This chapter provides an overview of ongoing and planned efforts in Bosnia and Herzegovina to implement reform measures in the draft 2025 Reform Agenda to better align vocational education and training (VET) with private sector needs, thereby supporting the development of a skilled, resilient workforce. It focuses further on how VET students acquire relevant skills and how these translate into employment outcomes. It next examines the role of adult learning. Last, the chapter considers how the pedagogical training and skills of teachers, mentors, and trainers influence the quality of learning and skill acquisition for both students and adult learners.
Assessing Bosnia and Herzegovina's Reform Agenda for Private Sector Development
Abstract
Responsive and innovative vocational education and training (VET) systems are essential not only for supplying businesses with a skilled workforce, but also for preparing workers to meet rapidly evolving labour market needs. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, however, the VET system remains insufficiently aligned with the private sector, leading to curricula that do not fully reflect current employer demands, limited practical training opportunities for students and insufficient programme offerings and support for adult reskilling and upskilling. These gaps ultimately contribute to skills imbalances that constrain competitiveness.
To address these challenges, the draft 2025 Reform Agenda outlines several measures under the “Human Capital Development and Retention” pillar, which seek to strengthen the linkages between VET and the private sector to decrease skills mismatches. Table 5.1 outlines the four priority measures, along with the current status of implementation. In general, Bosnia and Herzegovina has made the most substantial strides in expanding frameworks for work-based learning and in widening professional development opportunities for VET teachers and mentors, particularly to build green and digital competences. Conversely, the pace of progress has been much slower in other areas, especially in raising employment rates of recent VET graduates and ensuring consistent quality and accreditation of adult education providers across cantons and entities.
Source: Draft Reform Agenda for Bosnia and Herzegovina (as of September 2025).
In addition to the measures set out in the draft Reform Agenda, this chapter examines several complementary areas that are not explicitly covered. As outlined in Table 5.2, these areas broaden the scope of analysis by identifying issues that merit additional policy attention in line with the Agenda’s overarching priorities. Specifically, the chapter identifies strengthening the role of social partners in VET governance as a priority for policy action and highlights the implementation of the Youth Guarantee as a key step to reduce the rate of youth not in employment, education or training (NEET). It also underscores the need to broaden reform efforts beyond quality assurance in adult education by addressing foundational aspects, such as increasing participation in programmes.
The education system, including VET, in Bosnia and Herzegovina is decentralised, with responsibilities distributed across multiple levels of government (Table 5.3). The involvement of numerous actors, each with distinct responsibilities, often results in fragmented governance.
Sources: (Eurydice, 2023[1]); inputs provided as part of the OECD’s Western Balkans Competitiveness Outlook 2024 assessment as well as by Brčko District authorities.
Persistently high youth NEET rates underscore ongoing challenges in school-to-work transitions.
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, VET is a key component of the broader education and training system. For the 2024/25 school year, nearly 83 000 students, or 77% of all secondary school students in the country, were enrolled in VET programmes, with females making up approximately 46% of this group (Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2025[2]).
High demand for VET has contributed to the development of a broad network of VET schools. As of 2025, there were 215 VET schools: 137 in the FBiH, 75 in RS and 3 in Brčko District (Table 5.4). On average, VET schools make up around 68% of all secondary schools. Among these 215 schools, certain sectors feature prominently: notably, 46% of schools provide programmes in metal processing and 19% in wood processing—two of Bosnia and Herzegovina’s major industries (GOPA Worldwide Consultants, 2024[3]).
Note: The total number of secondary schools in Bosnia and Herzegovina for the 2024/25 school year was 314 schools, according to the Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Source: (GOPA Worldwide Consultants, 2024[3]; Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2025[2]); data collected from government of RS.
Yet, persistently elevated rates of youth not in employment, education, or training (NEET) point to enduring challenges in the school-to-work transition—challenges that also reflect limitations within the VET system itself. In 2023, the average NEET rate among youth in Bosnia and Herzegovina stood at 16.5%, which was slightly below the Western Balkan average of 20.2% but nearly twice as high as the EU average of 8.9% (Figure 5.1).
Moreover, although the NEET rate among youth in Bosnia and Herzegovina followed an upward trend for much of the period between 2014 and 2020, it began to decline sharply thereafter, resulting in a net decrease of 3.9 percentage points by 2023. However, this decline may not exclusively indicate improved labour market outcomes for youth. Emigration is likely a contributing factor, as suggested by a 2021 survey in which 47% of individuals aged 18-29 expressed an intention to emigrate (United Nations Population Fund, 2021[4]).
Percentage (of 15-24 years old population) (%)
Sources: (Eurostat, 2024[5]; ILO, 2024[6]).
The majority of VET students fall below baseline proficiency levels in learning outcomes, reflecting issues in quality of compulsory education.
Foundational competencies such as literacy and numeracy are essential not only for carrying out basic workplace tasks but also for building the more complex skills required in a knowledge-based economy. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, the results of the OECD’s Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2018 found that many VET students, particularly in three-year programmes, struggle with basic literacy and numeracy, with functional illiteracy being a common issue (OECD, 2019[7]). Indeed, in this assessment, 61% of VET students were low performers, compared to only 19% of students enrolled in general education programmes. Without these core knowledge and capacities, students are left ill-equipped to meet labour market demands.
Monitoring progress in these student outcomes remains challenging. Bosnia and Herzegovina has not participated in PISA since 2018 and does not consistently engage in other international assessments, such as the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) or the International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS), limiting the ability to track changes in student performance over time.
Policy frameworks and co-ordination mechanisms are in place to promote private sector engagement in VET, although implementation lags.
Bosnia and Herzegovina has established legal and policy frameworks across all levels of government to promote collaboration with the private sector in VET (Table 5.5). These documents all recognise the important advisory role of social partners (i.e. companies, trade unions, Chambers of Commerce) and emphasise the value of maintaining structured, ongoing dialogue with them.
Note: This table only includes strategies and laws. For more information about secondary legislation (rulebooks, regulations, etc.) governing VET provision, see Table 5.6.
Sources: (OECD, 2024[8]; ETF, 2024[9]).
Although efforts to engage social partners are embedded in both legal and institutional frameworks, their practical influence remains somewhat limited. For example, the state-level Framework Law on Secondary Vocational Education and Training provides for the establishment of tripartite advisory councils, composed of representatives from education authorities, employers and trade unions. These councils are intended to strengthen linkages between VET schools and the private sector by anticipating employers’ needs and guiding enrolment policies. In practice, however, the councils are not consistently implemented or fully operational, with functional structures currently in place only in RS, Brčko District and four cantons of the FBiH.1 The Law also stipulates that the Ministry of Civil Affairs (MoCA) should co-ordinate joint meetings of tripartite council representatives at least annually. Yet, as several administrative units have not adopted the legislation (i.e. laws or bylaws on secondary vocational education) needed to establish such councils,2 this state-level co-ordination has never materialised, further reducing these bodies’ impact.
At the school level, some VET institutions have established advisory boards that include private sector representatives, who offer insights into employer demands. However, there is no standard practice governing the composition of these boards, as the proportion of private sector representatives is typically determined by either bylaws3 or individual schools’ international regulations. These representatives may contribute to curriculum development by informing adjustments of up to 30%4 and can also propose new curricula or qualifications through the school and/or tripartite advisory councils.5 Nevertheless, their input tends to remain advisory.6 In practice, the extent to which this engagement translates into meaningful co-operation with the private sector often depends on the initiative and engagement of individual VET schools (Salihagic and Turcinovic, 2024[10]).
Qualifications and curricula are being updated, but gaps remain in fully meeting labour market demands.
The dynamic and fast-evolving nature of the labour market can weaken the relevance and effectiveness of VET systems. Modular curricula, which break programmes into shorter, stackable “modules” with distinct learning outcomes, provide a flexible solution. This approach allows students to progress through tailored learning pathways that reflect their individual interests and career goals. At the same time, modular curricula make it easier for providers to keep pace with shifts in labour market demand, for example by incorporating new technologies or updated equipment into practical instruction (OECD, 2023[11]).
