% in 2016. Similarly, racial discrimination rates among Muslim respondents rose by 10 percentage points over the same period, reaching 35% (European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2024[10]). However, not all groups have reported increases. Among LGBTI respondents, 36% stated they experienced discrimination in the year prior to 2023, down from 42% in 2019 (European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2024[11]). Notably, while self-reported discrimination decreased for this group, their reported rates of violence and harassment increased over the same period, underscoring the importance of examining multiple dimensions of unequal treatment, as well as the factors influences these trends.
Factors influencing self-reported discrimination rates across countries and time
National self-reported discrimination rates are shaped by a complex mix of factors, including population diversity, the propensity to identify as part of an at-risk group, understanding of discrimination and actual incidents of unequal treatment (Chapter 1). While data limitations make it difficult to precisely measure each factor’s contribution, these elements broadly help explain why some countries record higher rates than others.
In part, the rise in self‑reported discrimination rates in the past five years likely signals a deterioration in the treatment of people at risk of discrimination, often in response to major events. European research indicates that hate speech and hate crimes have surged over the past decade following terrorist attacks (Sides and Gross, 2013[12]), the refugee crisis (Zunes, 2017[13]) and as support for extremist political parties has grown (Muis and Immerzeel, 2017[14]). More recently, hate speech against Jewish and Muslim people increased markedly following the 7 October 2023 attacks (European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2024[15]). The severity of hateful content has also escalated – with illegal hate speech, death threats and other harmful and dangerous messages increasing by 30% from January to September 2023 (European Parliament, 2024[16]).
COVID-19 has also likely contributed to the rise in self-reported discrimination, given evidence from non‑EU OECD countries that groups at risk of discrimination fared worse during the pandemic in terms of mental and physical health outcomes (OECD, 2021[17]). While data are not widely available to perform a similar analysis in the EU, European civil society organisations reported that racialised people were disproportionately subjected to police brutality and racial profiling in response to police enforcement of confinement measures (European Network Against Racism, 2020[18]). Discriminatory COVID-19 policies also affected persons with disabilities in some EU countries, including do-not-resuscitate orders based on ‘clinical fragility’ or ‘neurocognitive state’ and denying persons with disability hospital admission on the grounds of prioritising people with the greatest chance of survival (Inclusion Europe, 2020[19]).
Rising self-reported discrimination rates also reflect broader social, cultural and demographic trends including population diversity. National census and survey data point to increasing population diversity and growing openness around 'hidden' identities, such as sexual orientation or gender identity.5 In Ireland, for instance, the number of people identifying as Black Irish-African rose by 17% between 2016 and 2022, and those of other Black backgrounds increased by 28% (Central Statistics Office Ireland, 2023[20]). Further, the FRA surveys (2024[11]; 2019[21]) indicate that more than half of LGBTI adults, for instance, stated that they were often or always open about their identity in 2023, up from 36% in 2012.6
According to the 2023 Discrimination in the EU Eurobarometer, self-reported discrimination rates tend to be higher in countries with larger proportions of the population identifying as part of an at-risk group (as shown by the positive correlation between self-reported discrimination rates and minority population shares in Figure 2.3). Countries with higher-than-average self-reported discrimination rates in 2023, such as Denmark, Estonia, France and Sweden, generally saw increases in the proportion of their populations identifying as part of a group at risk of discrimination. The increases in Sweden and Estonia were particularly pronounced – from 9% in 2019 to 20% in 2023 and 14% to 20%, respectively – and driven by more people identifying as belonging to racialised communities and/or having a disability.
The link between self-identification and discrimination may be driven by at least two factors. First, greater visibility of at-risk groups may create more opportunities for inter-group conflict or bias (Saint Pierre, Borja Martinovic and De Vroome, 015[22]; Flippen and Parrado, 2015[23]). In such an environment, people who self-identify as part of an at-risk group may become more vigilant when it comes to attributing unfair treatment to discrimination and/or in identifying prejudice (Chapter 1). Second, the experience of discrimination can also increase the strength or salience of a person’s identification with their group, as people desire the feeling of belonging to their community to cope with the negative effects of discrimination (Branscombe and Schmitt, 1999[24]; Jacob et al., 2021[25]). However, some may respond to discrimination by concealing their identities to avoid future discrimination despite increasing social openness to disclosure, particularly among LGBTI individuals (European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2024[11]; European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2019[21]).
