This overview chapter delves into the critical issue of spatial connectivity divides, revealing persistent disparities in broadband access and quality between rural and urban areas across and within countries over time. It emphasizes the urgent need to bridge these digital divides, a key policy priority for OECD Member countries and beyond. By highlighting the importance of granular broadband indicators, the chapter underscores their role in guiding evidence-based policymaking to ensure connectivity for all.
Closing Broadband Connectivity Divides for All
From Evidence to Practice
Abstract
Without connectivity, there is no digital transformation. However, the opportunities from digital transformation are often unevenly distributed. Where disparities between cities and rural areas in coverage and quality of communication services exist, communities are left unconnected or with poorer-quality access. This can limit participation in the economy and society, and perpetuate and reinforce inequalities, which can in turn affect economic growth and productivity (OECD, 2022[1]). As digital transformation continues, communication networks require investments to roll out next-generation networks to meet demands and support essential services in the future (e.g. health care, transportation, education). These efforts should work to avoid the creation of new divides where technology is unevenly deployed (OECD, 2022[1]).
Bridging connectivity divides means expanding access to high-quality connectivity at affordable prices to all (Box 1.1). Connectivity is at the heart of policy agendas in OECD Member countries. Most OECD Member countries (36 of 38) have set connectivity targets as part of a national broadband plan or digital strategy (OECD, 2024[2]). Moreover, countries are increasingly considering access to the Internet as a basic right for citizens (i.e. 19 of 36 OECD Member countries where data were available) (OECD, 2024[2]). Moreover, most have changed their legal frameworks to include broadband as part of their universal service framework (30 of 36 OECD Member countries) (OECD, 2024[2]).
Globally, progress has been made towards access to high-quality connectivity, as more people are being connected (i.e. a broadband offer is available, and a service has been contracted). Worldwide broadband connections (fixed and mobile) reached 9.4 billion subscriptions at the end of 2024, up from 3.4 billion in 2014 (ITU, 2025[3]). In the OECD, the share of overall households reporting basic Internet access (above 256 Kbps, from any technology including fixed or mobile broadband) increased considerably over the last decade, rising from 78% to 92% between 2014 and 2024 (OECD, 2025[4]). Mobile broadband subscriptions across the OECD have grown 16% in three years, reaching 1.9 billion by June 2024, up from 1.66 billion in June 2021 (OECD, 2025[5]). Fixed broadband subscriptions are similarly increasing across the OECD, reaching 504 million in June 2024, an increase of 39.7 million since June 2021 (OECD, 2025[5]).
The term “digital divide” commonly refers to different levels of access and use of digital technologies. The levels of access and use can vary in terms of geography or between men and women, or by age, skill level, income, firm size and, in general, by different vulnerable groups in society. Some aspects of digital divides are common to most geographical areas, such as income disparities or lack of skills. Other aspects are accentuated by differences in geography.
Connectivity divides are one important aspect of digital divides. They refer to gaps in access and uptake of high-quality broadband services at affordable prices in areas with low population densities and for disadvantaged groups compared to the population as a whole. This report focuses on connectivity divides of a geographical nature.
Source: OECD (2021[6]), “Bridging connectivity divides”, OECD Digital Economy Papers, https://doi.org/10.1787/e38f5db7-en.
Despite these increases, persistent connectivity gaps remain across and within countries. Looking at gaps across countries around the world, for example, OECD Member countries had on average, 36.3 fixed broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants in June 2024. This was 2.2 times the rate of the world, excluding OECD Member countries (16.2) (Figure 1.1) (ITU, 2025[7]; OECD, 2025[8]). This divide can similarly be seen in mobile broadband subscriptions. OECD Member countries had 137.8 subscriptions per 100 inhabitants in June 2024, compared to 85.3 subscriptions in the world excluding the OECD (ITU, 2025[7]; OECD, 2025[8]).