There has been a growing adoption of modular structure across Bosnia and Herzegovina, albeit uneven. While modular approaches have been adopted in RS and Brčko District, their application in the FBiH remains uneven. The use of modular curricula across cantons ranges widely (from just 6% to 77%) with no canton achieving full coverage at the time of writing (GOPA Worldwide Consultants, 2024[3]).
Modular curricula alone are not sufficient: their effectiveness depends on being linked to qualifications that recognise completed modules and reflect current market needs. In practice, many vocational qualifications remain outdated and are poorly implemented. The country’s Baseline of the Qualifications Framework, adopted in 2011, laid the groundwork for developing occupational standards and corresponding VET profiles; however, a fully developed, formally adopted National Qualifications Framework remains absent,7 leaving the system without a standardised reference for updating qualifications and ensuring quality. Many VET profiles remain outdated, with the last comprehensive review of vocational qualifications revealing that half were developed in the late 1990s and had not been revised for over two decades (GOPA Worldwide Consultants, 2024[3]; Cedefop, 2019[12]). A working group, which convened for the first time in 2023, has been tasked with further developing and operationalising the framework. In December 2024, the group agreed on a draft version of an updated framework and defined key steps for its finalisation and alignment with the European Qualifications Framework (EQF) (Eurydice, 2025[13]). In parallel, RS has undertaken separate efforts to modernise qualifications: since the 2020/21 school year, 106 occupational standards have since been revised to better reflect labour market needs.
Efforts to integrate digital skills are gaining momentum, but the skills required for the green transition still demand stronger policy attention.
Another challenge with the current curricula is the relatively limited focus on skills for the twin transitions, which are essential to make the VET system—and its graduates—future-ready and to equip individuals to navigate evolving labour market demands.
The integration of digital skills into VET programmes is increasingly visible across all levels of government. The common core curricula, which define essential learning outcomes across all levels of education, provide a framework for embedding digital competences not only through general subjects like informatics and computer science, but also within vocational components. This framework reflects key elements of the EU’s Digital Competence Framework for Citizens8 (DigComp 2.1), which serves as a guiding reference for digital skills across the education system, including VET. However, the newer version, DigComp 2.2, which includes updated examples of key knowledge, skills and attitudes, has yet to be adopted.
In contrast, the integration of skills for the green transition into VET remains significantly less developed. References to these skills are largely absent from key education strategies.9 The implementation of the EU’s GreenComp10 remains in its very early stages, with limited uptake across the system. Some progress has been made: for instance, the incorporation of green competences into 28 vocational profiles through revised qualification and occupational standards. However, this integration has been piecemeal and uneven. Efforts to expand coverage are emerging, such as in the agriculture, where agroecological principles have been incorporated into VET curricula through the international SEEDS project (Albanian Network for Rural Development, 2025[14]). While such initiatives provide promising starting points, without stronger policy frameworks and accelerated implementation, they are insufficient to catalyse systemic change.
To address these shortcomings, international partners have provided targeted support. GIZ has facilitated the establishment of working groups tasked with developing recommendations for integrating green and digital learning outcomes into VET curricula.11 Two in Zenica-Doboj Canton focus on green cross-occupational and occupational-specific learning outcomes, while a third in Sarajevo Canton targets digital skills. Although situated in specific cantons, the three groups engage representatives from public and private institutions across Bosnia and Herzegovina.12 As of December 2024, the groups had successfully agreed on the sets of cross-cutting green and digital competences.13 Complementing these efforts, an EU-funded project aims to train VET teachers to modernise programmes and enhance students’ digital skills in line with the DigComp framework (ILO, 2023[15]).14
VET schools often struggle with outdated and insufficient equipment for students.
The quality and relevance of VET are undermined by outdated equipment and insufficient training materials. In some cases, the issue stems from obsolete machinery: for example, the Technical VET School in Banja Luka, the largest vocational school of its kind in Bosnia and Herzegovina, struggles to deliver adequate practical training due to outdated tools and equipment. In other instances, the problem is instead a lack of basic training materials. For example, the technical VET school in Brčko District has reported shortages of essential supplies such as wood for carpentry students and metal for metalworking programmes (ETF, 2024[9]).
These challenges with equipment and materials can, in part, be attributed to funding issues faced by VET schools. Although vocational education is more resource-intensive, largely due to costs associated with specialised equipment, laboratories and practical learning opportunities, it receives the same per-head funding as general secondary schools, leaving VET providers with comparatively limited resources to cover higher operational costs (ETF, 2020[16]). Most VET schools lack the financial autonomy to independently allocate funds or prioritise the replacement and maintenance of outdated equipment. While private sector engagement could help bridge this gap, companies are generally reluctant to directly finance schools through investments in machinery or training infrastructure.
Moreover, around 90% of public education spending is allocated to staff salaries, leaving limited resources for investments in technology and equipment (OECD, 2024[17]). This disproportionately affects VET institutions, which typically face higher costs in these areas compared to general education schools. The problem is particularly pronounced in key sector programmes such as wood and metal processing, where the required machinery is especially expensive.15
Outdated curricula further reinforce these limitations. When programmes fail to integrate new occupational profiles or modern training requirements, schools have little incentive to invest in up-to-date tools and machinery, which reduces their ability to keep pace with evolving industry standards and labour market needs.
Way forward
Ensure consistent participation in PISA to strengthen monitoring VET students’ foundational skills. Weak literacy and numeracy skills hinder students’ ability to acquire more advanced, labour market-relevant competencies, contributing to persistent skills gaps and mismatches. Regular, sustained participation in PISA would enable the collection of trend data to monitor learning outcomes across cantons and entities over time, while also providing benchmarks against regional and international standards to guide targeted reforms.
Establish fully operational tripartite advisory councils at all levels of government. Cantons where councils are not yet operational should prioritise their establishment and define clear timelines for formation. Once councils are in place, the MoCA should convene the state-level Tripartite Council with formal agendas, documented minutes and publicly shared follow-up action plans. Capacity-building support should be strengthened across all levels to equip council members with the skills to analyse labour market needs and provide informed input on key policies, such as VET enrolment. Effectiveness should be monitored using indicators such as the number of meetings held, recommendations submitted and actions implemented at school and entity/canton levels.
Standardise and strengthen private sector participation in school-level VET advisory boards. Clear guidelines should be established at the canton or entity level to define the composition of these boards, including a minimum proportion of business representatives. Formal procedures should be introduced to ensure that board recommendations on curriculum updates, practical training placements, and emerging skills needs are documented and systematically considered by schools. Schools should be supported in actively recruiting and engaging private sector members, including through outreach to local businesses, sector associations and chambers of commerce.
Improve the implementation and assessment of digital skills. To do this, relevant education bodies are encouraged to collaborate and develop a unified framework or “monitoring mechanism” to monitor and evaluate the integration of digital skills in VET programmes. This would ensure the integration of digital skills in VET programmes aligns with required standards and is effectively implemented. Additionally, standardised assessment tools should be introduced to evaluate digital skills and competencies across different educational levels, including between the FBiH’s cantons and between the entities/Brčko.
Better integrate skills for the green transition into VET curricula. The first step is to develop a formal, standardised definition of "skills for the green transition" (which typically follows the definition of green or green-adjacent jobs) (OECD, 2023[18]). This definition is crucial for effectively assessing and anticipating emerging skill needs, which can then inform the integration of these skills as core competencies in existing VET curricula, as well as the development of specialised modules or electives on key aspects of the green transition. For guidance, Bosnia and Herzegovina could draw on existing definitions, as outlined in Box 5.1.
Conduct a comprehensive evaluation of government spending on education to identify funding gaps and inefficiencies before considering reallocations. Particular attention should be given to underserved areas, notably VET schools’ infrastructure. Given the significant share of spending directed toward staff salaries, education ministries could assess how to allocate more resources to ensure that VET students have access to adequate and up-to-date technologies and equipment that support the acquisition of relevant skills.
Rather than develop its own definition, Bosnia and Herzegovina could leverage or utilise existing definitions on “skills for the green transition.”
Some examples include:
“Skills needed by the workforce, in all sectors and at all levels, in order to help the adaptation of the products, services and processes to the changes due to climate change and to environmental requirements and regulations” (OECD).
“Knowledge, abilities, values and attitudes needed to live, work and act in economies and societies striving to reduce the impact of human activity on the environment” (European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training).