Correlation between self-reported discrimination rates and share of respondents identifying as part of an at-risk group, showing with the level of anti-discrimination engagement (bubble size), by EU Member State, respondents aged 15 years and over, 2023
Note: Discrimination rates are based on the following question: “In the past 12 months have you personally felt discriminated against or experienced harassment on one or more of the following reasons? Please tell me all that apply.” The following grounds are covered: ethnic origin, skin colour, sex, sexual orientation, Roma, transgender, intersex, age, religion or beliefs, disability, political opinions, social situation, general physical appearance and other reasons. Respondents were asked if they consider themselves belonging to a group that is at risk of discrimination based on their ethnic identity, skin colour or religion; being Roma; being gay, lesbian or bisexual; being transgender or intersex; having a disability; or for other reasons. The size of the bubbles represents the share of respondents in each country who have engaged in anti‑discrimination actions in the past 12 months. Anti-discrimination actions include sharing online content about discriminatory incidents, publicly defending a victim of discrimination, joining an anti-discrimination association or campaign or publicly raising the issue of discrimination in the workplace. Cyprus, Luxembourg and Malta are not presented in the chart due to small sample sizes, but they are included in the population‑weighted European Union average, which is represented as EU 27.
Source: OECD estimates based on European Commission (2023[1]), Discrimination in the European Union, Special Eurobarometer SP535, https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2972.
The relationship between self-reported discrimination and the size of at-risk groups does not, however, hold for all countries. In Austria, Hungary and Poland, the share of the population identifying as part of an at-risk group declined between 2019 and 2023 – with Hungary seeing the sharpest fall (from 19% to 8%) – but only Hungary saw a corresponding decrease in self-reported discrimination. These discrepancies suggest that demographic factors alone do not fully explain variations in discrimination rates.
In addition to demographics, self-reported discrimination rates are shaped by people’s knowledge of what constitutes discrimination and how they interpret their experiences (Box 2.1). Irish national surveys of discrimination indicate that an increase in the reported rate of discrimination over the past decade has accompanied growing awareness of individuals’ rights to equality and non-discrimination. In 2019, one‑third of Irish people who experienced discrimination in the previous two years stated that they understood their rights under Irish equality law “a lot”, compared to one-quarter in 2014 who had a “good” understanding of their rights (Ireland Department of Children, Equality, Integration and Youth, 2022[7]). Similarly, in Germany, heightened media attention on racism since 2010-2011 has been associated with growing public awareness of racism and reporting of racist and discriminatory treatment (German Centre for Integration and Migration Research, 2024[26]).
Because the Discrimination in the EU Eurobarometers do not measure respondents’ knowledge of discrimination directly, this report uses engagement in anti-discrimination activities as a proxy (represented by the size of the bubbles in Figure 2.3). Anti-discrimination activities include sharing anti‑discrimination content online, publicly defending a victim of discrimination, joining an anti‑discrimination association or campaign or publicly raising the issue of discrimination in the workplace. The intuition behind using this proxy is that people who engage in anti‑discrimination are likely to have a good understanding of discriminatory treatment and that information about discrimination is more widely available in their country (Box 2.1).
As shown in Figure 2.3, self-reported discrimination rates tend to be higher in countries where people are more likely to engage in anti‑discrimination engagement: for example, Sweden, Austria, France, Belgium and Estonia. In Belgium, France and Sweden, there are publicly funded campaigns to raise awareness of discrimination against a broad range of at-risk groups and what individuals can do to respond – highlighting the role governments can play in increasing anti-discrimination knowledge (Chapter 4). These results suggest that countries with lower levels of personal activity to fight discrimination may be underestimating the rate of discrimination, as the average level of awareness of discrimination is likely lower than countries with larger shares of the population engaged in spreading awareness and combatting discrimination (especially given the tendency for people to be conservative in what actions they attribute to discrimination, Chapter 1).