Notes: Data for World and World excluding OECD are based on ITU data. World data for 2024 are ITU estimates. World excluding OECD data for 2024 are OECD estimates. OECD data for 2024 data correspond to June 2024.
Sources: OECD based on data from OECD (2025[8]), Broadband Statistics (database), www.oecd.org/en/topics/sub-issues/broadband-statistics.html; ITU (2025[7]), ITU DataHub (database), https://datahub.itu.int/; ITU (2024[9]), Measuring digital development - Facts and Figures 2024, www.itu.int/hub/publication/D-IND-ICT_MDD-2024-4/.
Connectivity gaps also exist between regions within OECD Member countries. Users in metropolitan areas (i.e. cities) often experience higher quality connectivity than in regions far from these areas (i.e. rural and remote areas). Data from self-administered tests by Ookla (Speedtest) from 2019 to 2024 and aggregated into OECD regional classifications (see Box 2.2. in Chapter 2 for further detail) show persistent gaps in mean fixed broadband download speeds across regions. In Q4 2024, compared to the OECD average, fixed download speeds in OECD Member countries were 18 percentage points faster in metropolitan areas than in regions near a metropolitan area, and 23 percentage points faster than in regions far from a metropolitan area (Figure 1.2).
At the same time, Ookla data show a slight narrowing of the territorial gap across the OECD between metropolitan areas and regions far from metropolitan areas over 2019‑24. The relative territorial gap measured as percentage deviations from the OECD average fell from 34.8 percentage points in Q4 2019 to 23.5 percentage points in Q4 2024 (Figure 1.2).
Nevertheless, the relative gap between regions is still pronounced, and as will be noted later, the gap in terms of absolute levels is increasing (see Figure 2.6 in Chapter 2).1 At the end of 2024, across the OECD, users in metropolitan regions experienced fixed broadband download speeds that were on average 5.1% higher than the OECD average. Meanwhile, those in regions far from metropolitan areas (i.e. either remote areas or close to a small/medium city) experienced on average 18.4% slower fixed broadband download speeds than the OECD average (Figure 1.2).
Evolution of gaps in mean fixed broadband download speeds experienced by Internet users as a percentage deviation from the OECD average, TL3 classification
Notes: Average of mean download speeds experienced, weighted by the number of tests, as the percentage deviation from the OECD average across 34 OECD Member countries (complete data for Costa Rica, Iceland, Israel and Luxembourg were not available). Measurements are based on tests performed by users around the globe via the Speedtest platform. For a more comprehensive picture on broadband performance metrics, see OECD (2022[10]).
Within small regions (TL3 classification), the OECD has three main classifications: “Metropolitan regions”, “Regions near a metropolitan area”, and “Regions far from a metropolitan area”. The last category has two further subcategories: “Regions close to small/medium city” and “Remote regions” (see https://doi.org/10.1787/20737009).
Source: Based on OECD analysis of Ookla’s Speedtest Intelligence data.
While download speeds are more commonly referenced when considering broadband network speeds, upload speeds are becoming more important. Applications increasingly call for symmetrical upload and download speeds that can support more intensive use for work or study (e.g. videoconferencing, e‑health, collaborative working tools). Around the OECD, more users are upgrading to high-quality connections like fibre, which provides symmetrical download and upload speeds. As of June 2024, 44.6% of all fixed broadband subscriptions were fibre, up from 41% the year before (OECD, 2025[5]). Transitioning to more “future-proof” networks (i.e. scalable networks with symmetrical speeds), like those built with fibre, is important for high-quality fixed networks. This transition is equally vital for next-generation mobile networks like 5G, which rely on the capacity provided by fibre backhaul. Other technologies, such as satellite and fixed wireless, can make timely contributions to reaching connectivity goals in all areas but do not yet offer symmetrical download and upload speeds.