“Both (i) technical knowledge and skills that enable professionals to effectively use green technologies and processes (i.e. resource efficient technologies or processes that reduce waste and minimise the environmental impact of human action); and (ii) transversal skills, as well as knowledge, values and attitudes that help them take pro-environmental decisions in their work and lives” (European Training Foundation).
“Technical skills, knowledge, values and attitudes needed in the workforce to develop and support sustainable social, economic and environmental outcomes in business, industry and the community” (Australia’s National Centre for Vocational Education Research).
The limited availability of practical training opportunities, which are crucial for equipping students with the knowledge and necessary for securing and maintaining employment, remains a constraint within Bosnia and Herzegovina’s VET system. Although recent data are lacking, a 2018 survey found that nearly 70% of graduates from technical VET schools reported their programmes lacked adequate practical skills training, either to a great or some extent (GIZ, 2018[23]). Employers share this sentiment, frequently noting that VET graduates are not adequately prepared for real-world work environments.
Work-based learning remains underdeveloped, largely due to weak legal frameworks and the absence of effective mechanisms to connect students with employers.
To address this gap, work-based learning (WBL) has the potential to provide students with valuable hands-on experience. WBL is an instructional model in which learners gain practical experience either in the workplace (through internships, traineeships, or apprenticeships) or in a simulated work environment (such as workshops or laboratories at VET schools) (Cedefop, n.d.[24]).
WBL in VET remains weakly developed and inconsistently applied in Bosnia and Herzegovina. At the state level, the Framework Law on Secondary Vocational Education and Training offers no specific provisions or monitoring mechanisms for WBL. While several cantons in the FBiH16 along with RS have made progress by developing rulebooks for company-based practical training, implementation varies significantly across the country (European Alliance for Apprenticeships, 2024[25]).
When WBL is available, it is typically structured so that students receive most of their theoretical instruction at VET schools while spending one to three days per week in in-company placements. Yet, in the 2023/24 school year, only about 15% of students in secondary vocational schools participated in company-based practical training, well below the 40% target set in the Reform Agenda (see Table 5.1) (European Alliance for Apprenticeships, 2024[25]).
The primary obstacle to higher participation is likely limited availability: although precise data are unavailable, it is estimated that only 8-10% of registered companies are engaged in WBL,17 meaning students must compete for a small number of placements. Another obstacle is the limited support provided to students in securing these placements. In the FBiH, students are either assigned placements by school principals (who select placements on their behalf18) or must find opportunities themselves, often with limited guidance from schools—an issue further complicated by the absence of a centralised register of available placements.19 In contrast, RS’s Chamber of Commerce and Industry maintains a register of companies certified to offer WBL placements. However, without active matchmaking, the reach and potential quality of these placements are not fully realised.
Dual VET programmes are gaining momentum, but gaps in legal and regulatory frameworks hinder their effective implementation.
As WBL has gained policy attention, a specific model known as “dual VET” has emerged as an avenue to more systematically integrate workplace experience into the formal VET curricula. Dual VET is a specific, structured form of WBL in which practical training takes place entirely within a company setting. Under this model, the employer (through a designated mentor) is fully responsible for delivering training that follows the complete learning cycle of a recognised occupation. Moreover, the arrangement is typically formalised through a contract between the student and the employer.
Yet, the institutional and legal frameworks necessary to support dual VET remain underdeveloped in Bosnia and Herzegovina, leaving its implementation at an early stage. Table 5.6 highlights the significant variation in the development and scope of frameworks that shape the understanding, design and delivery of dual VET across Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is important to note that current legal frameworks do not establish dual VET in the form applied in EU member states, but rather incorporate certain elements or partial forms of the model.
Note: “✓” indicates that a policy exists or has been implemented; “X” indicates its absence.
Sources: (GOPA Worldwide Consultants, 2024[26]; European Alliance for Apprenticeships, 2024[25]); additional data collected by the OECD team.
At present, there are no entity- or canton-level laws that fully enable the effective rollout of dual study programmes. Incorporating dual VET provisions into existing legal frameworks may risk misalignment, as these frameworks were not designed to accommodate the specific requirements of the dual model. A wide range of legal definitions and mechanisms that enable dual VET (e.g. scope and structure of practical training, selection criteria for mentors, student compensation and the respective responsibilities of schools and employers) have yet to be established.20
RS has taken several concrete steps by establishing a legal foundation for dual VET, complemented by institutional reforms such as the creation of the Centre for Dual Education and Educational Policies in 2020 (Bozic, 2024[27]). However, notable gaps persist: namely, the legal framework still lacks provisions on instructor qualifications and offers only limited guidance on the content of contracts and the scope of training activities.
In the FBiH, the Sarajevo Canton has undertaken the most advanced regulatory effort to date on dual VET. The pending Law on Dual Education, which would be the first dedicated legislation on this topic in Bosnia and Herzegovina, introduces a comprehensive framework. It sets clear parameters for the organisation of dual education, including the number of in-company training days per week, minimum levels of monetary compensation for students and the respective rights and responsibilities of schools, students and participating businesses (Government of Sarajevo Canton, 2024[28]).
A number of pilot initiatives and partnerships have begun to pave the way for broader implementation in Bosnia and Herzegovina. With GIZ support, dual organised VET programmes are being developed in Bosnia-Podrinje Canton Goražde, Una-Sana Canton, Sarajevo Canton, Tuzla Canton and RS, targeting specific occupations.21 In the Una-Sana and Tuzla Cantons, where dual VET elements are being scaled up, GIZ has facilitated the formalisation of co-operation between vocational schools and companies, primarily through memorandums of understanding (MoUs), to support the dual VET model. These efforts have led to more than 1 600 second-year students (of which 278 were female) participating in GIZ-supported dual VET programmes as of December 2024.22 Additionally, the “TVET System Strengthening Project” is advancing advocacy efforts by signing MoUs with business associations to foster the development of dual VET and increase participation.23
Financial incentives available for WBL and dual VET for both students and employers vary widely across the country.
Remuneration levels for students participating in in-company training differ considerably across administrative units. In RS as well as five cantons of the FBiH,24 compensation is regulated through secondary or vocational education laws or rulebooks. In contrast, the remaining five cantons and Brčko District lack any formal provisions, leaving compensation to the discretion of individual employers (European Alliance for Apprenticeships, 2024[25]). In Brčko District, for instance, the Department of Education reports that most students in WBL placements do not receive financial compensation. Only a handful of companies offer limited benefits, such as free transportation or a lunch stipend (ETF, 2024[29]).
From the perspective of employers, cost barriers can limit willingness to offer these student placements, particularly for small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), which dominate the economy and often lack the capacity to engage in WBL or dual VET schemes. Well-designed financial incentives are therefore crucial to encourage business participation and investment in training (OECD, 2024[30]). However, the structure and availability of existing incentives differ significantly across the levels of government: in most cases, they are either non-existent or remain underdeveloped, though a few emerging practices offer promising examples (Box 5.2).
Another related issue concerns insurance coverage for students participating in WBL or dual VET placements. Legal frameworks for health insurance coverage during practical training remain incomplete across the country. In the two entities, legislation recognises students’ entitlement to health insurance for work-related injuries and occupational diseases; however, in the FBiH, these contribution amounts are not specified, while in RS, the base and rates of contributions remain unclear (GOPA Worldwide Consultants, 2024[26]). This legal uncertainty can discourage employers from offering placements due to concerns about unforeseen costs or potential liability in the event of an accident. In Brčko District, the legal framework offers no such entitlement, leaving students without formal protection during practical training and exposing them to personal risk.
While financial incentives for employers remain limited overall, steps have been taken in both RS and the FBiH to reduce the cost burden of hosting students and encourage greater employer participation in work-based learning and dual education schemes.
Notable examples include:
Income tax exemptions: in RS, recent amendments to the Law on Income Tax exempt from taxation the remuneration paid by in-company training providers to students during practical training, up to 50% of the minimum wage in the entity.
Subsidised student remuneration: The municipality of Sanski Most (Una-Sana Canton) has launched a support scheme for businesses offering in-company practical training. Through a public call, training providers can apply for reimbursement of student payments, with subsidies available for up to 40 students. Each provider may receive support for a maximum of 10 students, with amounts varying by grade level.
