To realise the strategic visions outlined in the previous section, governments are designing and implementing a mix of policy initiatives. The OECD’s Quantum Technologies Policy Database collects information on close to 250 policies across 40 countries and the European Union.1 This section identifies the main objectives of policies included in the database. It is structured around the five main instruments governments use to support the development and uptake of quantum technologies: institutional funding for public research, project grants for public research, grants for business R&D, public procurement, and equity financing. Table 5 provides a description of each instrument and summarises their key objectives. The following sections elaborate on these objectives, providing several examples from the database.
An overview of national strategies and policies for quantum technologies
2. Policy instruments supporting the development and uptake of quantum technologies
Copy link to 2. Policy instruments supporting the development and uptake of quantum technologies2.1 Institutional funding for public research
Copy link to 2.1 Institutional funding for public research2.1.1 Addressing fundamental challenges in science and engineering
Governments often provide public research actors with sustained financial support to develop foundational research capabilities in quantum technologies. Universities and other research centres host foundational research activities to advance the scientific understanding of quantum mechanics and its phenomena, forming the basis for future technological developments. Applied research seeks to translate fundamental quantum physics discoveries into practical, deployable technologies that can benefit various sectors. For example:
The Danish National Research Foundation has allocated around USD 40 million from 2012‑2027 to establish and support three Quantum Research Centres of Excellence. These centres focus on various aspects of quantum science and aim to develop foundational technologies that could transform fields such as computing, secure communication and ultra‑sensitive measurement.
Since 2019, the United States’ National Science Foundation has allocated USD 148 million for its Quantum Leap Challenge Institutes programme. This initiative supports higher education institutions in pushing the boundaries of research in areas including quantum networking, computation, simulation and sensing. Beneficiary institutions lead collaborative efforts, integrating a range of approaches to achieve targeted scientific, technological and educational objectives in cutting‑edge fields. These efforts involve partnerships across multiple institutions and disciplines, addressing the complex challenges at the intersection of science and engineering. Expanding Capacity in Quantum Information Science and Engineering is another National Science Foundation programme spanning 2024‑2029, designed to create a diversified investment portfolio in research and education leading to scientific, engineering and technological breakthroughs. Among its goals, the programme helps build capacity and infrastructure across eligible United States higher education institutions seeking to engage significantly in quantum information science and engineering.
Switzerland’s National Centre of Competence in Research: Quantum Science and Technology, funded by the National Research Foundation with around USD 200 million during 2011‑2022, brings together over 40 research groups from across the country to explore the frontiers of quantum science and practical applications in areas such as quantum computation, cryptography, communication, sensing and simulation.
Singapore’s Ministry of Education and National Research Foundation provided over USD 200 million between 2007 and 2023 for the country’s Centre for Quantum Technologies, aiming to build national research capacity in the field. The centre brings together physicists, computer scientists and engineers to conduct basic research and to build quantum devices.
Table 5. Main policy instruments supporting the development and use of quantum technologies
Copy link to Table 5. Main policy instruments supporting the development and use of quantum technologies|
Policy instrument |
Description |
Objectives |
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Institutional funding for public research |
Financial support to public research actors, including universities, research centres, and research and technology organisations. |
Address fundamental challenges in science and engineering |
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Support the commercialisation of quantum technologies |
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Skills and talent development |
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Project grants for public research |
Competitive grants with calls for proposals for research projects in quantum technologies. |
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Grants for business R&D |
Competitive grants with calls for proposals for business R&D activities. |
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Public procurement |
Government commissioning of R&D and innovation services from firms. |
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Equity financing |
Public investments in shares of private or publicly‑owned firms, i.e. giving an ownership stake. |
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Institutional funding for universities and research centres often aims to develop international partnerships. For instance, New Zealand’s Tertiary Education Commission has supported the Dodd‑Walls Center with around USD 45 million between 2021 and 2028 to weave international partnerships and strengthen domestic expertise in photonic and quantum technologies. Norway’s QuSpin, a centre of excellence awarded around USD 30 million by the Norwegian Research Council over 2017‑2027, has recruited fifty researchers from eleven countries to develop quantum technologies that reduce power consumption and heat generation in electronics. The Quantum Leap Challenge Institutes programme mentioned above also underscores the importance of fostering collaboration with international research organisations as a key objective.
Besides funding universities and public research centres, governments are strategically mobilising research and technology infrastructures to address fundamental challenges in quantum science and engineering. They are investing in laboratories, equipment and other facilities that help link various public research actors and contribute to expanding quantum research capabilities. For example:
Australia’s National Quantum Strategy Investment (Department of Industry, Science and Resources, 2023‑2024) allocates around USD 650 million from the National Reconstruction Fund to quantum technology, a portion of which will be dedicated to building and enhancing research facilities.
In 2017, China started building its National Laboratory of Quantum Information Science in Hefei, a collaborative effort between the Chinese government, the Chinese Academy of Sciences and other regional entities, with investments from the Bank of China and Shenzhen Capital. While actual investment expenditures have not been reported, the government has announced up to USD 15 billion to develop the laboratory. It is envisioned as a leading platform for quantum information research.
Qatar launched the Centre for Quantum Computing in 2024, the first centre of its kind in the country. It was specifically built to support fundamental research in quantum communication, computing and sensing, providing infrastructure and expertise for basic science. The centre aims to build national capacity and collaborate with global academic and industry partners, thus fostering an environment conducive to long‑term research.
