Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation 2025

15. Indonesia

Main findings

Support to agriculture

Producer support as a share of gross farm receipts in Indonesia declined to 7.5% in 2022-24 after peaking at 26.5% in 2015, compared with 5.5% in 2000-02. The largest component is Market Price Support (MPS), in line with the government’s focus on food sovereignty and self-reliance. Prices received by farmers were 8% higher than world prices on average, due to border measures and interventions in domestic markets. Staple products targeted by programmes aimed at self-sufficiency (e.g. sugar, maize, poultry, rice, and eggs) had the highest single-commodity transfers relative to their gross farm receipts.

The share of potentially most-distorting producer transfers was 93% in 2022-24, reflecting the prominence of MPS (including large negative price support due to increasing export taxes on palm oil) and payments based on unconstrained variable input use (particularly fertilisers) in the Indonesian policy mix.

Poor consumers are supported in Indonesia with the food assistance programme (BPNT) through electronic vouchers, and through the Free Nutritious Meals (MBG) programme. However, in 2022-24 this budget transfer was smaller than the support transferred from consumers to producers due to higher domestic prices for staple commodities. Therefore, consumers are penalised by agricultural policies with a Consumer Support Estimate (CSE) of -14.6% of consumer expenditures measured at the farm-gate level.

Expenditures on general services to the sector (General Service Support Estimate, GSSE) focus on irrigation infrastructure and public stockholding, and are small compared to producer support, at 11.8% of the Total Support Estimate (TSE). Expenditures for GSSE relative to the value of agricultural production were 1.1%, lower than in other emerging economies such as the People’s Republic of China (hereafter “China”).

TSE decreased from 1.2% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to 0.97% in the last two decades. This decline was driven by GDP growth outpacing growth in support, increasingly negative MPS for some commodities (notably palm oil), whereas positive support to the sector increased over the same period.

Key recent policy changes

A new National Nutrition Agency has been created to implement a new Free Nutritious Meals (MBG) programme, reflecting an increased priority given to improving nutrition. This programme also promotes nutritional knowledge and healthy eating patterns, while at the same time seeking to improve school attendance. The MBG programme targets school children of all ages along with younger children, pregnant women, and breastfeeding mothers. The pilot stage implemented in 2024 reached 18 schools. The ambition for 2025 to reach 5 000 school units with an allocated budget of IDR 171 trillion (USD 10.52 billion).

A new rice field programme starting in 2025 targets adding 750 000 ha of new rice fields per year. This is supported by investments in water management infrastructure to intensify production. This policy of land expansion reflects the government priority to increase agricultural production through intensification and expansion of agricultural land. The locations of most new rice fields are in the provinces of South Papua, Central Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, and South Sumatra. The palm oil fund, financed by the revenue on export duties and levies, is largely transferred to regions that need to spend at least 80% of the funds on development and maintenance of road infrastructure that facilitates the opening of rice fields.

Assessment and recommendations

• In the last decade, Indonesia has significantly improved agricultural total factor productivity, and this is currently the main driver of agricultural output growth. However, the expansion of agricultural land and of the use variable inputs such as fertilisers, remain significant and pose environmental challenges, calling for innovative solutions to improve environmental sustainability.

• Indonesian agricultural policy focuses on self-sufficiency and trade measures to achieve food self-reliance. This creates large price gaps between domestic and international markets for imported products such as maize, poultry, and rice. The impact is most likely working against objectives that underpin the Food Law of 2012, including affordable prices for consumers who are penalised by positive MPS, and diversification in production and diet, which is undermined by the concentration of support to a few staple commodities.

• The new Free Nutritious Meals (MBG) programme reflects the high priority given to improving nutrition and health among the poor. The targeting of this programme to the most vulnerable groups and its focus on promoting nutritional knowledge and healthy eating patterns is laudable. However, the large scope of the programme risks to create an unaffordable budgetary burden and requires replacing previous food assistance programmes to reduce the risk of duplication. Building on previous experience with the BPNT electronic food voucher system in place since 2019, the new programme should privilege this in-cash approach compared to the in-kind approach.

• Government policies should prioritise investments in innovation, with a focus on technology adoption. The aim should be improving farmers’ skills to manage production and natural resources and ensuring incentives and capacities to find the best solutions to improve sustainable productivity in the specific location and context of each individual farmer. The knowledge and capacity of agencies such as the Indonesian Agency of Agricultural Research and Development could be strengthened, with more skilled extension workers and more accessible services for farmers in need, and co-working between researchers, advisors, and farmers. Investing in knowledge transfer and advice to farmers would improve decisions on the allocation of inputs such as fertilisers to local production needs, contributing to long-term agricultural productivity growth and poverty reduction.

• Fertiliser subsidies are costly and can lead to inefficient use. Fertiliser use must consider local soil and production conditions to be effective and avoid negative environmental impacts. The attempts to reform the fertiliser policy and avoid different prices for subsidised and non-subsidised fertiliser did not succeed and the total volume of subsidised fertiliser increased again in 2024. Reform is needed to discipline the government expenditure on this programme and reduce inefficiencies. Converting these subsidies into payments per unit of land would make the support more efficient in transferring income to farmers.