Preferential treatment in public calls for incentives: in RS, as well as in Zenica-Doboj Canton, businesses applying for public incentives aimed at strengthening SME competitiveness can receive additional points if they provide practical training to students. The bonus points vary: +5 points in Zenica-Doboj Canton and +1-5 points in RS, creating an additional, albeit indirect, incentive for companies to participate in student training programmes.
Sources: (GOPA Worldwide Consultants, 2024[26]; ETF, 2024[9]); consultations with GIZ representatives in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Preparations for piloting the Youth Guarantee Scheme are underway, despite institutional and political challenges complicating its timely implementation.
In the broader context of the high levels of youth NEET, the Youth Guarantee Scheme for Bosnia and Herzegovina aims to offer young people (under 30 years) a quality employment opportunity, traineeship or apprenticeship within four months of leaving formal education or becoming unemployed.
At the state level, the MoCA co-ordinates the Youth Guarantee Scheme, although the practical implementation of initiatives is delegated to the entities and Brčko District. As of September 2025, both entities and Brčko District had formally adopted their respective action plans for the Youth Guarantee. In the FBiH, this milestone was reached only after substantial delays, primarily due to the need to build consensus among the ten cantons. Yet, implementation remains hindered by several gaps, including the absence of a unified state-level plan and ongoing political tensions. These challenges have ultimately led the Delegation of the European Union to Bosnia and Herzegovina to place its support for the scheme on hold.
Nevertheless, piloting is planned in selected locations, including Zenica-Doboj Canton (Visoko municipality) and West Herzegovina Canton (Čitluk) in the FBiH, Prijedor municipality in RS and the Brčko District. While pilot sites have been identified and corresponding local action plans drafted, there has been limited tangible progress in operationalising the scheme. Current efforts are focused on refining the model within these municipalities, with future expansion to other cantons dependent on the resolution of the aforementioned institutional and political obstacles.
As piloting advances, persistent challenges are likely to affect the quality and ease of implementation across the country. Chief among them is the limited capacity of public employment services (PES), which are responsible for delivery of key support services (i.e. personalised employment advice, training, financial support) to youth NEET. PES offices are already overstretched, with some of the highest caseload-to-counsellor ratios in the region (1 160 registered unemployed persons per counsellor in the FBiH and 337 in RS). Some initial steps are being taken to mitigate these challenges. For example, the PES in FBiH is currently conducting a situation analysis to map available training capacity and determine necessary actions to support the Youth Guarantee. However, stakeholder interviews consistently emphasise that increased funding and staffing will be essential to enable effective implementation (ETF, 2024[9]).
Way forward
Establish and strengthen legal frameworks for dual VET, recognising the variations in development between administrative units. In RS, it is crucial to address gaps in the current framework, particularly in the area of quality assurance standards, to provide clearer guidance and increase certainty. In select cantons of the FBiH as well as the Brčko District, where such guidance is lacking, a comprehensive framework should be established. To facilitate co-ordination and consistency, inter-cantonal working groups should be leveraged to enable the sharing of resources and the development of common guidelines. This approach would allow the five cantons with existing regulations to strengthen and harmonise their frameworks, while enabling the five cantons without regulations to avoid starting from scratch and ensure a baseline level of alignment. For a model of a well-developed dual VET framework, Serbia provides a relevant regional example (Box 5.3).
Serbia adopted the Law on the Dual Education in 2017, establishing a robust legal foundation for dual VET. The law clearly defines the structure and implementation of dual study programmes.
Key elements of the law include:
Clearly defined objectives, including the enhancement of student competences aligned with labour market needs, improved employability, and the development of entrepreneurial, innovative, and socially responsible individuals.
Comprehensive regulation of responsibilities among students, higher education institutions, and employers, covering the structure and oversight of dual study arrangements.
Detailed contractual provisions, including a requirement for a minimum of 450 hours per academic year of combined classroom instruction and work-based learning, on average across the full study programme. The law also allows students to engage with multiple employers depending on the specifics of their programme, thereby ensuring practical experience in real-world work environments.
Regulation of instructor training and licensing, ensuring quality in the delivery of work-based learning.
Clear mechanisms for the assessment of student performance throughout the duration of the programme.
To operationalise the model, the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development, in co-operation with domestic and international employers, developed a comprehensive implementation plan, as well as a monitoring and evaluation system to track student outcomes and labour market integration. Full-scale implementation began in the 2021/22 academic year.
Establish mechanisms to enable businesses to share responsibility for training students. Given the predominance of small firms in Bosnia and Herzegovina, many lack the capacity (either in terms of infrastructure or expertise) to deliver comprehensive training on their own. Creating frameworks and mechanisms that allow for joint training arrangements, such as training alliances or rotation models, would enable companies to collectively meet training requirements. Such mechanisms could be supported by intermediary bodies (e.g. Chamber of Commerce, sectoral associations, etc.) to co-ordinate partnerships and logistics. This approach is successfully deployed in Austria (Box 5.4).
Austria’s Vocational Training Act allows for the establishment of training alliances to support companies that are unable to provide the full range of skills required for a particular apprenticeship occupation. In such cases, it is compulsory for companies to partner with others to ensure comprehensive skills development. These alliances may involve rotating apprentices between firms, attending workshops or training sessions organised by other companies, or participating in courses offered by training institutions.
In several regions, local authorities play an active role by advising companies on potential partners, including other firms and educational institutions, and helping to co-ordinate alliance activities. A training contract ensures that all partners agree on the knowledge and skills to be acquired during the apprenticeship.
Beyond filling skills gaps, training alliances may also be formed on a voluntary basis to equip apprentices with additional, specialised competencies (e.g. programming languages, foreign language skills) that go beyond the standard occupational profile.
Establish (FBiH) and regularly update (RS) registers of all companies offering work-based learning. The creation and linkage of these entity-level registers would enhance transparency, support monitoring of WBL provision nationwide and improve matching of supply and demand to reflect labour market needs. These connected registers should be publicly accessible and include key information such as company sector, number of training placements and quality assurance measures (e.g. availability of certified mentors).
Expand financing incentives to encourage both student and employer participation in WBL. Thoughtful design is essential: while the risk of deadweight loss (i.e. subsidising employers who would have provided training anyway) is relatively small given current low participation rates, the greater concern is attracting employers who are not genuinely committed to training. This could compromise the quality and integrity of the system, leading to low-quality placements (Musset, 2019[35]). Incentives should therefore be carefully targeted and performance-based. For instance, they could be conditional on meeting minimum quality standards, such as appointing certified mentors or implementing structured training plans aligned with occupational standards.
Strengthen the enabling conditions for the rollout of the Youth Guarantee Scheme. In terms of key strategic documents, the government of the FBiH should prioritise finalising and adopting the Implementation and Action Plans. Moreover, the capacities of the PES of both entities and the Brčko District should be increased by ensuring adequate allocation of both human and financial resources. Namely, it is necessary to reduce counsellor caseloads so that they can provide effective, personalised guidance, including counselling and referral to employment, traineeship or apprenticeship opportunities, to enrolled participants.
Strengthening linkages between VET and the private sector can also support adults in developing and maintaining relevant skills. As a core component of adult education and learning,25 VET offers opportunities to continually reskill and upskill in response to changing labour market demands.
Low rates of participation in adult learning persist, despite a high incidence of long-term unemployment among citizens.
Adult learning participation rates in Bosnia and Herzegovina remain extremely low. In 2023, only 1.8% of individuals aged 25-64 participated in education or training, a stark contrast to the EU average of 12.8% for the same year (Figure 5.2). This low engagement in continuous learning is noteworthy given the high incidence of long-term unemployment in the economy: approximately 75% of unemployed individuals are long-term unemployed,26 a trend that highlights the significant challenges in re-entering the workforce (ETF, 2024[9]).
Percentage (of 25-64 years old population) (%)
Note: Adult learning covers participation in both formal and non-formal education and training. This indicator looks at participation in the last four weeks.
Policy frameworks for adult education are well-established at all levels of government.