2.1.2 Supporting the commercialisation of quantum technologies
Institutional funding initiatives mapped in the OECD’s Quantum Technologies Policy Database are more often oriented towards developing technology applications than towards advancing basic science. Governments thereby seek the dual goal of strengthening the research base while fostering innovation and technological breakthroughs. To this end, policies often seek to combine the resources and expertise of public research organisations with those of industry partners. In this way, researchers can tackle more ambitious projects collaboratively than in isolation, while industry participants can guide research activities toward practical use cases. For instance:
In Italy, the National Quantum Science and Technology Institute (Ministry of University and Research, 2023‑2026) is funded with about USD 120 million to establish a consortium of 20 Italian research centres to promote competitive research and facilitate industrial innovation. The Institute’s activities range from basic research to prototype development. It emphasises bridging gaps between academia and industry, including through the creation of academic spin‑offs and start‑ups.
The Australian Research Council’s Centres of Excellence for Engineered Quantum Systems is a national initiative of USD 90 million operating from 2021 to 2028 that seeks to bridge the gap between theoretical quantum physics and practical engineering, enabling the translation of quantum science into usable technologies. It operates as a collaboration hub, bringing together expertise from various research institutions, government agencies, industry partners and international centres. This multi‑stakeholder model enables large‑scale research projects that would be challenging for individual actors to undertake alone.
Sweden’s Wallenberg Centre for Quantum Technology (Swedish Research Council and Wallenberg Foundation, 2018‑2028) is a USD 150 million national research initiative focused on developing quantum technologies, including quantum computers, sensors, simulators and communications systems. The centre aims to strengthen business competitiveness in quantum technology. It promotes industrial partnerships by supporting companies in identifying and investigating use cases, particularly with industrial PhD projects. The centre also fosters the creation of academic spin‑offs, hosts industry workshops and supports the commercialisation of research via patenting and licensing.
In the United States, the National Quantum Information Science Research Centres (Department of Energy, 2020‑ongoing) aim to address some of the most complex challenges in science and technology by advancing quantum computing, communication, sensing and materials science. The five centres integrate the expertise of over 1 500 professionals from 115 academic, industrial and governmental institutions across the United States, with partners elsewhere in North America and Europe. Each centre employs a co‑design approach, coupling research and innovation with practical applications. They foster a quantum ecosystem that supports technology transfer, workforce development and the rapid deployment of quantum applications.
Germany’s Quantum Computing Initiative (Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action, 2021‑2025) represents close to USD 1 billion in support of practical quantum applications. The largest proportion of the funding (about USD 800 million) is allocated to Germany’s Aerospace Centre (DLR), which has worked closely with large corporations and start‑ups to establish two innovation centres in Hamburg and Ulm. These centres provide industry partners access to cleanrooms, laboratories and office space for research collaborations and technology transfer. They serve as hubs for research and development, bringing together DLR’s projects, industry stakeholders, start‑ups and potential end‑users of quantum computing technology.
Quantum Science Austria is an ambitious research initiative (2023‑2029) that aims to build a cluster of excellence led by the University of Innsbruck in collaboration with other Austrian public research actors. The initiative emphasises a collaborative, interdisciplinary approach that pools the resources, expertise and methodologies of Austria’s leading institutions. Additionally, Quantum Science Austria includes an outreach and technology transfer programme designed to share insights and innovations with society and industry. This integration facilitates tackling advanced research questions that surpass the capacity of individual research programmes or conventional funding structures.
With an investment of over USD 110 million, the United Kingdom’s Quantum Technology Hubs (UK Research and Innovation, 2019‑ongoing) seek to translate the country’s quantum research efforts into practical, innovative technologies across various fields such as healthcare, security, critical infrastructure and computing. Five Quantum Technology Hubs are based at universities with distinct focus areas, including computing and simulation, communication and sensing (biomedical, metrology, and position, navigation and timing). The hubs are implemented through partnerships with industry actors, which provide financial contributions and in‑kind support to help align research with commercial needs.
Brazil’s Competence Centre for Quantum Technologies, supported with about USD 10 million by the Brazilian Research and Industrial Innovation Enterprise during 2022‑2027, supports market‑driven research and development activities in quantum technologies. The programme seeks to create an open innovation environment for the creation and attraction of start‑ups, involving national and international partnerships and associated companies.
Policies also seek to establish and maintain research and technology infrastructures that researchers and companies can use to develop and test quantum technologies. These include scientific facilities, lab equipment, demonstration and testing facilities, and digital environments providing computing and networking services. These infrastructures often support knowledge transfer, helping transition lab‐scale breakthroughs into commercial technologies and applications. They also help ensure that knowledge sharing is both voluntary and occurs on mutually agreed terms, protecting intellectual property holders from forced, coerced or inadvertent transfers of technology. They can offer prototyping facilities, propose technology transfer and extension services, strengthen domestic supply chains and support the creation of spin‑outs. A main objective of Sweden’s Wallenberg Center for Quantum Technology mentioned above is to create a Swedish‑built quantum computer. Other examples of policies are described below.
Israel’s National Quantum Initiative (Israel Innovation Authority, 2018‑ongoing) developed a quantum computing centre with an initial investment of around USD 30 million, offering unprecedented possibilities for R&D across all layers of quantum hardware and software. This centre, which supports three core quantum processing technologies (superconducting qubits, cold ions and optical computing), serves Israel’s industry and academic sectors. It provides access to a complete quantum computing stack, with potential future expansions including cloud accessibility.
Japan has allocated about USD 425 million to support the establishment of the Global Research and Development Center for Business by Quantum‑AI Technology (Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, 2023‑ongoing) at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology. The centre is developing several unique testbeds to support R&D for industrialising quantum technology. Key initiatives include creating use cases, developing the supply chain and building the business ecosystem, among others. In addition, Japan has supported the development of a Quantum Computing Cloud Platform (Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, 2023‑ongoing), providing industry stakeholders with access to a 127‑qubit IBM quantum computer located at the University of Tokyo. Through this initiative, the Ministry aims to stimulate cross‑industry collaboration and drive innovation in areas such as autonomous vehicles, pharmaceuticals, materials science and finance. In parallel, the RIKEN quantum computing cloud service (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2023‑ongoing) provides access to the quantum computers produced domestically through Japan’s Quantum Leap Flagship Program described in Section 2.2.