Development of support to agriculture

Table 15.1. Indonesia: Estimates of support to agriculture

Million USD

	2000-02	2022-24	2022	2023	2024p
Total value of production (at farm gate)	23 813	133 468	134 830	131 948	133 627
of which: share of MPS commodities (%)	71.96	80.99	81.50	80.69	80.78
Total value of consumption (at farm gate)	22 684	88 270	84 542	93 240	87 028
Producer Support Estimate (PSE)	1 329	10 407	4 543	15 574	11 104
Support based on commodity output	1 236	4 449	292	9 601	3 453
Market price support¹	1 236	4 449	292	9 601	3 453
Positive market price support	1 833	13 415	13 977	16 114	10 154
Negative market price support	-597	-8 966	-13 685	-6 513	-6 700
Payments based on output	0	0	0	0	0
Payments based on input use	82	5 941	4 238	5 959	7 625
Based on variable input use	19	4 091	3 071	4 166	5 036
with input constraints	0	0	0	0	0
Based on fixed capital formation	59	1 650	1 084	1 737	2 130
with input constraints	1	1	0	1	0
Based on on-farm services	4	199	83	56	459
with input constraints	0	0	0	0	0
Payments based on current A/An/R/I, production required	11	17	13	13	26
Based on Receipts / Income	11	17	13	13	26
Based on Area planted / Animal numbers	0	0	0	0	0
with input constraints	0	0	0	0	0
Payments based on non-current A/An/R/I, production required	0	0	0	0	0
Payments based on non-current A/An/R/I, production not required	0	0	0	0	0
With variable payment rates	0	0	0	0	0
with commodity exceptions	0	0	0	0	0
With fixed payment rates	0	0	0	0	0
with commodity exceptions	0	0	0	0	0
Payments based on non-commodity criteria	0	0	0	0	0
Based on long-term resource retirement	0	0	0	0	0
Based on a specific non-commodity output	0	0	0	0	0
Based on other non-commodity criteria	0	0	0	0	0
Miscellaneous payments	0	0	0	0	0
Percentage PSE (%)	5.47	7.51	3.27	11.29	7.86
Producer NPC (coeff.)	1.05	1.04	1.01	1.09	1.03
Producer NAC (coeff.)	1.06	1.08	1.03	1.13	1.09
General Services Support Estimate (GSSE)	623	1 553	659	1 938	2 061
Agricultural knowledge and innovation system	45	32	33	28	35
Inspection and control	14	36	52	25	30
Development and maintenance of infrastructure	323	939	184	1 094	1 539
Marketing and promotion	0	5	5	5	5
Cost of public stockholding	240	541	386	785	451
Miscellaneous	0	0	0	0	0
Percentage GSSE (% of TSE)	28.27	11.81	10.43	10.77	13.51
Consumer Support Estimate (CSE)	-1 448	-12 725	-12 649	-16 111	-9 417
Transfers to producers from consumers	-1 506	-12 828	-13 249	-15 807	-9 427
Other transfers from consumers	-292	-1 859	-1 080	-2 426	-2 073
Transfers to consumers from taxpayers	328	1 228	1 118	483	2 082
Excess feed cost	22	734	562	1 640	1
Percentage CSE (%)	-6.43	-14.57	-15.16	-17.37	-11.09
Consumer NPC (coeff.)	1.09	1.20	1.20	1.24	1.15
Consumer NAC (coeff.)	1.07	1.17	1.18	1.21	1.12
Total Support Estimate (TSE)	2 280	13 187	6 321	17 994	15 247
Transfers from consumers	1 798	14 687	14 329	18 233	11 500
Transfers from taxpayers	773	360	-6 928	2 187	5 820
Budget revenues	-292	-1 859	-1 080	-2 426	-2 073
Percentage TSE (% of GDP)	1.20	0.97	0.48	1.31	1.09
Total Budgetary Support Estimate (TBSE)	1 044	8 739	6 029	8 393	11 793
Percentage TBSE (% of GDP)	0.56	0.65	0.46	0.61	0.84
GDP deflator (2000-02 = 100)	100	410	405	411	415
Exchange rate (national currency per USD)	9 322.08	15 311.59	14 845.71	15 236.99	15 852.07

Note: p: provisional. NPC: Nominal Protection Coefficient. NAC: Nominal Assistance Coefficient. A/An/R/I: Area planted/Animal numbers/Receipts/Income. 1. Market Price Support (MPS) is net of producer levies and excess feed cost. MPS commodities for Indonesia are: maize, rice, soybean, sugar, milk, beef and veal, pig meat, poultry, eggs, bananas, cassava, cocoa beans, coffee, palm oil and rubber.

Source: OECD (2025), “Producer and Consumer Support Estimates”, OECD Agricultural policy monitoring (database), https://data-explorer.oecd.org/.

Policy landscape

Main policy instruments

The Food Law of 2012 shapes Indonesia’s current agricultural policy and it establishes that food is the most essential human need and part of human rights. The Law’s set of core objectives focus on the principles of food self-reliance (kemandirian pangan) and food sovereignty (kedaulatan pangan). The law stipulates that domestic food demand can only be met by imports if local food sources are insufficient (USDA FAS, 2019[1]; OECD, 2012[2]). This focus was also reflected in the Strategic Plan of the Ministry of Agriculture 2020-24 which called for:

• self-sufficiency in the production of selected staple-food commodities (rice, maize, soybeans, sugar and beef) to ensure food security

• ensuring food prices are affordable

• diversifying production and consumption

• raising the competitiveness and value-added

• increasing the availability of raw materials for bio-industry and bioenergy

• increasing farmers’ incomes to reduce the level of rural poverty.

The administration of President Prabowo Subianto, which took office in October 2024, established a new vision and priorities. The aim of the new National Long Term Development Plan 2025-45 is that Indonesia “becomes a sovereign, developed and sustainable country by 2045” (GoI, 2024[3]). To achieve this objective, priority is given to agricultural and nutrition programmes, including achieving self-sufficiency in food, energy and water, and guarantee the availability of fertilisers, seeds and pesticides for farmers. Nutritional assistance, increased agricultural productivity and social welfare are the priority programmes for the government (MoA, 2024[4]).

The Ministry of Social Affairs coordinates several social assistance programmes, in particular the Cash Social Assistance Programme (Bantuan Sosial Tunai or BST) and the Food Assistance Programme (Bantuan Pangan non Tunai or BPNT). Both are delivered through a transfer in cash. In 2023 the BST programme transferred IDR 156.6 trillion (USD 10.26 billion) to 40.25 million beneficiaries (GoI, 2024[5]). The BPNT programme transferred an average IDR 200 000 (USD 13.1) per month to 18.8 million households. The households that are eligible for the BPTN received the transfer via a purchasing card that can be used to buy rice at the market price from selected retailers. These cash transfers were complemented with in-kind food assistance and school meals 2023 and 2024.

Subsidies are provided for fertilisers and credit. The percentage of subsidy varies across fertiliser types, with urea receiving the highest rate, 81.3%, in 2023. Subsidies are paid to fertiliser manufacturers who are mandated to sell fertilisers to farmers at a reduced price. Before the beginning of the planting season, the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) issues a decree on the estimated demand for different types of fertilisers by province, along with the reference retail price of fertilisers. Based on this information, governors of the corresponding provinces break down the demand for fertiliser by district. The decree also serves as a reference for fertiliser companies to distribute fertilisers in the corresponding regions. In addition to the subsidy, the MoA also directly distributes fertilisers to food crop farmers in selected regions.