Notably, countries that registered large increases in their self-reported discrimination rates between 2019 and 2023 also saw growing shares of people engaged in anti-discrimination activities, for example in Romania where the proportion of the population involved in anti-discrimination activities moved from 18% to 25% and in Estonia, where the proportion grew from 13% to 21%. In Estonia, this engagement coincided with increases in the share of the population identifying as part of an at-risk group and in the self-reported discrimination rate – whereas Romania’s increase in anti-discrimination activity is associated with a decline in the share of people identifying as part of an at-risk group. These different experiences underscore that there is no single driver of self-reported discrimination rates.
In summary, self-reported discrimination rates reflect a country’s demographic, social, cultural, institutional and political realities. Unpicking each of these drivers is vexed by a lack of data in the EU, as well as statistical issues that are being worked through via the United Nations Praia Group on Governance Statistics (Box 2.1 and Chapter 1). Even still, evidence on the growing diversity of European societies, awareness of discrimination and discriminatory acts precipitated by recent global events (such as Russia’s war of aggression in Ukraine, the war in Gaza and COVID-19), are likely to explain, in large part, the apparent increase in self-reported discrimination rates in the past five years.
Knowledge of discrimination is essential for identifying discriminatory behaviour and is a pre-condition for the validity of survey-based estimates. As noted by the United Nations Praia Group on Governance Statistics (2021[27]), a lack of awareness or understanding of discrimination can affect the accuracy of survey results, making it critical for discrimination to be clearly defined or specific discriminatory acts to be enumerated in surveys.
Some of these design features are included in the surveys used in this report. For example, the Opportunities Module of the 2022 OECD Risks that Matter Survey frames questions on discrimination using internationally agreed definitions underpinning the Sustainable Development Goal indicators 10.3.1 and 16.b.1, which relate to discrimination (United Nations Praia Group on Governance Statistics, 2021[27]).
Even where surveys do not include definitions or enumerate specific acts, results, on average, are consistent with the Opportunities Module of the 2022 OECD Risks that Matter Survey, which defines discrimination. As shown in Figure 2.1, the estimated self-reported discrimination rate calculated using the Opportunities Module of the 2022 OECD Risks that Matter Survey aligns with the 2023 Discrimination in the EU Eurobarometer, suggesting that survey respondents, on average, interpreted questions on discrimination similarly across survey instruments.
Moreover, only a very small minority of respondents reported uncertainty about whether they had experienced discrimination. Fewer than 1% of survey respondents to the 2023 Discrimination in the EU Eurobarometer in each country responded that they did not know whether they had experienced discrimination in the past year, while 1.85% of EU respondents to the Opportunities Module of the 2022 OECD Risks that Matter Survey were not sure or refused to answer whether they had ever experienced discrimination. These findings lend further support to the validity of these survey instruments.
Nonetheless, broader knowledge of discrimination laws remains limited. Fewer than half of respondents to the 2021 FRA Fundamental Rights Survey reported that they have a good grasp of anti-discrimination laws. This gap may contribute to underreporting, as individuals may not recognise their experiences as unlawful discrimination – especially given people’s general tendency to under-attribute unfair treatment to discrimination (Chapter 1).
The 2023 Discrimination in the EU Eurobarometer and the Opportunities Module of the 2022 OECD Risks That Matter Survey did not ask questions to gauge respondents’ knowledge of discrimination laws. In their absence, this chapter uses the actions individuals take to fight discrimination as a proxy for knowledge and awareness of discrimination. Knowledge of anti‑discrimination laws is positively correlated with individuals engaging in actions to fight discrimination, such as sharing anti‑discrimination content online, publicly defending a victim of discrimination, joining an anti‑discrimination association or campaign or publicly raising the issue of discrimination in the workplace (Figure 2.4). Notably, even people without personal experience of discrimination often take action in countries with high levels of civic engagement. This suggests that awareness is not limited to those directly affected – and supports the use of engagement as a proxy for broader understanding of discrimination and legal protections.