In terms of supporting lifelong learning through well-established frameworks for adult education, Bosnia and Herzegovina has several strategic policy frameworks in place at the state, entity/District and cantonal levels (Table 5.7).
Sources: (OECD, 2024[8]); additional inputs from authorities of Bosnia and Herzegovina as part of the Western Balkans Competitiveness Outlook 2024 assessment cycle.
Adult VET provision remains uneven, with the FBiH and Brčko District struggling due to limited capacity and co-ordination.
One key factor behind low participation in adult education is the limited availability of providers. Public training institutions across Bosnia and Herzegovina seldom provide VET programmes for individuals after they exit the initial education system, largely because financial regulations prevent these schools from retaining revenue generated from such programmes. Instead, this income must be transferred to the respective local authorities, creating a disincentive for schools to engage in adult learning provision. As a result, the responsibility for VET delivery for adult learners falls primarily to non-public institutions.
In RS, the VET system for adults is considerably more developed and better aligned with labour market needs. Services such as counselling, upskilling and reskilling are provided through the Chamber of Commerce, which also contributes to the design and relevance of adult VET programmes. A dedicated Institute of Adult Education (IAE), which functions as a sub-unit of RS’s Ministry of Education and Culture, monitors programme implementation and ensures compliance. Both the IAE and the Chamber maintain registers of employers that host practical training for adult learners. In collaboration with the Employers Association, these institutions operate training centres focused on specialised skills (particularly in the metal and wood sectors) demonstrating responsiveness to skills shortages.
Conversely, VET provision for adults in the FBiH and Brčko District is less developed. While some positive steps have been taken—such as the Employers’ Association in the FBiH establishing a dedicated training centre and certain cantonal Chambers of Commerce engaging more actively in training delivery and advocacy—these efforts remain relatively limited in scale. Without an overarching institutional framework or systematic co-ordination, VET for adults in the FBiH continues to operate unevenly across cantons. In Brčko District, provision is also constrained, marked by weak institutional co-operation, limited provider capacity and a lack of financial mechanisms to support programme development.
Public employment services help fill some gaps in VET provision but faces challenges in recognition and validation.
PES also play a role in filling gaps in offerings. In the FBiH, PES support is comparatively more advanced. The “Training for the Labour Market 2023” programme, for example, has supported 500 unemployed individuals through on-the-job training placements in partner companies, co-financing training costs up to EUR 500 per person per month via a certified voucher system. In Brčko District, PES efforts are limited. Although the Employment Bureau offers free courses in select areas,27 low interest among unemployed individuals has curtailed the expansion of these programmes. Meanwhile, in RS, the PES does not currently implement training initiatives, citing limited interest from employers in offering practical training opportunities (ETF, 2024[9]).
However, the training components of PES programmes are often based on non-formal learning.28 As a result, validating and recognising the skills acquired through such training remains a challenge. While existing adult education laws across the country provide a legal basis for validating knowledge, skills and competences through examinations, regardless of how they were acquired, practical mechanisms for recognising non-formal learning remain limited. Indeed, the continued delay of the full implementation of the National Qualifications Framework has hindered the recognition of individuals’ prior learning and thus conferring qualifications necessary to enter the labour market or improve employability.
Expansion of upskilling and reskilling opportunities underscores the growing priority placed on aligning skills with the demands of the digital and green transitions.
Digital skills have emerged as one key focus of adult education programmes. Yet, the level of digital proficiency remains low: in 2023, just 30.1% of individuals aged 16-74 in Bosnia and Herzegovina possessed at least basic digital skills, compared to 55.6% in the EU (Eurostat, 2024[38]).
Several different learning programmes targeting different age groups and professional backgrounds currently exist (Table 5.8). Each approach, however, comes with distinct advantages and limitations. PES in the FBiH and Brčko District, for example, offer free training, improving accessibility for jobseekers. The majority of the programmes are generally limited to jobseekers, leaving employed persons with similar upskilling needs underserved. While private providers are available for both unemployed and employed individuals, the cost, typically borne entirely by learners, can be prohibitive. Employer-led initiatives can help fill this gap by offering free training to their staff, but these depend heavily on company resources and priorities.
Note: “✓” indicates that a policy exists or has been implemented; “X” indicates its absence.
Sources: (OECD, 2024[30]; UNDP, 2021[39]); inputs provided by local consultants.
In terms of skills for the green transition, there has also been growing momentum to expand training opportunities for adult learners (Table 5.9). Existing programmes address key challenges Bosnia and Herzegovina will face in the near future, including upcoming obligations under the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) and the national goal of achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. These efforts are particularly urgent given that approximately 17 000 people are employed in the coal sector—one of the highest figures in the Western Balkans (Nackovska, 2025[40]). However, many of these programmes remain heavily dependent on donor support, either through direct implementation or funding, raising concerns about their long-term sustainability.
Note: “✓” indicates that a policy exists or has been implemented; “X” indicates its absence.
Source: (OECD, 2024[30]; European Climate Initiative, 2025[41]; UNDP, 2024[42]); inputs provided by local consultants.
Underdeveloped skills assessment and anticipation tools limit the responsiveness of VET systems for adult learners.
Robust skills assessment and anticipation tools are needed to identify current gaps and address immediate workforce challenges, as well as to enable proactive planning by forecasting future skills requirements. Yet, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, none of the strategic frameworks explicitly outline how skills assessment or anticipation tools are to be introduced, developed or used in practice, nor do they specify how such tools relate to adult learning.29 Moreover, the focus of existing strategies in RS and Brčko District tends to be limited to unemployed individuals, overlooking the growing needs of the employed population, who are increasingly likely to face skills gaps and/or mismatches as job requirements evolve and new occupations emerge (European Commission, 2024[43]).
Despite these limitations, several skills assessment tools are already in use, most notably employer surveys on skills needs. These surveys are conducted by the employment agencies of both entities, with the most recent editions published by RS in 2024 and the FBiH in early 2025 (Federal Employment Institute Sarajevo, 2025[44]; Public Institution Employment Service of Republika Srpska, 2024[45]). Drawing on both qualitative and quantitative data, the reports assess the current labour market situation, identifying the most in-demand occupations and planned hiring needs, as well as employer satisfaction with the knowledge and skills of current employees and the most frequently reported gaps. Yet, their impact ultimately depends on the extent to which findings are used to inform policy. At present, the results are applied inconsistently to shape VET provision for adult learners.
By contrast, skills anticipation mechanisms remain largely underdeveloped across all administrative units in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Tools such as quantitative forecasting, big data analysis and qualitative assessments of skills supply and demand are largely absent (OECD, 2024[30]). Where such efforts do exist, they are typically carried out on an ad hoc basis by external partners, rather than being systematically embedded in national or entity-level frameworks.30 One notable exception is the inclusion of dedicated sections in employer skills surveys, which provide short-term forecasts of employment needs for the coming year. Still, the limited time horizon of these tools, combined with the general lack of forward-looking, locally driven intelligence, represents a gap. Relying solely on current or near-term skills gaps risks leaving VET systems persistently behind, given that education and training adapt more slowly than labour market demands. To help address this, the TVET System Strengthening Project is supporting the development of a “skills barometer” in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which will provide a forward-looking skills needs assessment every three years, with the first edition planned for publication by the end of 2026.31
Issues with implementation of quality assurance mechanisms reflect gaps in legislation and institutional oversight.
It is not enough for programmes to simply exist or be accessible; they must also be of high quality to deliver meaningful outcomes. Whereas poor-quality provision can discourage participation and lead to underinvestment, high-quality programmes help ensure that learning is effective, relevant, and impactful (OECD, 2019[46]). In Bosnia and Herzegovina, quality assurance for adult education is governed by entity and canton-level Laws on Adult Education. Yet, most administrative units have not adopted detailed bylaws to regulate quality assurance processes. In the absence of such secondary legislation, the broad, open-to-interpretation provisions in Laws on Adult Education create ambiguity, making it difficult to implement and oversee adult education provision in a consistent and effective manner. As a result, quality standards can vary widely across providers.