The MoA encourages small and medium-scale farm businesses through partnerships between the private sector and community investment that support Micro Business Credit. The Food Estate (FE) programme focuses on the development of regional food production centres, bringing together upstream and downstream activities in the food production chain.

Public investments in infrastructure are combined with exemptions for water delivery costs. Farmers are not charged for the cost of delivering water from the source to the tertiary system via primary and secondary canals. Funded in part by savings from reduced fuel subsidies since 2015 the government has pushed to improve irrigation infrastructure, mainly for rice production. This includes water pump and other irrigation infrastructure, and support for seeds in in new planted areas.

Most primary agricultural products such as rice, grains, soyabeans, meat, eggs, milk, fruits, vegetables and sugar are exempted from the Value Added Tax (VAT). Certain non-primary agricultural products and sub-products such as palm oil, flowers, medicinal plants or rice husk are subject to reduced VAT rates. Furthermore, small entrepreneurs – a category that cover most farms – are exempted from VAT.

The National Food Agency (NFA/Bapanas) manages government food reserves and public interventions in the domestic market and imports through the state-owned enterprise Perum BULOG. The NFA is also responsible for market operations aimed at stabilising domestic prices. Perum BULOG can only buy rice from farmers when the market price is lower than or equal to the minimum Government Purchase Price (GPP) and must maintain a minimum year-end stock of 2 million tonnes, about 2.5% of annual consumption (USDA FAS, 2019[1]). Only BULOG is allowed to import medium-quality rice (rice having a maximum of 25% broken grains). However, private companies can import specialty rice such as jasmine and basmati (USDA FAS, 2018[6]). Ceiling prices are in place for rice at the retail level, which vary across regions. When the retail price exceeds the ceiling, BULOG releases rice from stocks to the market. The state-owned food holding company ID FOOD also plays a role in food-related policies, e.g. by facilitating the distribution of cooking oil.

The following commodities are regulated by a Reference Price (RP): corn, chicken eggs, chicken meat, soybeans, shallots, garlic, curly red chilies, red cayenne pepper, granulated sugar, and beef/buffalo. The RP is the threshold reference price that allows the government to intervene, purchasing if the market price at the producer level is below the RP, and selling if it is above. The price policy regime for corn changed from RP to GPP in 2025.

Indonesia restricts trade of strategic commodities (those associated with self-sufficiency targets: rice, maize, soybeans, sugar and beef). Food imports are only allowed when domestic food production is not sufficient. Additionally, food exports are allowed only after the demands of the National Food Reserve and staple food consumption are met. Importing companies must receive Ministry of Trade approval as registered importers for animals as well as a range of processed products manufactured from meat, cereal, sugar and cocoa.

The trade weighted average of applied Most Favoured Nation (MFN) import tariffs on agro-food products was 5.6% in 2020, with rice and sugar having the highest specific tariffs. Quantitative import restrictions and licensing are in place, notably for rice, sugar and beef. Certain import requirements are imposed for food safety and religious reasons. The MFN tariff schedule is updated every five years by the Ministry of Finance (Buku Tarif dan Kepabeanan).

A variable export tax on crude palm oil is based on a reference price. It is zero for prices below USD 750 per tonne but the tax applies with a sliding scale between USD 3 and USD 200 per tonne when prices exceed that reference. Since 2015, the government collects an additional export levy for crude palm oil on top of the variable export tax to finance subsidies to biodiesel, infrastructure, research and development projects on palm oil, replanting in small farms, market promotion and human resource development. Variable export taxes are also in place for cocoa.

A biofuel mandate requires a blend rate oil-based biodiesel for all uses (Halimatussadiah et al., 2021[7]) fixed at 40% since January 2025. A subsidy to biofuel producers is provided via the Indonesia Oil Palm Estate Fund (BPDP). The BPDP collects an export levy and redistributes it to producers of biofuels who sell their products domestically. A moratorium on the issuance of licenses for new palm oil plantations is in place since 2018 to combat palm oil-driven deforestation and loss of peatland.

Indonesia is a member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), and World Trade Organization (WTO). It participates in trade liberalisation between ASEAN members and their major trading partners in the region, including China, Japan, India, Korea, Australia, and New Zealand. The ASEAN economies committed in 2015 to complete the formation of the ASEAN Economic Community by 2025. This is intended to develop a single market and production base, a highly competitive economic region, a region of equitable economic development, and a region fully integrated into the global economy (ASEAN Secretariat, 2017[8]). Indonesia belongs to the group of BRICS countries since January 2025.

Policies for trade and sustainability in agro-food markets

Domestic measures

The Regulation of the President No. 44 of 2020 establishes the Certification System for Sustainable Palm Oil Plantation in Indonesia (ISPO). ISPO is a certification and assessment system for palm oil plantation companies that are economically viable, socio-culturally feasible and environmentally friendly, according to certain statutory provisions. The system aims to improve the management of oil palm plantations in accordance with ISPO principles, increase the acceptance and competitiveness of Indonesian palm oil in national and international markets, and accelerate the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The regulation creates an ISPO certification agency that provides certificates that are valid for five years. The agency carries out inspections and the Ministry can apply penalties.

Several government regulations and strategies seek to halt the degradation of peatlands and deforestation and facilitate exports. Government Regulation No. 57 of 2016 on peatland management and protection permanently halts the issuance of new licenses on peatlands and mandates the restoration of certain deep peat areas converted to industrial timber and oil palm plantations. These plantation companies are required to draft Peat Ecosystem Restoration Plans. The regulation also mandates governments at all levels to develop integrated peatland protection and management actions and to restore degraded peatlands. A moratorium on the issuance of licenses for new palm oil plantations entered into force in 2018 to combat the palm oil-driven deforestation and loss of peatland. This regulation prohibits the conversion of primary forests and peatlands for oil palm and timber plantations and logging concessions. The moratorium covers more than 66.4 million ha of primary forests and peatlands. The moratorium was a temporary regulation but made permanent by the government in 2019. However, since the moratorium is on new licences, it cannot prevent the conversion of forest areas for which concessional licences have already been issued, which limits its mitigation potential (PIMA AFOLU database).