Given the importance of accurately measuring discrimination, efforts are continuing to enhance the validity of survey instruments and other data sources, such as administrative records. The United Nations Praia Group on Governance Statistics (2021[27]) is developing guidance on using survey and administrative data sources to measure discrimination and disadvantage consistently across countries, which is anticipated to be released in 2026.
Correlation between self-reported knowledge of equality law and respondents taking action to fight discrimination, by EU 27, 2023 and 2021
Note: The horizontal axis measures the share of respondents in each country that confirm their awareness of national laws forbidding discrimination against job applicants because: they are a woman or a man; of their age; they have a disability; of their ethnic origin; of their skin colour; of their religion or belief; of their sexual orientation; of their gender identity; and they are overweight/obese. The vertical axis presents the share of respondents in each country who have engaged in anti‑discrimination actions in the past 12 months. Anti-discrimination actions include sharing online content about discriminatory incidents, publicly defending a victim of discrimination, joining an anti-discrimination association or campaign or publicly raising the issue of discrimination in the workplace.
Source: OECD calculations based on the European Commission (2023[1]), Discrimination in the European Union, Special Eurobarometer SP535, https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2972; and the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights (2020[28]), Fundamental Rights Survey, https://fra.europa.eu/en/publications-and-resources/data-and-maps/2021/frs.
Discrimination is not distributed evenly across the population. More than half of individuals who identify as part of an at-risk group in the EU reported experiencing discrimination in the 12 months leading up to May 2023 – three times more than those who do not consider themselves to be a person with disabilities, an LGBTI person, or part of a minority based on their ethnicity (including Roma), skin colour or religion (Figure 2.5). Transgender and intersex people reported the highest levels of discrimination in 2023, with an average of 80% across the EU.
People who identify as part of an at-risk group also saw the largest increases in discrimination between 2019 and 2023. Self-reported rates of discrimination increased markedly from 57% to 67% for LGBTI people and those belonging to a minority group based on their ethnicity (41% to 60%) or skin colour (52% to 61%) (Figure 2.5).
Share of the EU population reporting that they experienced discrimination in the previous 12 months by self‑identified group, 2019 and 2023
Note: The 2019 Eurobarometer did not separately ask people if they consider themselves to be lesbian, gay or bisexual, or transgender or intersex (the question in 2023), and instead asked people if they consider themselves a sexual minority (like being gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender or intersex). As such, it is not possible to break down discrimination rates for lesbian, gay or bisexual and transgender or intersex people in 2019. However, the LGBTI rates show the changes in discrimination experiences for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex people between 2019 and 2023. Discrimination rates are based on the following question: “In the past 12 months have you personally felt discriminated against or experienced harassment on one or more of the following reasons? Please tell me all that apply.” The following grounds are covered: ethnic origin, skin colour, sex, sexual orientation, Roma, transgender, intersex, age, religion or beliefs, disability, political opinions, social situation, general physical appearance and other reasons. Respondents were also asked if they consider themselves to be part of a group that is at risk of discrimination: based on their ethnic identity, skin colour or religion; being Roma; being gay, lesbian or bisexual; being transgender or intersex; having a disability; or for other reasons. Whiskers denote 90% confidence intervals.
Source: OECD calculations based on the European Commission (2023[1]), Discrimination in the European Union, Special Eurobarometer SP535, https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2972; and European Commission (2019[6]), Discrimination in the European Union, Special Eurobarometer SP493, https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/66ed1874-3d47-11ed-9c68-01aa75ed71a1/language-en.
Women and young people (under 35 years) report higher rates of discrimination compared to men and older people (55 and over), and these gaps appear to have widened over time. According to the 2019 and 2023 Discrimination in the EU Eurobarometers, 25% of women in the EU experienced discrimination in 2023 up from 17% in 2019, while rates for men rose from 13% to 18%. Similarly, nearly 33% of young people stated they experienced discrimination in 2023 (up from 22%), compared to 16% of older people (up from 11%).