With a budget of nearly USD 100 million, the Finnish Technical Research Centre provides access to Quantum Computing via cloud services, hosting a 5‑qubit machine since 2022, which was followed by a 20‑qubit computer in 2023 and a 50‑qubit machine in 2025. As a limited liability company wholly owned by the Finnish state, the Finnish Technical Research Centre operates under the direction of the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment. It also provides foresight and business advisory services to help companies identify use cases and develop and implement quantum algorithms.
Korea’s Quantum Computing Infrastructure Development Project (Ministry of Science and ICT, 2022‑2026) seeks to develop the country’s first independently built 50‑qubit superconducting quantum computer with an accompanying cloud service for remote access and computational applications. The project aims to provide cloud services for research and educational purposes.
The Netherlands hosts several research centres that aim to advance quantum technologies and collaborate with industry to develop real‑world applications. QuTech, established in 2013 at Delft University of Technology, focuses on quantum computing and quantum networks. QuSoft, launched in 2015 at the University of Amsterdam, concentrates on quantum software and multidisciplinary applications. In 2018, the Centre for Quantum Materials and Technology Eindhoven was founded at Eindhoven University of Technology to work on areas including quantum simulation, hybrid quantum computing, quantum communication and quantum materials and devices. More recently, the Centre for Quantum Nanotechnology Twente was established in 2020 at the University of Twente, specialising in quantum photonics and materials research.
In the European Union, Qu‑Pilot (2023‑2026, USD 20 million) aims to strengthen Europe’s quantum sensing, computing and communication production facilities to meet the rising demand for pilot‑scale production services among quantum technology providers. The programme seeks to deliver initial experimental production capabilities and set the groundwork for industrial‑scale manufacturing environments. Qu‑Pilot’s goal is to promote the development of European standards in quantum technology, fostering a resilient European supply chain and ensuring that critical intellectual property remains within the European Union.
Several initiatives integrate quantum computers with classical high‑performance computing (HPC) environments to leverage the different strengths of both in solving complex problems more effectively. This hybrid approach allows problems to be divided into parts that are best suited for quantum computers and others that are better handled by classical computers (OECD, 2025[2]). For example, Quantum Spain (Ministry for Economic Affairs and Digital Transformation, 2021‑ongoing) has invested around USD 20 million to build a complete quantum computing infrastructure for Spain. The project supports the research and technology ecosystem, particularly with an interest in exploring artificial intelligence applications. The infrastructure is integrated with the Barcelona Supercomputing Centre and will be accessible through cloud services. France’s Hybrid HPC‑quantum programme (Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission, 2022‑2027) allocates around USD 75 million to combine several quantum technologies with classical supercomputing. The initiative is part of a research programme that spans both academic and industrial domains, providing actors with free access to integrated computing resources. Its main goals are to promote the dissemination of use cases and to foster open scientific exploration. Quantum Spain, France’s Hybrid HPC‑quantum programme and other European initiatives have also received support from the European Union’s EuroHPC Joint Undertaking (European Commission, DG CONNECT, 2021‑ongoing), which has allocated USD 106 million to host and operate six quantum computers across multiple European sites. These have been designed to be integrated with other existing HPC systems across Europe, including in the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Italy, Poland and Spain. These infrastructures will support research and innovation activities for various end‑users, including the scientific community, industry players and the public sector.
Two large infrastructure initiatives sampled in the database are dedicated to quantum communication. With a budget of nearly USD 100 million, the European Quantum Communication Infrastructure (EuroQCI) (European Commission, DG CONNECT, 2021‑2027), involves all 27 EU Member States and the European Space Agency to design, develop and deploy a terrestrial segment relying on fibre communication networks linking strategic sites within and across countries and a satellite‑based space segment. To form the basis of the terrestrial segment, EU Member States are leading parallel projects domestically to develop quantum communication networks (OECD, 2025[2]). Since 2017, China has been developing an Integrated Quantum Communication Network (Led by the Ministry of Science and Technology), combining over 700 optical fibres on the ground with two ground‑to‑satellite links to achieve quantum key distribution (QKD, see Box 3) over a total distance of 4 600 km for users across the country. The terrestrial segment includes a 2 000 km optical fibre network connecting Beijing and Shanghai, and the network serves over 150 industrial users, including state and local banks, municipal power grids, and e‑government platforms.
Box 3. What is quantum key distribution?
Copy link to Box 3. What is quantum key distribution?Today’s cryptographic methods use classical bits both for the transmission of secret keys and encrypted data. Their security relies on mathematical problems such as integer factorisation, which are practically impossible to solve using classical computers. However, in the future, a sufficiently powerful quantum computer could solve such problems.
Quantum key distribution (QKD) is an application of quantum communication technology that creates secret keys encoded in qubits and sent through a quantum network, aiming to strengthen security. Unlike traditional cryptographic methods relying on mathematical calculations, QKD seeks to secure communication based on nature’s physical (quantum) laws. As qubits are highly sensitive to observation, any attempt to intercept them causes them to decohere and introduce detectable errors. These errors render the eavesdropped information unusable. In practice, however, the security of practical QKD systems is highly implementation-dependent. QKD devices can introduce vulnerabilities that attackers may exploit, meaning that actual security depends on hardware and protocol implementations rather than physics alone. Moreover, QKD provides only a partial cryptographic solution, as it does not supply source authentication and therefore still requires classical cryptographic mechanisms. Given these challenges, cybersecurity agencies do not recommend the use of QKD or other forms of quantum cryptography unless their technical and operational limitations are resolved, a goal that continues to drive active research and development.
Source: OECD (2024[39]) and OECD (2025[2]).