Environmental sustainability provision in trade agreements

Indonesia has adopted some trade-related measures for the environmental sustainability of agriculture as part of the commitments it has undertaken in RTAs with different countries. Amongst the RTAs signed by Indonesia, the most ambitious in terms of the scope of its environmental sustainability provisions is the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) with the European Free Trade Association1 (EFTA), which entered into force on 1 November 2021. It includes several types of measures (Frezal and Deuss, 2025[9]): co-operation provisions, commitments on domestic environmental measures and trade preferences such as conditional preferential tariffs and conditional tariff rate quotas. The trade agreements of Indonesia with Japan and Chile include only co-operation provisions.

Chapter 8 of the agreement on “Trade and sustainable development” covers “Sustainable Management of the Vegetable Oils Sector and Associated Trade” (Article 8.10), which includes commitments on co-operation and on domestic environmental laws and policies. The parties commit to: effectively apply laws, policies and practices aiming at protecting primary forests, peatlands, and related ecosystems; support the dissemination and use of sustainability standards, practices and guidelines for sustainably produced vegetable oils; co-operate on improving and strengthening government standards where applicable; ensure transparency of domestic policies and measures pertaining to the vegetable oils sector; and ensure that vegetable oils and their derivatives traded between the parties are produced in accordance with the sustainability objectives.

As part of the EFTA-Indonesia RTA, Norway and Iceland have granted preferential tariffs to Indonesia for sustainably produced palm oil and its derivates (Annexes III and IV). Crude palm oil and its derivates (i.e. palm stearin and palm kernel oil) imported from Indonesia into Iceland will have duty-free access. Access to Norwegian markets is also duty free except for palm oil for feed purposes which faces a 176% duty. These duty-free imports are required to meet the environmental objectives set out in Article 8.10 and should be produced in accordance with the “laws, policies and practices aiming at protecting primary forests, peatlands, and related ecosystems, halting deforestation, peat drainage and fire clearing in land preparation, reducing air and water pollution”. There is no information on how Iceland and Norway will implement and enforce the conditional preferential tariffs for sustainable palm oil from Indonesia. Since the entry into force of the agreement and up to 2024, no palm oil imports from Indonesia have been registered in Norway and Iceland (Frezal and Deuss, 2025[9])

The EFTA-Indonesia agreement also includes conditional tariff rate quotas (TRQs) for palm oil from Indonesia to Switzerland with preferential tariff rates conditional on meeting the same environmental objectives. It has established a domestic control system that relies on existing third-party certification schemes. Switzerland’s State Secretariat for Economic Affairs identified three international, well-established Voluntary Sustainability Standards (VSS) that can provide proof of compliance with the relevant sustainability and traceability requirements. The Indonesian mandatory palm oil certification scheme (ISPO) was not included in this assessment. In 2022, 21 tonnes of sustainably produced palm oil were imported from Indonesia into Switzerland at a preferential tariff rate, representing 0.22% of Switzerland’s annual palm oil imports. No such imports were registered in 2023 and 2024 (Office fédéral de la douane et de la sécurité des, 2024[10]).

Indonesia signed with Chile a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement in application since 2019. This trade agreement includes environment-related provisions under Chapter 9 on Co‑operation. It states that “the Parties shall explore and jointly decide areas of co-operation of mutual interest and benefit”. Among those, environmental issues (Article 9.5) may include “promotion of agricultural practices” (Frezal and Deuss, 2025[9]).

The Indonesia-Japan Economic Partnership Agreement is in application since 2008. This trade agreement includes environment-related provisions under “co-operation” (Chapter 7) in the “field of agriculture, forestry and fisheries” (Section 2), including both basic principles and a specific area of co-operation on “efficient and sustainable utilization of Natural Resources”. It is foreseen to have co-operation measures such as: exchange of views and information; encouraging exchanges of experts, knowledge and technology; promoting the holding of seminars, joint studies, trainings and workshops; and other forms to be mutually agreed upon by the Parties (Frezal and Deuss, 2025[9]).

Recent policy developments

Domestic policy developments in 2024-25

Strategic priorities of the new presidency

The new Indonesian presidency has developed four framework documents that affect agriculture: (1) the National Long Term Development Plan 2025-2045 (2) the National Medium Term Development Plan 2025-2029; (3) the Vision, Mission and Priority Programs of the President and Vice-President of Indonesia for 2024-2029; and (4) the Food and Agriculture Strategic Framework for 2025-2029 Towards a Golden Indonesia 2045. A draft Strategic Plan of the Ministry of Agriculture (Renstra) for 2025-2029 already responds to these four documents.

Eight fast-track priority measures are identified, of which three are related to food and agriculture. First, to provide free lunches and milk in schools and nutritional assistance for children under five and pregnant women. Second, increase farmland and productivity of agriculture while ensuring village, regional and national food storage. Third, continue and expand social welfare card programmes to eliminate absolute poverty.

The Ministry of Agriculture has also defined five strategic objectives: 1) increase the number of agricultural businesses; 2) achieve sustainable food independence based on priority self-sufficiency indexes; 3) increase the value added and volume of agricultural commodity exports; 4) reduce the incidence of animal diseases transmission into humans; and 5) improve the bureaucratic performance of the Ministry.

Institutional arrangements

A new Coordinating Ministry for Food has been established, covering seven ministries including Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries and Environment (GoI, 2024[11]). The Ministry of Agriculture was previously co‑ordinated by the Ministry of Economic Affairs. The new co‑ordinating Ministry for Food also covers the National Food Agency (NFA) and the newly created National Nutrition Agency (NNA). These institutional changes reflect the high priority that the new government gives to self-sufficiency, but also to the nutrition aspects of food security.

Food assistance: New focus on nutrition

Food assistance programmes from the Food Reserves (CPP) provided by the Ministry of Agriculture complement social cash transfers programme (BST) provided by the Ministry of Social Affairs. Based on the Food Security and Vulnerability Atlas (FSVA) 2017-24, government food reserves were distributed in 2024 and 2025, targeting Beneficiary Families (KPM) that receive 10 kg of rice per month, and Families Prone to Stunting (KRS) receiving 1 kg of chicken meat and 10 eggs every month for 6 months. In 2024, 2 000 tonnes of rice were allocated to 22 million beneficiary families under CPP, and food assistance for stunting reached more than 1.4 million families. An additional food security measure taken in 2024 reached 45 000 families in targeted districts for a total IDR 250 000 (USD 15.78) per package consisting of corned beef, fish sardines, iodised salt, cooking oil, corn vermicelli and green beans. It is estimated that the rice food assistance scheme CPP will reach 16 million recipients in 2025.