Higher self-reported discrimination rates among women likely reflect their elevated risk of experiencing sex‑based discrimination, while older people may be more likely to minimise their experiences or interpret survey questions differently to younger people, which could help to explain their lower reported rates (Knäuper et al., 2016[29]). Further, older people are half as likely to self-identify as part of an at-risk group than younger people, which could indicate that they are less attuned at recognising discrimination (Section 2.1, Chapter 1).
Multiple forms of discrimination
The experience of multiple discrimination falls predominantly on people facing intersecting risk factors, for example women from racialised communities, lesbians and bisexual women (Figure 2.6, Panel A). Women who identify as part of an at-risk group are more exposed to discrimination than men, as they face compounding risks of discrimination based on their sex, ethnicity, skin colour or sexual orientation. Among women who experience multiple forms of discrimination, sex‑based discrimination is frequently cited, along with discrimination based on age, religion, and physical appearance (Annex Figure 2.B.1). Moreover, women who identify as part of an at-risk group are more likely to be in non‑standard work (with no work contract or a temporary contract), compared to minority men and non-minority women, which exposes them to precarity, exploitation and discrimination on the basis of their socio-economic status (Chapter 3).
While women, on average, experience multiple forms of discrimination more frequently than men (Figure 2.6, Panel B), men who identify as part of a religious minority or racialised community also face significant risks of multiple discrimination. Men from these communities tend to experience discrimination based on their ethnicity, skin colour, religion and political beliefs (Annex Figure 2.B.2). The intersection of ethnic, racial and religious discrimination for men and women who are part of a racialised community or religious minority mirrors findings from the FRA survey on people of African descent. This survey shows that 63% of people who experienced discrimination based on the colour of the skin in the past five years also felt discriminated against because of their ethnicity or immigrant background, while 12% experienced discrimination based on their religious beliefs (European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2023[9]).
Although there are some overlaps in the experiences of multiple discrimination for men and women in at‑risk groups, some significant differences also emerge. For instance, social class-based discrimination is often experienced by individuals from racialised communities but not by lesbian, gay, or bisexual individuals. Lesbians and bisexual women, on the other hand, are more likely to face discrimination based on their political beliefs, a form of discrimination less commonly experienced by other women but more prevalent among men from racialised communities and religious minorities (Annex Figure 2.B.1 and Annex Figure 2.B.2).
Regarding age, people younger than 35 years – especially those who identify as part of an at-risk groups based on their ethnicity, skin colour, religion, sexual orientation, gender identity and disability – are more likely than older people (aged 55 and over) to state that they have experienced multiple forms of discrimination (Figure 2.6, Panels C and D). While there are some similarities in the form that multiple discrimination takes for young people, there are also differences across at-risk groups. Young people who identify as part of a religious minority commonly report multiple discrimination on various grounds such as religion, sex, ethnicity, skin colour and political beliefs, which shows some similarities to young people from racialised communities who tend to experience multiple discrimination on the grounds of ethnicity, skin colour, religion and age. In contrast, young lesbian, gay and bisexual people, frequently experience discrimination based on their sexual orientation, sex, age and political beliefs (Annex Figure 2.B.3).
Shares of each group that experienced one or multiple forms of discrimination in 2023, by sex and age
Note: Discrimination rates are based on the following question: “In the past 12 months have you personally felt discriminated against or experienced harassment on one or more of the following reasons? Please tell me all that apply.” The following grounds are covered: ethnic origin, skin colour, sex, sexual orientation, Roma, transgender, intersex, age, religion or beliefs, disability, political opinions, social situation, general physical appearance and other reasons. Respondents were also asked if they consider themselves to be part of a group that is at risk of discrimination: based on their ethnic identity, skin colour or religion; being Roma; being gay, lesbian or bisexual; being transgender or intersex; having a disability; or for other reasons. LGB stands for lesbian, gay or bisexual and TI stands for transgender or intersex. Whiskers denote 90% confidence intervals. The EU-27 population-weighted averages are shown.