Accreditation is one of the main mechanisms used to ensure external quality assurance, as it verifies that training providers meet minimum requirements. In RS, the IAE is responsible for monitoring adult learning providers, and the Administration for Inspection Affairs conducts field inspections. In contrast, oversight remains weaker in the FBiH, where there is no unified system for accrediting and certifying adult VET programmes (ETF, 2024[9]). Accredited providers typically undergo reaccreditation every five years.
Fragmentation also affects the recognition of accredited programmes. Currently, accreditation is not mutually recognised across entities or cantons, meaning that a programme approved in one administrative unit may not be valid in another. This undermines the portability of qualifications, limits labour mobility and poses an obstacle to scaling up high-quality training opportunities across the country.
In addition, both RS and the FBiH require providers to establish internal quality assurance systems and conduct regular self-assessments. While this can empower providers, particularly in a fragmented system with limited public oversight, it also raises concerns about the objectivity and comparability of these self-evaluations, as no standardised assessment or benchmarking exists to guide or validate them. To help address this, an introductory workshop was held in May 2025 under the “Strengthening the Technical and Vocational Education and Training System in Bosnia and Herzegovina” project, aimed at building the capacity of school staff to implement internal quality assurance through self-assessment based on the European Quality Assurance Reference Framework for Vocational Education and Training (EQAVET) (TVET BiH, 2025[47]).32
Way forward
Create online database(s) for existing training programmes. Information should be publicly accessible and include key details such as topics, duration, delivery format (in-person/online/hybrid), cost and expected outcomes. This could be achieved through a single database with filters by entity or canton, or through separate databases maintained at the entity/canton level, provided a common template is used to ensure consistency of information. Clear institutional responsibility should be assigned for regularly updating the data.
Enhance outreach and guidance efforts to increase the willingness of individuals, particularly those with low skills, to engage in adult learning. Many low-skilled individuals perceive training as risky, as it requires time, money and effort with the potential for failure or stepping out of their comfort zones. To counter this, it is essential to emphasise that lifelong learning, especially through VET, is a key pathway for career advancement. This can be achieved through information platforms that provide details on available training programmes, their outcomes, and real-world applications. Highlighting the practical benefits and success stories will help build trust in the programmes and demonstrate their potential to support career progression (OECD, 2024[48]).
Expand financial incentives to encourage increased participation in adult learning. On the supply side, this could include public grants or subsidies for providers of specific courses, tax incentives or payback clauses. On the demand side, options such as grants, vouchers, reimbursement of expenses, subsidised loans, or education/training leave could be offered to learners. Croatia provides a useful example of an innovative use of vouchers to boost individuals’ enrolment in adult learning initiatives (Box 5.5).
Revise revenue-sharing policies for VET schools offering adult education programmes. To encourage VET schools to expand their adult education offerings, authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina could revise the regulation requiring schools to remit all income from adult learning programmes to self-government. Allowing schools to retain a portion of the revenue generated from these programmes would provide a financial incentive to offer and develop such courses. This retained revenue could be reinvested into improving the quality of adult education, updating curricula or enhancing the institutions’ infrastructure. Alternatively, a portion of the collected funds could be earmarked for national reinvestment into adult education, creating a sustainable funding model that both incentivises VET schools and ensures long-term improvements in the country's adult learning provision.
In response to the need for more flexible and inclusive adult learning opportunities, Croatia launched a national education voucher scheme in April 2022. The initiative aims to boost participation in adult education, enhance employability and improve workforce productivity
Through a centralised Skills Catalogue (https://vauceri.hzz.hr/katalog-vjestina/popis-vjestina-i-programa/), individuals can explore a wide range of education and training programmes tailored to different levels of prior education, sectors, and learning modalities. Programmes range from short-term micro-credentials to full qualifications, offering flexible pathways to meet diverse learner needs. Users can sort options by sector, geographic location, availability of online learning and eligibility criteria.
A core priority of the scheme is to equip individuals with skills for the green and digital transitions. As of April 2025, the Catalogue features over 1 000 programmes focused specifically on green or digital competencies.
The vouchers are available to both employed and unemployed individuals aged 15 and above. To date, around 15 000 people have benefited from the scheme. By the end of June 2026, Croatia aims to reach 40 000 beneficiaries, with at least 30% reserved for long-term unemployed persons, inactive individuals, or NEET youth. This balanced approach ensures the scheme remains inclusive of vulnerable groups, while also supporting continuous learning among those already in employment.
Broaden the training offers targeting skills for the green and digital transitions. In terms of digital skills, entities and Brčko District should broaden digital training opportunities beyond unemployed populations to include employed individuals, particularly in SMEs and low-skilled occupations. Regarding skills for the green transition, authorities should design and implement formal training and skills adaptation programmes for workers in carbon-intensive sectors such as coal. In both cases, these trainings should be regularly updated based on the findings of skills intelligence tools.
Implement a systematic approach to collect data on skills gaps and mismatches, ensuring better comparability and tracking of progress over time. This could include committing to regular participation in the OECD’s Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies, enabling the collection of consistent, internationally comparable data to promote evidence-based policy making (Box 5.6).
Institutionalise forward-looking skills assessment and anticipation to better align VET for adult learners with labour market needs. Authorities in the FBiH, RS and Brčko District should develop and embed systematic skills assessment and anticipation mechanisms (e.g. regular employer surveys, labour market forecasting, sector analyses) to inform adult learning programmes, ensuring training content reflects current and emerging labour market demands. Efforts must go beyond one-off initiatives and include co-ordination across ministries, employment services and private sector stakeholders to ensure consistent application and long-term impact.
The OECD’s Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) represents the world’s most comprehensive international survey of adult skills. It provides vital insights into how well adults are equipped to meet the demands of everyday life and work in a rapidly changing world.
At the core of PIAAC is the Survey of Adult Skills, which evaluates the literacy, numeracy and adaptive problem-solving abilities of adults. Beyond assessing foundational skills, the survey sheds light on mismatches between formal education and actual skill proficiency.
PIAAC offers a robust evidence base to inform policy design by collecting data on:
The level and distribution of key information-processing skills in the adult population;
How proficiency varies across demographic groups and over the life course;
The link between skills and labour market outcomes, including wages and employment;
The effectiveness of education and training systems;
Patterns of skills mismatch and lifelong learning; and
Socio-emotional skills and equity in education and employment outcomes.
In addition, the PIAAC Employer Survey Module deepens the analysis by assessing the prevalence and impact of skills gaps in the workplace. It explores how firms respond to these challenges, such as through training, targeted recruitment, and forward-looking skills strategies.
Countries participating in PIAAC can use these insights to design more responsive education and training systems. As such, Bosnia and Herzegovina could benefit significantly from joining the second cycle of PIAAC, currently underway for the 2024–2029 period.
Sources: (OECD, n.d.[51]; OECD, 2024[52]).
The quality of practical learning and the skills students develop are strongly shaped by the support, mentoring, training and feedback provided by the teachers, mentors and trainers who guide their theoretical and hands-on education.
Continuing professional development for VET teachers is mandatory, although its effectiveness is constrained by uneven quality and limited tailoring to practical needs.
Continuing professional development (CPD) is essential not only for the ongoing development of teachers’ skills but also for keeping pedagogical approaches and industry knowledge up-to-date (OECD, 2021[53]). In Bosnia and Herzegovina, mandatory CPD provides a solid foundation for professional growth, but its implementation, governed by cantonal, entity and District-level regulations, varies significantly, leading to inconsistencies in expectations and training quality. As a result, in-service training opportunities for VET teachers are widely perceived as insufficient: in one survey, most interviewed teachers expressed dissatisfaction with both the quality and quantity of the training available to them (Salihagic and Turcinovic, 2024[10]).
Moreover, existing CPD opportunities could be better tailored to the specific pedagogical and practical needs of VET instructors. There is no comprehensive catalogue of tailored CPD programmes available at any administrative level in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and most available training tends to focus on general educational topics or broader curricular developments.33 This gap is also reflected in international donor support, whose initiatives largely prioritise curriculum development or modernisation, with comparatively limited attention to the upskilling of teachers and trainers.
Access to CPD for VET teachers is further constrained by a lack of institutional co-ordination and financial resources. In the FBiH, for example, schools across different cantons may share similar training needs, yet joint training programmes are rarely organised due to insufficient co-operation between cantonal authorities. Such collaboration would particularly be valuable in the face of financial constraints: pedagogical institutes and education ministries report that budget limitations prevent them from offering CPD courses specifically designed for VET teachers and that they frequently lack staff with specialised expertise in VET pedagogy (Guthrie et al., 2022[54]).