Several initiatives supporting research and technical infrastructures aim to create environments dedicated to rapid experimentation, iteration and the benchmarking of different quantum technologies. These include dedicated testbeds and demonstration facilities that enable firms to build capabilities in quantum technologies and to develop and test prototypes. These programmes lower the barriers for researchers and firms to experiment with new devices and methods, aiming to quickly distinguish between breakthroughs that could be scaled up and less viable approaches. For instance:
Germany’s Quantum Computing Demonstration Setups (Federal Ministry of Education and Research, 2021‑2026) promote the domestic development and demonstration of a quantum computer with at least 100 individually controllable qubits within 5 years, scalable to at least 500 qubits. The initiative seeks to raise national capabilities, thereby reducing reliance on non‑European quantum computing providers. It encourages various German scientific, industrial and economic stakeholders to engage with quantum computing technologies. The initiative also aims to integrate these systems with existing IT infrastructure, making them widely accessible to researchers and industries through cloud‑based solutions.
The United States’ Enabling Quantum Leap: Convergent Accelerated Discovery Foundries for Quantum Materials Science, Engineering and Information programme (National Science Foundation, 2019‑2025) supports foundries equipped with mid‑scale infrastructure to rapidly prototype and develop advanced quantum materials and devices that enable breakthroughs in quantum sensing, communication and computing systems. The programme fosters a collaborative network among academia, industry and national laboratories, seeking to expedite technology transfer and contributing to the rapid deployment of quantum innovations into practical applications.
In the Netherlands, Quantum Delta NL supports three Quantum Sensing Testbeds (2021‑ongoing): the Ultracold Quantum Sensing Testbed, focusing on compact optical clocks and atom interferometers using ultracold strontium atoms for precise timekeeping and navigation; the Quantum Sensing Spin Testbed, an open‑access platform using nitrogen‑vacancy centres for magnetometry and other sensor development; and the Quantum Mechanical Testbed, which benchmarks ultra‑coherent mechanical sensors for various applications under real‑world conditions. Each testbed fosters collaboration across academia, industry and government to accelerate innovation and commercialisation.
The United Kingdom’s Quantum Testbed Competition (funded by UK Research and Innovation and implemented through the National Quantum Computing Centre, 2024‑ongoing) finances prototype testbeds for companies to run and refine quantum algorithms. Its “competition” model bridges theoretical research with hardware engineering and fosters faster uptake by industry end‑users. The initiative aims to identify the optimal types of quantum computing systems for different classes of problems, laying the groundwork for developing scalable and large‑scale quantum computers.
In the European Union, several programmes are developing and supporting testbeds and demonstration facilities. Qu‑Test (2023‑2026, USD 20 million) brings together infrastructures and expertise across Europe to offer testing and validation services for quantum devices, including chips, components and systems. The initiative fosters a trusted quantum technology supply chain, ensuring that devices meet quality and reliability standards. Meanwhile, OpenQKD (2019‑2023, USD 15 million) is building a large‑scale testbed and demonstrator network for QKD across 12 European countries, including cross‑border links and free‑space trials, leveraging the existing fibre infrastructure. The programme seeks to demonstrate the broad application of QKD‑enabled security solutions through industry collaboration, develop hands‑on use cases and establish standardised interfaces that support interoperability. More recently, and moving towards industrialisation, the Quantum Chip Technology Stability Pilots programme (2026-2030, EUR 300 million) has been announced to develop stable pilot-scale fabrication capabilities for quantum chip production. The initiative aims to accelerate innovation and meet the needs of the European quantum industry over the coming decade, with a particular focus on supporting start-ups and SMEs. The six Pilots are implemented under the Chips Joint Undertaking and are co-funded by the European Commission and the respective participating countries.
Singapore’s three National Quantum Platforms (National Research Foundation, 2022‑2025) received around USD 15 million to promote collaboration between research institutions, industry partners and government agencies in developing practical quantum technologies. The National Quantum Computing Hub is advancing quantum hardware, middleware and algorithms while working with industries such as finance, supply chain management and chemistry to explore real‑world applications. The National Quantum Fabless Foundry supports the fabrication of quantum devices, ensuring that research breakthroughs translate into manufacturable and scalable technologies. Meanwhile, the National Quantum‑Safe Network is conducting nationwide trials of quantum‑safe communication technologies to enhance cybersecurity infrastructure for businesses and government entities.
2.1.3 Skills and talent development
Policies providing financial support to public research actors tend to include an educational or training component. The United Kingdom’s Training and Skills Hubs in Quantum Systems Engineering (UK Research and Innovation, 2016‑ongoing) emphasise interdisciplinary doctoral training, ensuring that emerging scientists and engineers receive both the theoretical knowledge and the practical engineering skills required for the field. Latvia’s Quantum Initiative (Ministry of Education and Science, 2022‑ongoing) fosters interdisciplinary training by uniting top scientists, educators and industry stakeholders to develop advanced curricula and hands‐on research opportunities, thereby creating a national pipeline of experts who are versed in both fundamental science and real‐world technology applications. Sweden’s Wallenberg Center for Quantum Technology, for example, organises a dedicated graduate school and postdoctoral programme focusing on quantum technology, providing early‑career researchers with hands‑on experience in cutting‑edge quantum research. Quantum Science Austria also includes a strong commitment to training and mentoring young scientists. The Quantum Leap Challenge Institutes link a range of universities, national labs and industry players in the United States under common research themes. These networks often involve joint courses, cross‑lab research projects and large‑scale workshops that expose students to broad and complementary expertise across disciplines. Expanding Capacity in Quantum Information Science and Engineering, which operates through competitive calls, requires applicants to outline education and workforce development plans.