The government has invested in improving the food reserves assistance programme (CPP) data and targeting testing alternative databases and monitoring performance. In 2023 the Integrated Social Welfare Data (DTKS) was used as reference. This database contains the 40% of the population who have the lowest social welfare status and are eligible to receive Social Cash Assistance (BST) and the Family Hope Program (PKH). In 2024 the CPP used the Targeting the Acceleration of the Elimination of Extreme Poverty database (P3KE) that, led by the Coordinating Ministry for Human Development and Culture, records the families and individuals experiencing poverty or vulnerability. In 2025 the CPP distribution scheme uses the Regsosek database which is co‑ordinated by the Central Statistics Agency (BPS) and registers household profiles, social and economic conditions, and welfare levels of the population. The government has put in place a monitoring and evaluation team to assess the distribution of government food reserves, involving the National Food Agency and other Ministries.

A new Free Nutritious Meals (MBG) programme is implemented by the recently created National Nutrition Agency. The MBG programme targets two population groups: 1) school children from early childhood education, elementary education and secondary education, including vocational education and other schools; 2) children under five years of age, pregnant women, and breastfeeding mothers. The objective is to improve nutritional intake, healthy eating patterns and nutritional knowledge in targeted groups, while at the same time incentivise school attendance. The pilot stage of this MBG programme started already in 2024, implemented by the Service Unit (Satpel) in remote and isolated areas, serving lunch for 2 000-3 000 students in 18 school units every school day. The target for 2025 is reaching 5 000 school units with an allocated budget of IDR 71 trillion (USD 4.37 billion) in 2025. The programme, managed by the National Nutrition Agency, will dedicate 80% of its budget to the first target group of school children, and the remaining 20% to the second group of toddlers, pregnant women, and breastfeeding mothers. An additional budget of IDR 100 trillion (USD 6.15 billion) was allocated in 2025, bringing the total to IDR 171 trillion (USD 10.52 billion). This has been financed by shifting funds from other government ministries, including the Ministry of Agriculture whose budget was cut by IDR 10.28 trillion (USD 0.63 billion) in 2025.

Increasing rice production

The new government of Indonesia will prioritise increasing agricultural production through intensification and expansion of agricultural land for food production. Intensification is promoted through the land optimisation programme that invests mainly in water management infrastructure and development. Since 2023 the Ministry of Agriculture has allocated specific budget to building dams and reservoirs. The pump irrigation programme seeks to increase the availability of irrigation water to alleviate the impacts of droughts in existing rice land and to allow new land cultivation. The budget for pump irrigation machines in 2024 was IDR 1.4 trillion (USD 86.09 million) to finance around 78 672 units of pumps among farmers groups.

Land expansion focuses on increasing the area planted with rice, targeting marginal land for both rain-fed and irrigation rice fields that lack water in 33 provinces throughout Indonesia. The new recently launched extensification programme has started in 2025 and will run for a period of four years. The target is opening new rice fields on 750 000 ha per year (MoA, 2024[12]). The locations of most new rice field activities are in the provinces of South Papua, Central Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, and South Sumatra.

Price policies

The government purchase price (GPP) of rice was increased by 9% in 2024 compared to 2023. The Reference Price RP corn, chicken eggs, chicken meat, soybeans, shallots, garlic, curly red chilies, red cayenne pepper, granulated sugar, and beef/buffalo also increased in 2024 in a range between 0% and 20%. On the consumer side, the maximum Retail Price (HRP) for Rice established in NFA Regulation Number 5/2024 (NFA, 2024[13]) increased compared to last year in a range between 10% to 15% depending on the location.

The price policies were revised through the NFA Head Decree Number 14/2025 (NFA, 2025[14]). The provisions related to grain quality standards including water content standards were removed. BULOG can still buy unhusked rice of various qualities, but only from farmers and not millers. A new regulation in early 2025 changed corn price policies from the RP regime applied until 2024 to a more proactive market intervention regime, the Government Purchase Prices (GPP) that already applies to rice. The objective of this measure is to increase the national corn reserves to meet the target level.

Palm Oil Fund: Infrastructure and biofuel policies

The revenue on export duties and export levies on palm oil, crude palm oil, and their derivative products is transferred to regions through the subnational transfers (Transfer Ke Daerah – TKD mechanism). According to a new government regulation of 2023, at least 80% of each province and district/city funding must be used to develop and maintain road infrastructure. Funding for rural roads supports the goal of expanding rice production area by providing access to new locations. The construction of new roads is undertaken by the local government.

The biodiesel blending rate was increased from 35% to 40% in January 2025. A total amount of 15.6 million kilolitres (kl) of biodiesel will be allocated for distribution in 2025, with 7.6 million kl at subsidised prices for the public service obligation (PSO) such as public transportation, and the remaining 8 million kl to be sold at market prices. The subsidies for PSO biofuels are funded by the Palm Oil Fund.

Credit

The Credit Program for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) (Kredit Usaha Rakyat, KUR) or People’s Enterprises Credit (PEC) includes agricultural enterprises (CMEA, 2023[15]). The programme provides Super Micro and Micro PEC with maximum loan ceilings of IDR 10 million (USD 631.04) and IDR 100 million (USD 6 310.38), respectively. The PEC interest rate was decreased from 6% to 3% since 2023 for the Super Micro loans, while it increased from 6% to up to 9% when credit was demanded for a second time. Micro PEC recipients in the agriculture, plantation, fisheries and livestock sectors are entitled to a maximum of four PEC loans, while the limit is two for other borrowers. Out of the IDR 280 trillion (USD 17.67 billion) of PEC funding available in 2024, IDR 100 trillion (USD 6.31 billion) was targeted to the agricultural sector. The subsidy value is estimated to be IDR 15.56 trillion (USD 980 million), benefiting 1.8 million farmers.

Two new instruments provide easier access to financing for MSMEs to maintain economic resilience by writing-off overdue debt (GoI, 2024[16]). First, write-offs are given to MSMEs when state-owned banks or non-bank financial institutions implement any debt restructuring. The debt value must be no more than IDR 500 million (USD 31 552) per debtor, The debt must be at least five years old and not insured. Second, debt owed by the MSME to the Public Service Agency or to the State can be written off. In the agricultural sector, this second instrument particularly benefits farmers who participated in partnerships such as with the People’s Core Plantation Company. Write-offs are initially made conditionally, and debt may be definitively written off after three months. This measure potentially benefits 6 million farmers who, after this process, will be able to access other financing from government programmes and the private sector (Ramdhani, 2024[17]).