Source: OECD calculations based on the European Commission (2023[1]), Discrimination in the European Union, Special Eurobarometer SP535, https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2972.
Frequency and setting of discrimination
As highlighted by the Opportunities Module of the 2022 OECD Risks That Matter Survey, the frequency with which discrimination occurs also varies across the population. People who are part of visible minority groups are significantly more likely to report experiencing discrimination on a regular basis. Nearly one in three individuals who experience discrimination and identify as part of a minority group based on their ethnicity, skin colour, or religion report encountering discrimination most or all of the time. In contrast, LGBTI individuals, who often have the option to conceal their identities, report experiencing discrimination less frequently, same as those who do not consider themselves to be part of an at-risk group (Figure 2.7).7
Frequency of discriminatory incidents experienced by people from selected minority groups who self-report discrimination (%), EU 17, 2022
Note: Respondents were asked the question: “Thinking about your personal experiences over the past year (or since you have been in this country), how often have you felt discriminated against or harassed?”, with option categories “almost all of the time”, “most of the time”, “sometimes”, “rarely”, “not in the past year” and “don’t know or refuse to answer”. LGBT people include those who identify as part of a minority group based on their sexual orientation or gender identity. Respondents are aged 18-64. The EU 17 average is population-weighted and includes the following countries: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia and Spain.
Source: OECD calculations adapted from Hardy and Schraepen (2024[5]), “The state and effects of discrimination in the European Union”, OECD Papers on Well-being and Inequalities, No. 26, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/7fd921b9-en; and the Opportunities Module of the OECD (2022[2]), Risks That Matter Survey, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/en/about/programmes/oecd-risks-that-matter-rtm-survey.html.
Exposure to multiple forms or repeated incidents of discrimination has compounding effects, particularly on individuals’ mental health (Chapter 3). This heightened exposure reflects the possibility of experiencing discrimination across many areas of life, including public spaces, employment, public services, housing, online platforms, and businesses. While it is difficult to examine all domains in which discrimination occurs, due to data limitations of the surveys analysed in this report, the 2023 Discrimination in the EU Eurobarometer asks people about their most recent experience.
When it comes to the most recent incident, discrimination in public spaces is common – as stated by almost one-in-three people who experienced discrimination in the past 12 months (Figure 2.8). This is not unexpected, given that public spaces are frequented more often than settings like healthcare services or the housing market, making them more likely sites for discriminatory encounters.
For the most part, there are few notable differences in the location of the most recent incident of discrimination between men and women, or between younger and older people. One clear exception is online spaces, which are cited by young people at twice the rate of older individuals (Figure 2.8, Panels C and D). This difference likely reflects the greater amount of time young people spend online. While online environments can provide important sources of connection and community for youth, they also carry risks such as exposure to cyberbullying and online hate (Chapter 3).
Despite these broad similarities across sex and age, there are some material differences between people who have experienced a single or multiple forms of discrimination. meaningful differences emerge when considering whether a person has experienced single or multiple forms of discrimination. People who report a single ground of discrimination more often cite employment settings as the location of their most recent incident. In contrast, those facing multiple forms of discrimination are more likely to report that their most recent experience occurred online. This likely reflects the prevalence of online hate targeting individuals at the intersection of racial, ethnic, and religious identities – forms of discrimination that frequently co-occur.
Importantly, these results do not imply that people who report multiple discrimination are less likely to experience discrimination in employment or other settings. It merely states that the most recent discriminatory incident occurred online. Indeed, when looking at all settings within which discrimination occurs, the FRA has found that people of African descent (who face a significant risk of multiple discrimination) experience high levels of racial discrimination in employment and recruitment, housing, in public spaces, using public transport or entering bars, shops or restaurants (European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2023[9]). Similarly, LGBTI people frequently experience discrimination at work, in cafés, bars and nightclubs, in education and health care (European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, 2024[11]).