Support for public research organisations often promotes collaboration with industry actors to strengthen skills development. It encourages linking formal educational programmes with business needs, helping graduates transition into the workforce and ensuring that their expertise matches the evolving demands of the quantum marketplace. For example, Australia’s Sydney Quantum Academy, established by the Government of New South Wales in 2019 with a USD 11 million investment, unites four universities to train future scientists and engineers while facilitating internships in industry, ensuring that those receiving specialised training also gain industry‑relevant experience. The United States’ National Quantum Information Science Research Centres partner with industrial stakeholders to channel specialised knowledge and best practices from commercial settings into academic training. In addition, higher education institutions often offer scholarships and fellowships dedicated to quantum technology to attract talent and develop a skilled quantum workforce, while also supporting the Department of Energy National Laboratories.
Policies supporting research and technology infrastructures often integrate state‑of‑the‑art facilities and equipment into tertiary education or through specialised short courses and workshops for individuals already in the workforce. Programmes providing cloud-based access to quantum computing often seek to provide researchers, students and industry professionals with hands‑on experience in using and developing applications for such systems. Quantum Spain’s TalentQ programme, for instance, runs workshops, seminars and training courses explicitly designed to create a pipeline of professionals prepared to work on Spain’s first quantum computer. Germany’s Quantum Computing Initiative highlights collaborations with large corporations and start‑ups to create a talent‑friendly environment, ensuring that the next generation of quantum specialists has access to both foundational research opportunities and commercial R&D settings. With a broader scope, Brazil’s Competence Centre for Quantum Technologies aims not only to support industrial innovation but also to bridge the country’s existing skill gap in quantum research and applications. The European Union’s OpenQKD supports the career development of junior staff members from project‑associated industrial partners. It also includes capacity‑building measures to external stakeholders that foster know‑how on QKD deployment and operation, including staff training and end‑user workshops.
Prior studies, job board data and other sources indicate talent shortages in quantum fields (OECD, 2025[2]). Some institutional funding policies seek to raise awareness of career opportunities and promote participation in the quantum workforce. The United States’ Expanding Capacity in Quantum Information Science and Engineering programme, for example, emphasises funding institutions that have traditionally lower capacities in quantum technologies. Likewise, Australia’s Centre of Excellence in Quantum Biotechnology (Australian Research Council, 2024‑2031) features commitments to inclusive hiring practices and reducing barriers for underrepresented groups in STEM fields. Switzerland’s National Centre of Competence in Research: Quantum Science and Technology has aimed to cultivate a new generation of quantum researchers and has prioritised gender balance, targeting measurable increases in young female scientists.
2.2 Project grants for public research
Copy link to 2.2 Project grants for public researchGovernments issue competitive grants with calls for research proposals, inviting researchers and public research organisations to submit research project proposals aligned with national priorities in quantum technologies. These grants promote foundational research to achieve scientific breakthroughs and demonstrate applications. As this requires expertise across multiple scientific fields, including physics, mathematics, engineering and computer science, among others, project grant schemes often support research collaborations that encourage the formation of cross‑disciplinary teams. For example:
France’s USD 170 million Quantum Priority Research Program and Equipment (National Centre for Scientific Research, Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission and National Institute for Research in Digital Science and Technology, 2022‑2027) represents the upstream part of the national acceleration strategy dedicated to quantum technologies. The programme promotes research efforts ranging from fundamental research to proofs of concept. It supports research consortia carrying out 10 complementary projects, including quantum error correction, superconducting qubits, gravity sensors and quantum communication within operational networks.
New Zealand’s USD 7 million Quantum Technologies Aotearoa Research Program (Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment, 2023‑2028) is designed to promote multi‑institutional collaboration through the Dodd‑Walls Centre, integrating the country’s existing quantum research resources and promoting cross‑institutional knowledge sharing.
Canada’s Quantum Alliance (Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, 2023‑2028) provides grants tackling quantum science challenges, inviting projects to explore interdisciplinary applications and linking quantum technologies with other fields in natural sciences and engineering. The programme actively tracks proposal success rates and seeks to support inclusive career development within funded projects.
The United States’ Quantum Sensing Challenges for Transformational Advances in Quantum Systems Program (National Science Foundation, 2023‑2025) is a USD 29 million initiative that aimed to (i) achieve proof of principle for new concepts, platforms or approaches through experimental tests, and (ii) demonstrate tangible advantages for targeted applications by leveraging quantum phenomena. Grant applications required interdisciplinary collaboration, with teams led by at least three investigators from diverse domains such as engineering, computer science, mathematics, physical sciences, biology or geosciences.
China’s Construction and Control of Second‑Generation Quantum Systems Major Research Plan (National Natural Science Foundation, 2021‑2029) is a nearly USD 30 million initiative supporting fundamental research in quantum information science. The research plan promotes interdisciplinary collaboration among mathematics, information science, engineering, materials science and chemistry. It facilitates collaborative research networks where equipment, resources and knowledge are shared among participants.
India’s USD 8 million Quantum Information Science and Technology programme (Department of Science and Technology, 2019‑2022) aims to develop the country’s capabilities in quantum information science. It fosters the development and demonstration of quantum computers, secure quantum communication methods, quantum‑enhanced and quantum‑inspired technologies, and quantum algorithms. To this end, the programme supports collaborations through centralised research facilities established at key locations across India.
The Convergent Quantum Research Alliance in Telecommunications programme (2024‑2026) is a USD 2.2 million initiative funded under the US‑Ireland R&D Partnership Centre-to-Centre programme. It is a joint initiative between Ireland (Research Ireland), Northern Ireland (Department for the Economy) and the United States (National Science Foundation) aiming to develop foundational technologies for quantum networks. The programme focuses on converging quantum and classical networking methodologies to address the complex challenges associated with long-distance quantum communication.