There is still a long way to go to reach high-quality symmetrical upload and download speeds (e.g. through fibre deployment and adoption), even in metropolitan areas across the OECD. However, to ensure all places have access to high-quality connectivity, these networks must also extend beyond metropolitan areas. So far this is not the case; download and upload speeds are not yet symmetrical in regions far from cities across the OECD (Figure 1.3). At the end of 2024, median fixed download speeds in regions far from metropolitan areas across the OECD were on average 2.3 times higher than upload speeds (i.e. 132 Mbps compared to 57 Mbps). Chile, Denmark, France and Spain stand out with high median fixed broadband upload and download speeds in regions far from metropolitan areas, and relatively (although not perfectly) symmetrical speeds. Of OECD Member countries, Norway had the most “symmetrical” upload (123 Mbps) and download (148 Mbps) speeds in Q42024, although its speeds were lower than Chile, Denmark, France and Spain (Figure 1.3).
Median fixed broadband download and upload speeds in regions far from metropolitan areas, Q4 2024, TL3 classification
Notes: Data for Costa Rica, Iceland, Israel, Korea, Luxembourg and the Netherlands are unavailable. Measurements are based on tests performed by users around the globe via the Speedtest platform. For a more comprehensive picture on broadband performance metrics, see OECD (2022[10]). Within small regions (TL3 classification), the OECD has three main classifications: “Metropolitan regions”, “Regions near a metropolitan area”, and “Regions far from a metropolitan area”. The last category has two further subcategories: “Regions close to small/medium city” and “Remote regions” (see https://doi.org/10.1787/20737009).
Source: Based on OECD analysis of Ookla’s Speedtest Intelligence data.
The challenge is rendering broadband networks more future-proof, sustainable and resilient in the context of a rapidly changing technological landscape. Extending coverage and upgrading communication networks that provide high-quality services requires significant investments, mainly led by the private sector. In sectors with high fixed costs and barriers to entry, such as the communication sector, an enabling institutional framework that fosters competition and provides incentives to invest is a key determinant of market outcomes. OECD policy makers understand the relevance of sound policy frameworks to communication services and how that relationship influences their national objectives for connectivity to bring economic, environmental and social benefits.
Digital connectivity underpins nearly every aspect of our societies and economies—from personal communication to public services, financial services to healthcare and education. While the importance of connectivity has been a longstanding priority, recent drivers are keeping this area high on the policy agenda.
First, the COVID-19 pandemic showed the importance of connectivity in economic activity (OECD, 2021[11]). Across OECD Member countries, mass public health restrictions in the interest of safety confined people to their homes. In this context, the importance of ubiquitous high-quality connectivity for work, education and connection with others became obvious. This development underscored the long-known benefits of the Internet – enabling access to information, commerce, financial and government services. At the same time, it was a fundamental turning point in behaviour as remote human-to-human connection through videoconferencing for business and education was more widely adopted. For the full benefits of this adoption, everyone must have high-quality broadband connectivity. Second, digital technologies and their underlying communication infrastructure play a key role to reduce environmental impacts across sectors (OECD, 2025[12]). Third, the resilience of communication networks, i.e. their ability to withstand and recover from disruptions, is high on the policy agenda as communication networks are critical to ensure the continuity of societal and economic activity (OECD, 2025[13]).
For those in rural and remote areas, these drivers are acutely relevant and the socio-economic benefits of connectivity are clear. People living in such areas can be isolated from broader society due to long distances from metropolitan areas, reinforcing the need to have access to communications services. Using digital technologies to change the way services are delivered to these areas can also be low-hanging fruit to reduce emissions. Access to connectivity services can make certain education and job opportunities a reality where long commuting distance make in-person attendance prohibitive or impossible. Ensuring rural and remote communities have diversified economies with the possibilities enabled by digital technologies can be a successful way to ensure they are sustainable and economically productive. Recent OECD research highlighted the importance of high-quality connectivity to boost productivity, innovation and economic opportunities in rural communities (OECD, 2023[14]). To that end, OECD Member countries committed to “advancing ubiquitous access to high-capacity, high-quality, affordable, secure and resilient connectivity” to promote an inclusive and sustainable digital environment (OECD, 2022[15]). Similarly, G7 Ministers recognised the persistent need for additional joint action to bridge digital divides, including the digital divide between men and women, by 2030 (G7, 2024[16]). Lack of access to connectivity in a data-driven economy and society increases social and economic divides, as well as digital ones.