Setting of most recent experience of discrimination by whether a person has experienced one or multiple forms of discrimination in previous year (%), sex and age, EU 27, 2023
Note: Respondents who reported experiencing discrimination or harassment in the past 12 months were asked: “Thinking about the most recent time when you felt discriminated against, under what circumstances did it take place?”, with option categories: “when looking for a job”, “at work”, “when looking for a house or apartment to rent or buy”, “by healthcare personnel (e.g. a receptionist, nurse or doctor), “by social service personnel”, “by school or university personnel; this could have happened to you as a student or as a parent”, “at a café, restaurant, bar or nightclub”, “in a shop or a bank” ,“in a public space”, “online”, “other” and “don’t know”. “When looking for a job” and “at work” are combined in the figure under the ‘Employment-related’ category, while ‘Selected public services’ comprises health care, social services, and education and university, and ‘Private businesses’ includes cafés, restaurants, bars, nightclubs and shops and banks. The EU 27 average is population weighted. Whiskers represent 90% confidence intervals.
Source: OECD analysis based on the European Commission (2023[1]), Discrimination in the European Union, Special Eurobarometer SP535, https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2972.
Conclusion
This chapter has presented evidence on the trends in self-reported discrimination rates across the EU, revealing that the apparent rise since 2019 likely reflects the growing diversity of European populations, increasing awareness of discrimination and significant events such as COVID-19. Discrimination predominantly affects people identifying as part of an at-risk group, and especially women and young people, who are also more exposed to multiple and frequent discrimination.
These findings provide important context for the analysis in the rest of this report. As discussed in the following chapter, the experience of discrimination is linked to a range of economic and social costs, which are borne not only by the individuals affected but also by society at large. The nature of the discrimination that occurs – such as its frequency and the forms it takes – shapes its effects on the individual. For example, individuals who face multiple forms of discrimination or frequent discrimination have much poorer mental health outcomes, compared to people who experience one form of discrimination (Chapter 3).
Further, the extent and nature of discrimination offers valuable insights for policymakers, informing them where to direct policy interventions and how to tailor them to the needs of groups at risk of discrimination. These issues are explored in Chapters 4 and 5.
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Note: Discrimination rates are based on the question: “In the past 12 months have you personally felt discriminated against or experienced harassment on one or more of the following reasons? Please tell me all that apply.” The grounds covered are ethnic origin (including Roma) and skin colour, sex, sexual orientation, transgender and intersex (LGBTI), age, religion or beliefs, disability, political opinions, social situation (SES), general physical appearance and other reasons. Cyprus, Luxembourg and Malta are not presented in the chart due to small sample sizes, but they are included in the population‑weighted European Union average, which is represented as EU 27.
Source: OECD analysis based on the European Commission (2023[1]), Discrimination in the European Union, Special Eurobarometer SP535, https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2972.
Forms of discrimination reported by women who have experienced multiple forms of discrimination in the past 12 months, by selected at-risk groups, 2023
Note: Discrimination rates are based on the following question: “In the past 12 months have you personally felt discriminated against or experienced harassment on one or more of the following reasons? Please tell me all that apply.” The following grounds are covered: ethnic origin, skin colour, sex, sexual orientation, Roma, transgender, intersex, age, religion or beliefs, disability, political opinions, social situation, general physical appearance and other reasons. Respondents were also asked if they consider themselves to be part of a group that is at risk of discrimination: based on their ethnic identity, skin colour or religion; being Roma; being gay, lesbian or bisexual; being transgender or intersex; having a disability; or for other reasons.
Source: OECD analysis based on European Commission (2023[1]), Discrimination in the European Union, Special Eurobarometer SP535, https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2972.