Governments also use research grants to promote international collaboration to leverage global expertise, facilitate research exchanges and strengthen domestic quantum technology capabilities. Canada’s Quantum Alliance and the United States’ Quantum Sensing Challenges for Transformational Advances in Quantum Systems Program, for example, have promoted global academic partnerships, whereas New Zealand’s Aotearoa Research Program seeks to establish and strengthen collaborations with key partner countries, including the United Kingdom, Japan, Singapore, the United States, Germany and Australia.
Public research grants can also support the transition from fundamental research to market‑ready applications. Several of these policies incentivise industry partnerships and foster entrepreneurial initiatives. Examples include:
Germany’s Application Network for Quantum Computing (Federal Ministry of Education and Research, 2021‑2026) funds projects aiming to demonstrate practical applications of quantum computing in industry or science. Industry stakeholders and research institutions are encouraged to collaborate on developing practical quantum computing solutions, evaluating the technology’s potential within their respective sectors. The initiative is structured around two funding modules: the “Consortium” and “Network” modules, each with specific objectives and deliverables. In the Consortium module, pre‑competitive research projects target the development of quantum algorithms and quantum machine learning models to address industry‑specific problems. The Network module will support individual and joint projects that foster interoperability, shareable resources and open access to quantum computing hardware and software, thereby reducing barriers to entry, especially for small and medium‑sized enterprises.
The Finnish Quantum Flagship (funded by the Research Council of Finland, 2024‑ongoing) is a USD 14 million initiative to establish a consortium coordinated by Aalto University and gathering other national actors, including universities, research centres and businesses. The flagship aims to support research collaborations that support the development of the country’s quantum technology ecosystem.
In the European Union, the USD 120 million QuantERA programme (funded by Horizon Europe, 2016‑ongoing) supports high‑impact quantum technology research through coordinated funding calls. The initiative fosters cross‑border collaboration and integrates national and regional research efforts. It encourages knowledge transfer and commercialisation by aligning research with industry needs and public policy priorities.
With a budget of USD 12 million, the United States’ Quantum Testbed Pathfinder initiative (Department of Energy, 2023‑ongoing) supports research projects that advance understanding of how quantum computing might advance computational science. More specifically, the programme aims to (i) investigate the fundamental physical limits of quantum processors to delineate their capabilities and constraints; (ii) harness Noisy Intermediate‑Scale Quantum devices (see Box 4) to gain insights into the practical utility of quantum computing in solving complex problems; and, (iii) develop robust methodologies to evaluate the utility of both existing and hypothetical quantum processors.
In 2015 and 2016, the Canada First Research Excellence Fund provided around USD 120 million to three university‑led, seven‑year research programmes in quantum technologies. Those hosted at Sherbrooke and British Columbia universities focus on quantum materials, involving industrial partners and spin‑off companies in developing applications that generate social, environmental and economic impacts. The Transformative Quantum Technologies programme led by the University of Waterloo works with ecosystem actors to develop and commercialise products focusing on three grand challenges: universal quantum computing, quantum sensing and long‑distance quantum communication.
Singapore’s USD 85 million Quantum Engineering Program (National Research Foundation and Agency for Science, Technology and Research, 2018‑2026) supports applied research focusing on industry challenges and initiatives nurturing the quantum ecosystem. The initiative’s deliverables include (i) engagement of industry and user‑agencies, with cash and in‑kind contributions to projects; (ii) talent development through training of researchers and engineers; and (iii) evidence of intellectual property and industrial outcomes.
Several research programmes have defined specific milestones for quantum computing. For example, India’s Quantum Information Science and Technology programme targeted the design and assembly of a 4‑qubit quantum computer. Japan’s Moonshot Research and Development Programme (2020‑2030), led by the Cabinet Office, the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology and the Japan Science and Technology Agency, aims to develop a functional NISQ computer and a demonstration of effective error correction by 2030. In parallel, Japan’s Quantum Leap Flagship Program (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2018‑2028) is supporting targeted research projects (e.g. on quantum algorithms and noise reduction) leading to the near‑term use of NISQ devices as an intermediate milestone in the path to fault‑tolerant quantum computers. The programme seeks to develop quantum computing systems with 100 to 1 000 qubits in the near term, ultimately striving for systems with 1 million qubits. In addition, Japan’s Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry plans to allocate USD 330 million between 2025‑2027 to support investments in the development of systems and components necessary for the industrialisation of next‑generation quantum computers. Together with the testbed environment hosted at the Global Research and Development Center for Business by Quantum‑AI Technology, this funding aims to contribute to establishing a quantum computing supply chain at an industrial scale.
Box 4. What are noisy intermediate‑scale quantum computers (NISQs)?
Copy link to Box 4. What are noisy intermediate‑scale quantum computers (NISQs)?Noisy intermediate‑scale quantum computers (NISQs) are the most advanced quantum computers currently available. They are considered intermediate in size and capability compared to the quantum computers envisioned for the future. Quantum computing requires the management of extremely fragile quantum effects. These effects are susceptible to the smallest disturbances observed in nature, including thermal fluctuations and electromagnetic interference. Such disturbances, or “quantum noise”, cause qubits to “decohere” (i.e. to lose their quantum properties), resulting in information loss and computation errors. Today’s NISQs experience errors every 100 or 1 000 operations, corresponding to error rates between 1% and 0.1%.
By contrast, fault‑tolerant quantum computers are the theorised large‑scale and stable devices capable of reliably managing quantum noise and performing computations over extended periods. Manufacturers aim to reduce error rates by three orders of magnitude, to about one every million operations or 0.0001%, a threshold at which fault‑tolerant quantum computers become more viable.
Source: OECD (2025[2]).