While RS has mandated training for in-company mentors, the coverage and uniformity of such training remains uneven across the FBiH.
Teachers are not the only important actors: given the integral role of companies in VET, pedagogical training and skills development must also extend to in-company mentors. These mentors usually are existing company employees who take on mentoring responsibilities for WBL or dual VET placements in addition to their regular job duties.
In RS, the Law on Secondary Education stipulates that mentors must pass a certification exam administered by the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Republika Srpska. The Chamber also delivers a mentor training programme34 comprising 24 hours of theoretical instruction and 16 hours of individual practical work,35 aimed at enhancing the quality of practical training offered to VET students.
In the FBiH, regulation is less uniform. While five cantons (Bosnia-Podrinje, Sarajevo, Tuzla, Una-Sana and Zenica-Doboj) have introduced regulations (usually through designated rulebooks) requiring mentor qualifications, there is no consistent mandate for mentors to undergo training in pedagogical or didactic skills (GOPA Worldwide Consultants, 2024[26]). Such regulation is most advanced in the Tuzla Canton, where recent amendments to the Rulebook on Practical Training introduced formal provisions for in-company mentors, defining eligibility criteria and mandating mentor training. Moreover, for the first time across the country, similar requirements were also established for master trainers, or those individuals responsible for training in-company mentors and/or trainers. Meanwhile, the draft Law on Dual Education in Sarajevo Canton, if adopted, would further strengthen the canton’s framework by introducing a requirement for mentors to undergo training every two years.
Moreover, formal co-ordination mechanisms between mentors and teachers remain lacking. The absence of clear regulation creates uncertainties, particularly regarding the alignment of practical training content with the school curriculum. It also prevents the development of a positive feedback loop, where students' performance in both theoretical and practical training components remains disconnected.
However, donor support has helped mitigate some of these challenges. For example, through its project, “Technical VET (TVET) in Bosnia and Herzegovina,” GIZ provided mentor training in RS and selected cantons of the FBiH,36 qualifying 227 trainers in 2023.37 This work continued in 2024 with mentor trainings38 held in Sarajevo Canton (benefiting 20 mentors), Una-Sana Canton (15 mentors) and Tuzla Canton (40 mentors).
The voluntary and fragmented approach to trainer development limits the quality and consistency of training provision.
Within the adult learning and training sector, there is no legal requirement for in-company trainers to engage in structured continuing professional development (Eurydice, 2023[55]). In the absence of mandatory standards, companies independently determine the criteria for selecting trainers, who may be self-employed or affiliated with training providers and consultancies. As such, the development of trainer competencies remains largely discretionary and is shaped by individual or organisational initiative. This voluntary approach has resulted in an overreliance on informal learning, in part due to the absence of systematic accreditation mechanisms and structured professional development opportunities to enhance trainer skills (ETF, 2024[9]).
Additionally, trainers are often responsible for organising and financing their own professional development. This creates another barrier to more widespread and systematic employer-provided training. Estimates suggest that internal training expenditures vary significantly depending on the nature of the programme, ranging from approximately EUR 220 per employee for basic orientation sessions (e.g. workplace safety) to over EUR 3 000 for comprehensive upskilling initiatives such as multi-week technical training for new production processes (ETF, 2024[9]).
CPD opportunities aimed at developing skills for the green and digital transition are, at best, limited in scope and, at worst, almost entirely absent.
Ensuring that teachers, mentors and trainers can equip students with in-demand emerging skills, such as those for the twin transitions, requires that they themselves receive adequate training. However, there are significant shortcomings in this regard.
Digital skills and competences are not formally required for VET teachers, mentors and trainers (Mršić, 2020[56]). Consequently, expectations differ across jurisdictions, leaving schools (or in some cases individual teachers) to identify and pursue available programmes to develop these skills. Dedicated training programmes for these instructors remain limited, with most professional development stemming from broader initiatives aimed at general teaching staff. In RS, for example, the Pedagogical Institute organises annual group trainings for ICT teachers and has appointed an advisor specialising in digital skills and competences. In the FBiH, the federal Ministry of Education and Science supports annual CPD programmes that include digital skills as part of broader efforts to strengthen key competencies. Some cantons, such as Central Bosnia and Tuzla, offer additional training opportunities that are well-attended by teachers. However, these CPD activities are often narrow in scope, focusing more on the analysis of student results in specific subjects rather than on enhancing teachers’ abilities to integrate innovative teaching methods that leverage digital tools (Serdarević, 2023[57]).
In terms of skills for the green transition, VET teachers, mentors and trainers face even more limited offerings. Part of the reason for these limited opportunities is the lack of data and research on instructors’ professional development needs in this area. Many teachers are therefore not adequately prepared to teach green skills, largely due to a lack of awareness of the green elements already present in the curricula. Although some efforts to include these competencies in CPD programmes are underway, they remain largely in the early stages across the country. In response, several donor-funded initiatives have been launched to help build these competencies (Table 5.10).
Sources: (Green Home, n.d.[58]; EfVET, 2023[59]; CESIE, 2023[60]); additional inputs from GIZ colleagues.
Way forward
Develop databases to track the number of qualified in-company mentors across the country. Establishing comprehensive and regularly updated registries would address current data gaps, as most existing information is based on ad hoc donor reporting. In addition to enabling effective monitoring of mentor supply and demand, making this information publicly available could support students in identifying companies able to offer quality placements.
Foster inter-entity and cross-canton partnerships to collaboratively design and deliver CPD initiatives at scale. This strengthened co-operation could help pool limited resources, reduce duplication of efforts and ensure more equitable access to high-quality training for VET teachers, mentors and in-company trainers across the country. Establishing inter-cantonal working groups or formal co-operation platforms, potentially supported by international partners, could serve as a foundation for more co-ordinated CPD provision.
Strengthen co-operation between company mentors and teachers. Initial steps could include setting up online platforms for mentors and teachers to track student progress and share feedback. This could be followed by institutionalising regular check-ins, such as quarterly meetings or mid-placement reviews, to align on training goals and student performance. In the longer term, more structured exchange programmes can be introduced, enabling VET teachers to gain exposure to company-based training environments and vice versa, with mentors visiting schools to better understand the curriculum and pedagogical approaches. AppMentor, a project co-funded by the EU’s Erasmus+ Programme, serves as a useful example (Box 5.7).
As work-based learning becomes an increasingly prominent component of VET, the AppMentor project offers an innovative solution to enhance collaboration between mentors and teachers. With a significant portion of VET taking place outside the classroom, AppMentor addresses the challenge of ensuring continuous and effective mentorship throughout work placements.
The project promotes the use of mobile tools, such as apps, social media and virtual platforms, to facilitate ongoing communication between VET teachers and workplace mentors. This allows for real-time tracking of student progress, exchange of feedback, and quick resolution of any issues, ensuring a smooth integration of classroom learning with practical experience.
To support the effective use of these tools, AppMentor provides key resources:
AppMentor online mentoring course: This course includes four modules: (i) introduction to coaching and mentoring; (ii) skills of a coach/mentor; (iii) coaching and mentoring in practice and (iv) using social media for coaching and mentoring.
Guidelines for implementing mobile technology in mentoring: Practical guidance on integrating mobile tools into the mentoring process.
Online manual on mobile technology and social media: A comprehensive guide to help mentors and teachers leverage digital tools to strengthen their mentoring activities.
By fostering continuous communication between mentors and teachers beyond in-person visits, AppMentor demonstrates how collaboration can remain consistent and transparent throughout the learning journey. This approach helps bridge the gap between formal education and on-the-job training, ultimately improving the quality of work-based learning.
Source: (European Commission, n.d.[61]).
Expand professional development opportunities to develop skills for the green transition. The design of programmes should be informed by a systematic assessment of instructors’ current green competencies and training needs. Moreover, specific attention should be given to teachers and trainers in sectors central to the green transition, such as energy and tourism. Box 5.8 details how Croatia has expanded CPD for VET teachers and trainers to facilitate their acquisition and development of skills for the green transition.