Forms of discrimination reported by men who have experienced multiple forms of discrimination in the past 12 months, by selected at-risk groups, 2023
Note: Discrimination rates are based on the following question: “In the past 12 months have you personally felt discriminated against or experienced harassment on one or more of the following reasons? Please tell me all that apply.” The following grounds are covered: ethnic origin, skin colour, sex, sexual orientation, Roma, transgender, intersex, age, religion or beliefs, disability, political opinions, social situation, general physical appearance and other reasons. Respondents were also asked if they consider themselves to be part of a group that is at risk of discrimination: based on their ethnic identity, skin colour or religion; being Roma; being gay, lesbian or bisexual; being transgender or intersex; having a disability; or for other reasons.
Source: OECD analysis based on European Commission (2023[1]), Discrimination in the European Union, Special Eurobarometer SP535, https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2972.
Forms of discrimination reported by young people who have experienced multiple forms of discrimination in the past 12 months, by selected at-risk groups, 2023
Note: Discrimination rates are based on the following question: “In the past 12 months have you personally felt discriminated against or experienced harassment on one or more of the following reasons? Please tell me all that apply.” The following grounds are covered: ethnic origin, skin colour, sex, sexual orientation, Roma, transgender, intersex, age, religion or beliefs, disability, political opinions, social situation, general physical appearance and other reasons. Respondents were also asked if they consider themselves to be part of a group that is at risk of discrimination: based on their ethnic identity, skin colour or religion; being Roma; being gay, lesbian or bisexual; being transgender or intersex; having a disability; or for other reasons. Young people are survey respondents aged under 35.
Source: OECD analysis based on European Commission (2023[1]), Discrimination in the European Union, Special Eurobarometer SP535, https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2972.
← 1. A note on terminology: in this chapter, inclusive language is used as much as possible when referring to LGBTI people, persons with disabilities and people from racialised communities. The term “racialised communities” is based on the European Commission Against Racism and Intolerance’s (2021[30]) definition, in which racialisation is “the process of ascribing characteristics and attributes that are presented as innate to a group of concern to it and of constructing false social hierarchies in racial terms and associated exclusion and hostility. Regardless of where one is from and of personal circumstances, once identified or perceived as a member of a group, one is deemed as embodying characteristics based on, for instance, skin colour, ethnic or national origin inherent to all members of that group.” The terms “at-risk group” and “minority groups” are used interchangeably. However, in some cases, the chapter deviates from using LGBTI in order to accurately present studies on population subgroups (e.g. LGBT for lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender individuals or LGB for lesbian, gay and bisexual people).
← 2. In this chapter, reported refers to when people disclosed their experiences of discrimination in a survey, and does not necessarily imply an official complaint has been made to the police or equality bodies.
← 3. At the 90% confidence level.
← 4. Discrimination in the EU Eurobarometers have been conducted every few years since 2006, but it is difficult to make comparisons with waves before 2019 due to changes in the questions and response categories. For example, the 2006 wave did not ask about people’s personal experiences of discrimination and harassment, while the 2009, 2012 and 2015 waves did not include “skin colour”, “intersex”, “social class/socio-economic situation”, or “general physical appearance” as responses.
← 5. Discrimination survey data also suggest that people are largely being comfortable disclosing their identities in surveys. Small shares of survey respondents do not know or refuse to answer questions about whether they consider themselves to be part of a minority group. For example, less than 1% of respondents to the 2023 Discrimination in the EU Eurobarometer refuse to answer or do not know whether they consider themselves to be an ethnic minority, a minority in terms of skin colour, a religious minority, Roma, lesbian, gay or bisexual, transgender or intersex, a person with a disability, any other minority group or none. Further, just over 7% of European respondents to the Opportunities Module of the 2022 OECD Risks that Matter Survey preferred not to answer the question on whether they consider themselves to be part of a minority group based on their ethnicity or skin colour, language, disability, sexual orientation or gender identity, religion or belief, migrant status, political beliefs, other or not part of a minority group.
← 6. Transgender and intersex people, in particular, have become more open about their identities (from 39% in 2019 to 54% in 2023, and 30% in 2019 to 50% in 2023, respectively).
← 7. The act of concealing an identity to avoid discrimination is not costless and can contribute to stress, anxiety, social isolation and depression (Berkley, Beard and Daus, 2019[31]).