Most programmes fund research projects through flexible or standard competitive calls (e.g., Canada’s Quantum Alliance, the United States’ Quantum Testbed Pathfinder and New Zealand’s Quantum Technologies Aotearoa). While these can encourage collaboration, whether by requiring private‑sector partners, offering higher funding caps for multi‑institution projects or allowing international expenses, they primarily function through traditional grant mechanisms, allowing researchers to apply individually or in teams without the necessity of a formalised research partnership. By contrast, some programmes fund large, coordinated research initiatives structured around formalised partnerships, often involving shared facilities and mandated multi‑institutional collaboration (e.g., India’s Quantum Information Science and Technology, and Ireland’s Convergent Quantum Research Alliance in Telecommunications). These support research consortia where multiple actors share data, facilities and other resources.
2.3 Grants for business research and development (R&D)
Copy link to 2.3 Grants for business research and development (R&D)As most quantum technologies have yet to reach maturity and have lengthy and uncertain timelines, private investment involves substantial risks (OECD, 2025[2]). Recognising their potential for commercial application and strategic implications, governments are also investing to supplement the role of the private sector in quantum technology ecosystems. Grants provide financial support that helps de‑risk business investments in R&D and innovation activities, including staff costs and building or acquiring equipment and intellectual property, among other expenses. These grants fund industry‑led projects and partnerships to demonstrate commercial viability and cultivate demand for quantum technologies. For example:
The United States’ Quantum Benchmarking Initiative (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and Department of Energy, 2024‑ongoing) aims to determine the feasibility of building an industrially useful quantum computer by 2033. The programme rigorously assesses proposed approaches through an interagency team of quantum scientists and engineers. Companies start by submitting written proposals and delivering oral presentations, after which selected teams receive six‑month contracts to detail their quantum computing vision and its practical applications. Those that move forward undergo a year‑long scrutiny of their R&D plans, including technical aspects like error correction and economic scalability. Firms that clear this scrutiny will work with DARPA to validate their quantum computing concept.
In the United Kingdom, the Commercialising Quantum Technologies Challenge (UK Research and Innovation, 2019‑2025) is a nearly USD 200 million initiative that aims to accelerate the development and commercialisation of quantum‑enabled products that can drive productivity, technological competitiveness and economic growth. The primary objectives of the initiative are to foster industry collaboration, encourage innovation in quantum products and services, and create a thriving supply chain for quantum technologies within the country. The initiative also seeks to make the country an attractive destination for international companies.
Finland’s Quantum Technologies Industrial Project (partly funded by Business Finland with about USD 10 million, 2021‑2024) supports a 12‑partner consortium comprising nine companies, two universities and one research organisation. The consortium collectively spans the entire value chain from materials and hardware to software and system‑level solutions. The initiative focuses on collaborative R&D to address the complex hardware and software requirements of quantum computing, quantum communication and quantum sensing.
The Israel Innovation Authority introduced a Quantum Technologies Consortium (2023‑2026) supported with around USD 35 million to develop two quantum processor technologies (trapped ions and superconductors) alongside quantum software development. The consortium structure encourages active collaboration between government, academia and the private sector to foster innovative solutions in quantum technology. Members submit clear objectives and detailed project plans, with the Innovation Authority providing 65% of the funding based on developmental milestones.
The European Innovation Council’s Accelerator Challenges: Enabling the Smart Edge and Quantum Technology Components (2011‑ongoing) and Emerging Semiconductor or Quantum Technology Components (2018‑ongoing) offer funding and mentorship to innovative start‑ups and SMEs working on disruptive quantum hardware and software. By emphasising the transition from research prototypes to full‑scale market solutions, these programmes help small enterprises secure capital, refine their technologies and position themselves for commercial success.
Some business grants target specific sectors, supporting high‑impact projects in sustainability and security, healthcare and energy, among other sectors. For instance:
The United States’ Small Business Funding for Quantum Sensing in Biomedical Applications (National Institutes of Health, 2020‑ongoing) supports technological innovation in quantum sensing that addresses critical biomedical research needs and facilitate clinical applications in disease prevention, monitoring and diagnosis. The initiative aims to bridge the gap between laboratory research and real‑world clinical implementation, fostering collaboration between quantum sensing experts and biomedical professionals. It supports the development of low‑cost, highly sensitive miniaturised devices that help increase access to advanced diagnostics and improve patient care.
Australia’s USD 25 million Critical Technologies Challenge Program (Department of Industry, Science and Resources, 2023‑ongoing) supports the development of quantum technology solutions for market‑driven challenges of national significance. These challenges span four critical areas: optimising energy networks for sustainability and security, advancing medical imaging and sensor technologies, enhancing autonomous communication systems, and minimising the environmental impact of resource exploration and processing. The programme aims to accelerate commercialisation by helping early‑stage ventures demonstrate the viability of quantum solutions and move them towards broader market deployment.
Spain launched the programme Development of Use Cases for the Application of Quantum Technologies in Strategic Productive Sectors (Red.es, 2025‑ongoing) with a total budget of USD 11.6 million to stimulate the deployment of quantum technologies across key industrial sectors, including aerospace, defence, energy, finance, logistics and telecommunications. The initiative promotes collaboration between companies, research centres and industry associations to develop and test use cases that demonstrate the technological and economic potential of quantum solutions. Complementing this initiative, Spain allocated an additional USD 11.6 million to establish a Quantum Communications Hub (Ministry for Digital Transformation and Public Function, 2025‑ongoing) to accelerate the deployment of quantum‑secure communication technologies, particularly for critical infrastructure and public services.
2.4 Public procurement
Copy link to 2.4 Public procurementBesides business grant schemes, governments use public procurement to strategically invest in quantum start‑ups and young firms to support the commercialisation of quantum technologies. Governments use public procurement to build and operate many of the research and technology facilities described above. This includes, for example, several initiatives described in Section 2.1, such as the Finnish Technical Research Centre’s Quantum Computing initiative and Israel’s National Quantum Initiative, both of which have awarded contracts to domestic players, as well as the European Union’s EuroHPC Joint Undertaking, which has supported EU ecosystem actors. Procurement generally supports domestic ecosystem actors, particularly businesses, helping these build capabilities in technologies that are not ready for broader commercialisation. Pre‑commercial procurement also fosters investment in R&D, contributing to advancing technology readiness levels and helping businesses develop innovative solutions that they can later sell to others.