The Warehouse Receipt System (SRG) was modified to provide additional protection to farmers against possible misuse of the warehouse receipt system by ensuring that the data listed on the Warehouse receipt is in accordance with actual conditions. The Warehouse Receipt proves ownership of goods stored in a warehouse and allows farmers to use this document as collateral. This change will help integrate SRG with commodity futures trading, commodity auction markets, and other trading facilities, making SRG an instrument to stabilise food supply and prices.

Input subsidies

The change in fertiliser policy announced in early 2024 to avoid having different prices of subsidised and non-subsidised fertiliser was rescinded (OECD, 2024[18]; MoA, 2024[19]). The total amount of subsidised fertiliser increased by 6% in 2024 compared to 2023. Organic fertiliser is now also subsidised while electronic registration is now compulsory who register electronically. The allocation of the subsidised fertilizer across provinces, time and type of fertilisers is more flexibly applied to adapt to market conditions. The budget is estimated to have increased from IDR 42.06 trillion (USD 2.65 billion) in 2023 to around IDR 50.69 trillion (USD 3.20 billion) in 2024 and decreased to IDR 44.16 trillion (USD 2.79 billion) in 2025.

A new regulation makes it easier for farmers to access subsidised fuel (BPH Migas, 2023[20]). It allows farmers to gain entitlement through electronic procedures and with an extended validity of three months instead of one. Purchases of fuel can now also be made collectively by farmers, either through Farmer Groups or Farmer Group Associations.

Research and development

Over the past three years, government budget support for research and innovation activities has declined, including for innovation in agriculture (BRIN, 2025[21]). The government budget for the National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN) was IDR 6.4 trillion (USD 403 million) in 2023, IDR 5.8 trillion (USD 363 million) in 2024 and IDR 3.6 trillion (USD 228 million) in 2025. BRIN also collaborates with the Education Fund Management Institute (LPDP) and is developing a comprehensive strategy to overcome these cuts, including through collaboration with the private sector, optimisation of existing resources, and increased efficiency in the implementation of related programmes.

Animal diseases

Control efforts were put in place for Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), which re-emerged in Indonesia in early December 2024. FMD is present in 18 provinces with 31 827 new cases up to February 2025. These actions provided 670 740 doses of vaccination, treatment of 19 568 animals, disinfection of 1 379 locations, and investigation of 1 103 locations (DG AHAH, 2025[22]). In January 2025, early warning regarding FMD cases was triggered and the following measures were implemented: improving control over the traffic of animals between and withing regions; temporary closures of animal shelters and animal markets; empowering farmers and the private sector to control FMD; FMD vaccination on healthy animals using a risk-based approach; encourage the involvement of farmers/communities in reporting cases or suspected FMD cases via the call centre.

Trade policy developments in 2024-25

Indonesia officially joined the group of BRICS countries in January 2025.2 Currently, BRICS+ covers more than 3.6 billion people (47% of the world population) and 30% of global GDP. The BRICS are main trade partners of Indonesia. (ICASEPS, 2025[23]).

The panel on the palm oil trade dispute started by Indonesia in 2019 at the World Trade Organization’s Dispute Settlement Body published its Decision Report on 10 January 2025 (WTO, 2025[24]). Indonesia had challenged the classification of palm oil and oil palm crop-based biofuels as being at high risk of indirect land-use change and argued that the measures are discriminatory. Indonesia disputed measures taken by the EU under revised Renewable Energy Directive (RED II) on palm oil and oil palm crop-based biofuels. These measures establish renewable energy consumption targets for the EU transport fuel market and limit the use of food and feed crop-based biofuels in achieving these targets. A Delegated Act from the EU established the criteria to determine which food and feed-crop based biofuels have a high risk of increasing greenhouse gas emissions due to the changes in the use of land. This Act was found to be inconsistent with WTO law by the panel, requiring adjustment in the EU Law.

Policy context

Key economic and agricultural statistics

Indonesia is the fourth most populous country in the world with 281 million inhabitants, with rapid population growth and high population density. Indonesia is also one of the world’s largest agricultural producers. Despite a reduction of the share of the sector in the economy in the last two decades, it still accounts for 12.5% of GDP. The reduction in the share of the work force employed in the agricultural sector has been proportionally much larger, declining from 45% in 2000 to 29% in 2022, with an increase in the average production per employed person in the sector.

Indonesia is a net agro-food exporter and the share of its total exports that come from the sector have almost tripled in the last two decades to 19% in 2023. The country is also a large importer of agro-food products. Total agricultural area in Indonesia has increased by one-fourth in the last two decades and currently represents 1.9% of the agricultural land in all countries covered in this report. While food crop production is predominantly based on small family farms, there are large commercial farms producing perennial crops, particularly palm oil.

Table 15.2. Indonesia: Contextual indicators

	Indonesia		International comparison
	2000*	2023*	2000*	2023*
Economic context			Share in total of all countries
GDP (billion USD in PPPs)	1 097	4 335	2.7%	2.8%
Population (million)	205	281	4.8%	5.3%
Land area (thousand km2)	1 878	1 893	2.3%	2.3%
Agricultural area (AA) (thousand ha)	44 618	56 389	1.5%	1.9%
			All countries1
Population density (inhabitants/km2)	113	147	52	64
GDP per capita (USD in PPPs)	5 347	15 416	9 368	29 013
Trade as % of GDP	26.3	17.5	12.3	14.9
Agriculture in the economy			All countries1
Agriculture in GDP (%)	15.6	12.5	2.9	3.5
Agriculture share in employment (%)	45.3	28.8	-	-
Agro-food exports (% of total exports)	6.8	18.6	6.4	8.1
Agro-food imports (% of total imports)	12.7	12.4	5.8	7.3
Characteristics of the agricultural sector			All countries1
Crop in total agricultural production (%)	84.0	82.0	-	-
Livestock in total agricultural production (%)	16.0	18.0	-	-
Share of arable land in AA (%)	40.2	31.8	31.8	33.3

Note: *or closest available year.

1. Average of all countries covered in this report.

Sources: OECD statistical databases; International Labour Organisation (ILO); UN Comtrade; World Bank, WDI; FAO database and national data.