To ensure VET school teachers and trainers keep pace with evolving labour market demands linked to the green transition, Croatia has introduced targeted professional development initiatives. The Agency for VET and Adult Education offers a diverse range of training opportunities focused on skills for the green transition, covering topics ranging from sustainability (e.g. circular economy, sustainable and zero-energy construction, sustainable fashion) to biofuels and plastic waste management. Training is delivered through multiple formats (e.g. in-person conferences, sector-specific workshops, webinars, resources made available via the Agency’s online portal), ensuring wide access and relevance across sectors.
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← 1. These four cantons include Posavina Canton, Tuzla Canton, Zenica-Doboj Canton and Bosansko-podrinjski Goražde Canton. However, in West Herzegovina Canton and Sarajevo Canton, working bodies with similar functions are in place to align VET with labour market needs.
← 2. As of September 2025, Una-Sana Canton and Central Bosnia Canton are both preparing new VET laws that will regulate the formation of these councils. Moreover, both Herzegovina-Neretva Canton and Canton 10 are working with GOPA on drafting new VET laws, after which they plan to establish these councils.
← 3. These include the West Herzegovina, Zenica-Doboj, Una-Sana and Bosnian-Podrinje cantons.
← 4. In practice, this is limited evidence that this is carried out regularly and effectively.
← 5. Suggestions for curriculum changes from the private sector are implemented on an ad hoc basis, with no clear guidance on the level of consensus among advisory boards needed for their adoption.
← 6. There has been some initial progress in strengthening employer involvement in curriculum development. For example, in Una-Sana Canton, several companies contributed to designing curricula for occupations such as cook, CNC material processing technician, and auto mechanic.
← 7. Progress toward adopting the National Qualifications Framework has been slowed by the country’s complex political structure and the need for co-ordination across entities, cantons and the state level, despite initial plans to finalise the framework by 2015.
← 8. The EU’s Digital Competence Framework for Citizens, or DigComp, outlines 21 key digital competences across five key areas: (i) information and data literacy; (ii) communication and collaboration; (iii) digital content creation; (iv) safety and (v) problem solving. For more, see: https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu/projects-and-activities/education-and-training/digital-transformation-education/digital-competence-framework-citizens-digcomp_en.
← 9. One notable example of the exclusion of skills for the green transition is evident in the document, “Improvement of Quality and Relevance of Vocational Education and Training in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Light of the EU Riga Conclusions (2021–30)”.
← 10. GreenComp is the European reference framework for sustainability competences. It consists of twelve competences organised into four main areas: (i) embodying sustainability values; (ii) embracing complexity in sustainability; (iii) envisioning sustainable futures and (iv) acting for sustainability. For more, see: https://joint-research-centre.ec.europa.eu/greencomp-european-sustainability-competence-framework/greencomp-conceptual-reference-model_en.
← 11. These figures were provided by GIZ colleagues through a narrative report covering the period July to December 2024, under the “Strengthening Vocational Education and Training in Bosnia and Herzegovina” component of the broader Sustainable Economic Development and Employment Promotion (SEDEP) project.
← 12. These working groups are composed of representatives from schools (both management and teaching staff), the private sector, Pedagogical Institutes and the Chambers of Commerce.
← 13. Key green competences include environmental impact and mitigation, sustainable resource and energy management, environmental standards, waste management, and handling of hazardous materials—each focusing on efficient practices such as reducing CO₂ emissions, conserving resources, adhering to standards, minimising waste, and ensuring safe material handling. Key digital competences cover information and data literacy, digital communication and collaboration, content creation, cybersecurity, and problem-solving in digital environments.
← 14. This project is titled “EU Support to Improved Quality of VET Education (EU4Employment and Education)” (2023-26).
← 15. Inputs from consultations with local experts.
← 16. These cantons are the Bosnia-Podrinje, Sarajevo, Tuzla, Una-Sana and Zenica-Doboj Cantons.
← 17. Estimate provided via correspondence with GOPA Worldwide Consultants.
← 18. While principal-led selection provides some structure to this process, it often lacks standardisation and transparency, which can lead to uneven quality and fit.
← 19. The exception in the FBiH is the Zenica-Doboj canton, which does maintain a register of companies offering WBL placements.
← 20. These gaps were highlighted at the 2022 Dual Education Forum, where participants concluded that legal fragmentation and limited regulatory alignment pose serious challenges (Kovacevic, 2023[32]).
← 21. These occupations include: plastic processor operator; metal processing operator/CNC operator; material-processing operator on CNC machines; mechanical technician; auto mechatronic specialist; cook; toolmaker; and solar panel installation technician.
← 22. These figures were provided by GIZ colleagues through a narrative report covering the period July to December 2024, under the “Strengthening Vocational Education and Training in Bosnia and Herzegovina” component of the broader Sustainable Economic Development and Employment Promotion (SEDEP) project.
← 23. This project is implemented by GOPA and funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation. The project will run from 2023 to 2029, with a total budget of EUR 3.5 million (CHF 3.3 million).
← 24. These five cantons are Una-Sana Canton, Bosnia Podrinje Canton Goražde, Tuzla Canton, Zenica-Doboj Canton and West Herzegovina Canton.
However, to address the inconsistencies between cantons, an initiative has been launched with the FBiH Ministry of Finance to harmonise procedures and address administrative bottlenecks. Ministers of education from across the Federation have signed a joint declaration, calling for the alignment of relevant legislation on in-company work-based learning with their respective legal frameworks.
← 25. Adult education and training or adult learning refers to any structured formal or non-formal learning activities undertaken after initial education. It may or may not include a vocational element. For more on this definition, see: https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/vet-glossary/glossary/adult-education-and-training-adult-learning.
← 26. Long-term unemployment refers to an individual who has been unemployed for more than 12 months.
← 27. These topics include, but are not limited to, computer skills, foreign languages and accounting.
← 28. Non-formal learning references “purposive but voluntary learning that takes place in a diverse range of environments and situations for which teaching/training and learning is not necessarily their sole or main activity.” For more, see: https://pjp-eu.coe.int/documents/42128013/47261818/Bridges_for_recognition_n.pdf/1e7ebb5c-4edb-4bce-8fe0-db42605938c2?t=1382946351000.
← 29. These documents include RS’s Employment Policy 2021-27, the FBiH’s Employment Policy 2023-30 and Brcko District’s Development Strategy 2021-27.
← 30. Examples of such forecasts have been done by the Vienna Institute for International Economic Studies (see: https://wiiw.ac.at/a-skill-specific-dynamic-labour-supply-and-labour-demand-framework-a-scenario-analysis-for-the-western-balkan-countries-to-2030-p-5820.html) and UNDP (see: https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/ba/Software_industry_skills_needs_assessment_BiH_2019.pdf).
← 31. The information is based on inputs gathered through consultations with local experts during the assessment process.
← 32. The EQAVET framework provides a flexible approach to quality assurance, structured around a continuous improvement cycle that includes planning, implementation, evaluation, and revision. It also offers a set of descriptors and indicators applicable at both the system and provider levels of vocational education and training. For more, see: https://employment-social-affairs.ec.europa.eu/policies-and-activities/skills-and-qualifications/working-together/eqavet-european-quality-assurance-vocational-education-and-training/about-eqavet_en.
← 33. One exception is the “TVET System Strengthening Project,” which specifically focuses on providing tailored CPD training for VET teachers and ensuring their regular participation.
← 34. This programme is delivered as prescribed by the Pedagogical Institute of RS, with the approval of the Minister.
← 35. This training is composed of three modules: (i) implementation of WBL and the role of the mentor; (ii) characteristics of secondary VET students; and (iii) pedagogical-didactic methods and methodological foundations of mentoring work.
← 36. The selected cantons were Sarajevo Canton, Una-Sana Canton and Bosnian-Podrinje Canton.
← 37. This figure was provided by GIZ colleagues during their presentation, “Selected results of the project ‘TVET in Bosnia and Herzegovina,’” delivered at a meeting with the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation on 19 September 2023.
← 38. Each training spanned 40 hours, combining three days of in-person workshops with two days of independent work in collaboration with master trainers.