Public procurement can also foster international collaboration and technology transfer. In Australia, a Partnership with the US‑based company PsiQuantum (2024‑ongoing) aims to construct and operate a utility‑scale fault‑tolerant quantum computer in Brisbane. This nearly USD 1 billion investment includes setting up PsiQuantum’s Asia‑Pacific headquarters, establishing partnerships with the local quantum industry and advanced manufacturing clusters. As part of the investment, the Australian government also expects to develop digital and advanced technology supply chains, as well as to support university and research collaborations, including through doctorate-level positions, mentoring and internship opportunities. The Quantum Accelerated Mining Exploration (QUANIMEX) project is a 2024‑2025 joint initiative between the United Kingdom (UK Research and Innovation) and Canada (National Research Council Canada) that seeks to accelerate the detection and analysis of critical mineral deposits through the integration of quantum sensing technologies. The primary objective is to develop and deploy a drone‑based sensor system that combines magnetic and gravimetric measurements to streamline the identification and 3D mapping of mineral‑rich zones. The initiative is particularly relevant for locating strategic minerals such as cobalt, lithium, nickel, copper and rare earth elements essential for clean energy applications.
Procurement initiatives can also aim to address technology risks and strengthen national security. The digital security provided by quantum networks is a key motivation behind the European Union’s EuroQCI and China’s Integrated Quantum Communication Network initiatives described in Section 2.1. Other examples include:
France’s PROQCIMA programme (Ministry of the Armed Forces, 2024‑ongoing) is devoting more than USD 500 million to develop two universal quantum computing prototypes for defence applications by 2032. Inspired by historical cryptographic breakthroughs like the British ULTRA project, PROQCIMA aims to develop a fault‑tolerant quantum computer with 128 and 2048 logical qubits by 2032 and 2035, respectively. This initiative seeks to reinforce France’s strategic technological edge in national security while addressing the significant scientific and industrial challenges.
Canada’s Quantum Encryption and Science Satellite initiative (Canadian Space Agency, 2019) seeks to deploy QKD technology via a Low‑Earth Orbit satellite. The project is part of Canada’s commitment to securing national and global communication infrastructures, ensuring resilience against future quantum cyber threats.
In the United Kingdom, the Space Photon Entanglement Quantum Technology Readiness Experiment project (led by the Science and Technology Facilities Council, 2024‑ongoing) also aims to advance space‑based QKD, focusing on entangled photon transmission to secure communication links. The project’s goal is to lay the foundation for the country’s future quantum‑secure space communications infrastructure. Following this initiative, the UK Quantum Communications Hub plans a follow‑up Satellite Platform for Optical Quantum Communications mission to further develop space‑based QKD.
2.5 Equity financing
Copy link to 2.5 Equity financingSome governments provide equity financing to support the development of quantum start‑ups and young companies. In addition to the challenge of securing private investment in technologies with lengthy and uncertain timelines, these firms also have more limited capacity to generate revenue compared to established large companies. Governments can de‑risk investments by buying shares of ownership of such firms, making it more attractive for private investors to follow suit. For example:
In 2019, the Austrian Research Promotion Agency acquired shares of ownership in Alpine Quantum Technologies, a spin‑off from the University of Innsbruck, amounting to over USD 5 million. Meanwhile, Austria’s Wirtschaftsservice provided pre‑seed funding of around USD 0.2 million, which helped bridge the initial phase of operation. The non‑dilutive investment is accompanied by support services, including intellectual property training.
Business Finland provided USD 3 million in 2020 to support the establishment of IQM Quantum Computers, a spin‑off collaboration between the Technical Research Centre of Finland and Aalto University. IQM is the company building the computers that the Centre makes accessible via its Quantum Computing programme (mentioned in Section 2.1).
In 2021, China’s Internet Investment Fund secured USD 14 million for Origin Quantum’s Series A round to bolster the company’s investments in quantum chips, measurement and control systems, and quantum computing platforms. Multiple domestic investors have supplemented the government’s equity financing.
The United Kingdom’s British Business Bank invested USD 2 million in Oxford Ionics in 2023. The company, working in trapped‑ion quantum computing, received this funding through the UK’s National Security Strategic Investment Fund. The government considered supporting Oxford Ionics’ work advancing its Electronic Qubit Control system to be strategic for British national security interests.
In 2024, Denmark’s Export and Investment Fund invested around USD 10 million in the US‑based Atom Computing. Following this announcement, the company decided to locate its European headquarters in Denmark as part of a strategic partnership to support the country’s quantum research actors and engage with quantum computing customers in Europe.
The Spanish Ministry for Digital Transformation and Civil Service announced in 2025 an investment of around USD 70 million in Multiverse Computing through the Spanish Society for Technological Transformation, the country’s high‑tech investment company. Based in San Sebastian, Multiverse Computing is a quantum computing software company that has developed AI applications inspired by quantum algorithms.
Note
Copy link to Note← 1. The database was developed in two main stages. First, the OECD Secretariat acquired a database on government funding announcements in quantum technologies from The Quantum Insider (https://thequantuminsider.com/), a market intelligence company. The Secretariat reviewed, curated and extended the information (relying on data from official government sources available online) to meet OECD’s standards for a policy database. In a second step, the information contained in the database was validated by experts participating in the GFTech focus group on quantum technologies, as well as delegates to the Digital Policy Committee and the Committee for Scientific and Technological Policy. Experts and delegates reviewed and complemented the policy data for their country.