Indonesia’s economy has grown at around 5% per year between 2000 and 2019, almost tripling the real income per capita. In 2020, GDP decreased as a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic and related restrictions, but economic growth was back to 5% 2022 to 2024. The inflation rate has been steadily decreasing from almost 10% in the 2000s to 1.6% in 2021, rebounding in 2022 and 2023, but down to 2.2% in 2024. The rate of unemployment has remained stable around 4% in the last decade, down to 3.4% in 2023.

The value of agro-food exports has oscillated around USD 30 billion in the last decade but strongly increased in the last three years up to around USD 50 billion (USD 57.2 billion in 2022) driven by a large increase in palm oil export value. Imports reached USD 28.2 billion in the same year. Three-quarters of agro-food exports are processed products to be further transformed by industries in other countries such as rubber and palm oil. A significant share of agro-food imports (67%) is destined for further processing in Indonesia.

Indonesia’s agricultural production increased at an annual rate of 2.5% in 2013-22, well above the global average. Most of this growth is productivity driven: Total Factor Productivity (TFP) has increased by 1.2% per year, also above the world’s average and representing technological improvements and improved efficiency to combine different production factors. Additional primary factors, including land, and intermediate inputs have contributed an additional 0.9 and 0.4 points to the production growth, respectively. Unlike in the 1990s, Indonesia’s growth in TFP has significantly outperformed the global averages during the last 10 years.

Indonesian agriculture accounts for an increasing share of national water extractions, which was 85.2% in 2023. However, the sector’s shares of energy used has fallen since 2000 to 0.6% in 2023, while the share of GHG emissions has remained relatively stable at 13.3% in 2023, while the whole of agriculture, forest and other land use -in particular deforestation and forest degradation- represented more than half of Indonesian emissions in 2000-18. The country’s phosphorous balance is below the OECD average, while the nitrogen balance has decreased in the last two decades to significantly negative levels in 2022.

Table 15.3. Indonesia: Productivity and environmental indicators

	Indonesia		International comparison
	1991-2000	2013-2022	1991-2000	2013-2022
			World
TFP annual growth rate (%)	0.1%	1.2%	1.7%	0.8%
			OECD average
Environmental indicators	2000*	2023*	2000*	2023*
Nitrogen balance, kg/ha	17.7	-84.8	32.0	29.7
Phosphorus balance, kg/ha	1.6	0.5	3.3	2.5
Agriculture share of total energy use (%)	3.2	0.6	1.7	2.0
Agriculture share of GHG emissions (%)	13.2	13.3	8.7	10.1
Share of irrigated land in AA (%)	11.5	10.4	-	-
Share of agriculture in water abstractions (%)	82.7	85.2	47.0	49.5
Water stress indicator	..	..	8.7	..

Note: * or closest available year.

Sources: USDA Economic Research Service, Agricultural Productivity database; OECD statistical databases; FAO database and national data.

Historical trends in agricultural policies

Indonesia’s economy was relatively closed to trade for almost three decades from the 1960s to the 1980s. Trade liberalisation started only in the 1990s with the signature of agreements that created the WTO and the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA).

Over the past 30 years, the main priorities of Indonesia’s agricultural policy have been food self-sufficiency, food diversification, value added, competitiveness, and farmers’ welfare. Agricultural producers benefit from a wide range of input subsidies for fertilisers, seeds, and credits, among others. The number and cost of these programmes grew rapidly starting in the mid-2000s. Since 1998, the government has increased the minimum producer price of rice, while targeted food assistance for the poor (via subsidised rice under the programme Raskin) was introduced, increasing expenditure on food assistance programmes.

Raskin went through a number of changes in the last decade and was eventually renamed as Rastra. These programmes allowed the Food Logistics Agency BULOG to distribute about 10 kg of rice per poor family per month. By 2019, this was replaced by the current BPNT programme that has grown to become a large-scale programme to provide an electronic food voucher, replacing physical rice distribution. Indonesia launched an additional in-kind rice distribution programme to low-income households in 2023 and 2024, reversing the trend towards cash transfers programmes for food assistance.

Tariffs fell significantly, with the average for agriculture (excluding alcoholic beverages) dropping from 20% in 1990 to 5% in 2010. Import monopolies, licensing requirements and export restrictions on agricultural products were removed in 1997-98. However, quantitative import restrictions were introduced, notably for rice, sugar and beef. Import requirements imposed for sanitary, phytosanitary and religious or cultural reasons (i.e. halal certification) are significant and potentially stringent. Export taxes were introduced in 1994 on crude palm oil (CPO) and its derivatives, and on cocoa in 2010. These and other export restrictions to CPO persist with adjustments over the years.

Indonesia’s current agricultural policies are framed in the 2012 Food Law, which establishes the objectives of “food self-reliance and food sovereignty” (kemandirian pangan dan kedaulatan pangan). In practice, the goal is achieving self-sufficiency on staple and strategic commodities (rice, maize, soybean, sugar, and beef). The country provides subsidies for input use, particularly fertiliser and credit. Since 2024, the Government of Indonesia prioritise nutrition policies through a new National Nutrition Agency that leads the ambitious Free Nutritious Meals (MNG) programme.

Table 15.4. Indonesia: Agricultural policy trends

Period	Framework	Changes in agricultural policies
1960s to 1980s	Closed economy Production expansion to avoid social unrest, rise in oil prices and green revolution	Food Logistics Agency (BULOG) established in 1967 and its marketing role expanded Subsidised inputs such as fertilisers, pesticides and credit Significant spending on infrastructure Increased import tariff rates Quantitative control of exports and imports Export taxes on palm oil and its derivatives
1980s – 1996	Trade liberalisation	Abolishment of tariffs, general tariffs reduction programme Trade agreements (URAA, AFTA, APEC) New legislation on export tax on palm oil and its derivatives in 1994 Phase out of input subsidies
1997-1999	Market reform Asian financial crisis	Reduction of BULOG’s monopoly powers, particularly in rice markets Reduction of fertiliser subsidy Introduction of targeted rice distribution programme (OPK/Raskin) Tariffs replace import licensing arrangements for sugar Abolishment of local content requirements for dairy and soybeans Temporary removal of export taxes on palm oil and its derivatives
2000-2012	Measures to revitalise the agricultural sector in response to poor productivity	Reinstated fertiliser subsidy Increased expenditures in extension services R&D and irrigation Increased tariffs on rice and sugar Quantitative controls on trade in rice, sugar and beef More stringent non-tariff measures Variable export tax on palm oil and its derivatives, and on cocoa
2012-present	2012 Food Law, policy focus on self-sufficiency of staple food (rice, maize, soybeans, sugar and beef)	Increased role of BULOG in rice imports and domestic market Distribution of rice at low prices, first through Raskin programme, then Rastra and finally BPNT electronic vouchers organising rice distribution More input subsidies for fertilisers, seeds and credit. Grant for machineries to targeted farmers’ groups New initiative on food estate Since 2024 a high priority on Nutrition with a new National Nutrition Agency and an ambitious Free Nutritious Meals (MBG) programme