Policy makers in low- and middle-income countries have increasingly identified the need to close the digital divide as a priority. Extending access to basic services, such as water and electricity, remains a pressing matter in some low- and middle-income countries. However, expanding connectivity infrastructures and services, along with closing digital divides, has increasingly become a policy priority. The COVID‑19 pandemic, for example, caused a spike in applications to the United Nations Development Programme for support with national digital transformation strategies (Jinxin Ma, 2021[17]). Even before COVID‑19, many countries were beginning to digitalise certain sectors according to national priorities (Stuart, 2021[18]). In this process, often framed as key to unlocking new economic opportunities, the focus tends to fall on areas such as increased and more efficient tax revenue collection (Stead, 2021[19]), e-commerce (Fredriksson, 2021[20]) and digital trade (López González and Sorescu, 2021[21]). For example, an estimated 10% increase in digital connectivity between countries raises trade in goods by nearly 2% and trade in services by over 3% (López González and Sorescu, 2021[21]).
Moreover, intergovernmental organisations and regional bodies present in low- and middle-income countries, such as the African Union (AU), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the G20 and the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), have prioritised broadening access to and use of digital technologies. Some digital strategies include the AU Digital Transformation Strategy for Africa (AU, 2020[22]), the ASEAN Digital Community 2040 (Yan Ing and Markus, 2022[23]), the G20 Maceió Ministerial Declaration on Digital Inclusion for All (G20, 2024[24]) and the Digital Agenda for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC, 2024[25]). Each strategy frames closing digital divides as a key enabler for the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals across economic, social and environmental pillars.
In a recent communiqué, the OECD highlighted that investing in an inclusive digital economy and society and in digital public infrastructure as a lever for sustainable development is key for global development co‑operation (OECD, 2023[26]). For the international development community, therefore, addressing digital divides is an important goal, as well as a driver of other outcomes.
Underlying these efforts, the measurement of broadband quality and coverage across regions is essential to track the evolution of urban-rural broadband divides and inform policy. Many OECD Member countries have developed their own subnational measurement frameworks, nationally or within the European Union. However, it is challenging to compare data under different measurement frameworks.
For many years, the OECD has been a reference for measuring connectivity divides on national levels and between countries through its Broadband Statistics (OECD, 2025[8]). However, measurement approaches at more granular levels are needed to further inform evidence-based policies.2 Assessing spatial gaps in broadband services within countries is particularly relevant today. Such assessment influences the allocation of important public funds being provided under several recovery packages. It is also fundamental for complementary policy responses (e.g. the range of skills needed to thrive in the digital world,3 improved services) to make the most of these investments. As such, granular data are needed for both availability and quality of broadband networks at a subnational level.
References
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← 1. The simultaneous decrease in relative speeds and increase in absolute speeds can occur when absolute values analysed are relatively high, such that despite a reduction in relative terms of percentage difference gaps (average dispersion from the mean), the actual gap in level values in terms of medians is higher. Both results are complementary and relevant for policy makers.
← 2. The OECD’s Broadband Statistics are available at www.oecd.org/en/topics/sub-issues/broadband-statistics.html and in the OECD’s Data Kitchen of the OECD Going Digital Toolkit https://goingdigital.oecd.org/datakitchen.
← 3. This refers to three types of skills. First, foundational skills, such as science, reading and mathematics, enable effective technology use (OECD, 2024[2]). Second, ICT skills such as using or programming software, searching for information, using social media, or leveraging artificial intelligence, are increasingly in demand in the workforce (OECD, 2024[2]). Third, complementary skills such as critical thinking, empathy and teamwork as similarly needed to participate fully in the digital economy and society (OECD, 2024[2]).