Indonesia’s producer support estimate has been mostly positive over the past 30 years, mainly due to market price interventions (tariffs and minimum prices). The only exception occurred during the financial crisis in 1998 and the food crisis in 2008, both leading to negative support to producers. Export taxes imposed on palm oil and cocoa result in negative support for those commodities. The negative price support to palm oil quadrupled in 2021 and 2022 due to skyrocketing world prices not fully transmitted to local consumers for which palm oil is a staple commodity, and fell with lower world prices in 2023 and 2024. Budgetary transfers to producers (mainly input subsidies) are significantly smaller than the negative or positive support provided through producer prices. Food consumers are penalised by policy because the budgetary support they received represents only a small share of the negative support due to higher domestic prices of staple commodities such as sugar, maize, poultry, rice and eggs.

References

[8] ASEAN Secretariat (2017), ASEAN Economic Community Factsheet, https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/7c.-May-2017-Factsheet-on-AEC.pdf.

[23] Bogor (ed.) (2025), Performance of Indonesian Agricultural Product Trade among BRICS Countries. Policy Brief., Indonesian Center for Agriculture Socio Economics and Policy Studies.

[20] BPH Migas (2023), Regulation of the Downstream Oil and Gas Regulatory Agency Number 17/2019 concerning the Issuance of Recommendation Letters from Regional Apparatus for the Purchase of Certain Types of Fuel Oil., Downstream Oil and Gas Regulatory Agency.

[21] BRIN (2025), List of Budget Spending 2022-2025. Information and Documentation Services., National Research and Innovation Agency.

[15] CMEA (2023), Regulation of the Coordinating Minister for Economic Affairs Number 1/2023 concerning Amendments to Regulation of the Coordinating Minister for Economic Affairs Number 1/2022 concerning Guidelines for the Implementation of People’s Bussiness Credit, Cordinating Minister for Economic Affairs.

[22] DG AHAH (2025), Perkembangan Kasus PMK di Indonesia., Directorate General of Animal Husbandry and Animal Health, https://ditjenpkh.pertanian.go.id/pages/59-perkembangan-kasus-pmk.

[9] Frezal, C. and A. Deuss (2025), “Trade-related measures linked to the environmental sustainability of agriculture: A stocktake and typology”, OECD Food, Agriculture and Fisheries Papers, No. 216, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/ebfdca09-en.

[5] GoI (2024), Book II Financial Notes and Draft State Revenue and Expenditure Budget for Fiscal Year 2025., Government of Indonesia.

[16] GoI (2024), Government Regulation of the Republic of Indonesia Number 47/ 2024 concerning the Write-off of Bad Debts for Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises., Government of Indonesia.

[3] GoI (2024), Law of the Republic of Indonesia Number 59/2024 concerning the National Long-Term Development Plan for 2025-2045., Government of Indonesia.

[11] GoI (2024), Presidential Regulation of the Republic of Indonesia Number 139/024 concerning the Arrangement of Duties and Functions of the State Ministries of the Red and White Cabinet for the 2024-2029 Period., Government of Indonesia. Jakarta.

[7] Halimatussadiah, A. et al. (2021), “Progressive biodiesel policy in Indonesia: Does the Government’s economic proposition hold?”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 150, p. 111431, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111431.

[4] MoA (2024), Draft of Initial Plan of the Ministry of Agriculture’s Strategic Plan 2025-2029., Ministry of Agriculture. Government of Indonesia.

[12] MoA (2024), Progress of Paddy Field Land Data. Leadership Meeting Material.Jakarta, Minister of Agriculture.

[19] MoA (2024), Regulation of the Minister of Agriculture Number 1/2024 concerning Amendments to Regulation of the Minister of Agriculture Number 10 of 2022 concerning Procedures for Determining the Allocation and Highest Retail Price of Subsidized Fertiolizer, Ministry of Agriculture.

[14] NFA (2025), Decree of the Head of the National Food Agency Number 14/2025 concerning Amendments to the Decree of the Head of the National Food Agency Number 2/2025 concerning Amendments to Government Purchase Prices and Price Ratio of Pad, National Food Agency.

[13] NFA (2024), National Food Agency Regulation Number 5 of 2024 concerning Amendments to National Food Agency Regulation Number 7 of 2023 concerning the Highest Retail Price of Rice. Jakarta (ID): National Food Agency., National Food Agency.

[18] OECD (2024), Agricultural Policy Monitoring and Evaluation 2024: Innovation for Sustainable Productivity Growth, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/74da57ed-en.

[2] OECD (2012), OECD Review of Agricultural Policies: Indonesia 2012, OECD Review of Agricultural Policies, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264179011-en.

[10] Office fédéral de la douane et de la sécurité des, F. (2024), Etat des contingents. Contingents exonérés de droit de douane pour les importations en provenance de l’indonésie (RS 632.319).

[17] Ramdhani (2024), Aturan Penghapustagihan Utang KUT Rp 8.3 Triliun Segera Terbit., Internet download 2 March 2025, https://www.merahputih.com/post/read/aturan-penghapustagihan-utang-kut-rp-8-3-triliun-segera-terbit.

[1] USDA FAS (2019), “Indonesia Grain and Feed Annual Report 2019”, GAIN ID1904, USDA FAS.

[6] USDA FAS (2018), “Indonesia Grain and Feed Annual Report 2018”, GAIN ID1808, USDA FAS.

[24] WT/DS593/R (ed.) (2025), Report of the Panel Euroepaun Union - Certain Measures Concerning Palm Oil and OilPalm Crop-based Biofuels., World Trade Organization. Dispute Settlement Body (DSB).

Notes

← 1.  Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland.

← 2.  The BRICS is an intergovernmental organisation consisting of ten countries: Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, Egypt, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Iran and the United Arab Emirates.