This chapter begins by examining the core features that define ILAs, including their objectives, target populations, scope, ownership, degree of autonomy and entitlement accumulation mechanisms. It then presents a framework of nine key decision-making steps to guide the design and implementation of ILAs, providing policymakers with practical insights to develop effective, inclusive, and sustainable schemes.
Advancing Adult Skills through Individual Learning Accounts
A Step-by-Step Guide for Policymakers
Abstract
Lifelong learning is increasingly important in today’s rapidly evolving world. As countries accelerate the digital transformation and transition to a net-zero economy, skill demands are changing more rapidly than ever. Many countries are experiencing skills shortages in critical areas such as information and communication technology (ICT) and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), which are central to these changes. At the same time, a significant share of jobs is at risk of automation due to advancements in AI and robotics. Ageing populations in many OECD countries further underscore the need to upskill and reskill older workers, enabling them to remain in the labour force longer. Moreover, lifelong learning is a powerful tool for promoting social inclusion, ensuring that all individuals can adapt and thrive in a changing economy (OECD, 2023[1]; OECD, 2023[2]; OECD, 2024[3]; OECD, 2025[4]).
Recognising these challenges, the Council of the European Union (EU) adopted the Recommendation on ILAs in 2022, encouraging EU Member States to establish mechanisms that promote lifelong learning (Box 1.1). This recommendation has renewed interest in ILAs both within and beyond the EU. According to a 2024 review by the EU’s Employment Committee, 14 of the 27 Member States were either planning, piloting, or running such an initiative at the time (Council of the European Union, 2024[5]).
This report aims to support policymakers in understanding, designing and implementing ILAs. It provides a comprehensive framework for developing ILAs, drawing on insights from six countries: Croatia, Czechia, France, Lithuania, the Netherlands, and Singapore. The opening chapter introduces the concept of ILAs and outlines the decision-making steps for policymakers to follow. The second chapter details the key steps in designing ILAs, covering budget allocation, defining objectives and target groups, determining eligible programmes, and structuring financial support. The final chapter explores the implementation of ILAs, addressing governance, regulatory frameworks, technical implementation, quality assurance, enabling frameworks to enhance effectiveness and impact, and mechanisms for monitoring and evaluation.
ILAs are essentially “schemes where rights for training are accumulated over a certain period of time. Publicly financed, the account is virtual in the sense that the resources are only mobilised when training is actually undertaken and paid for” (OECD, 2019[6]). The EU Council Recommendation defines an ILA as “a delivery mode for individual training entitlements. It is a personal account that allows individuals to accumulate and preserve their entitlements over time, for whichever eligible training, guidance or validation opportunity they deem most useful and whenever they want to, in line with national rules. It grants the individual full ownership of the entitlements, irrespective of the funding source” (Council of the European Union, 2022[7]).
ILAs represent a significant shift toward placing learners at the centre of lifelong learning. In contrast to traditional workplace training – where access to learning is typically tied to a specific job or employer – ILAs are distinguished by three key features:
Personalised – They enable individuals to pursue learning aligned with their own development needs, rather than those of their employers.
Portable and transferable – Learning entitlements remain with the individual, regardless of changes in employment status or employer.
More inclusive – They expand access to training, particularly for those often excluded from employer-funded provision, such as self-employed individuals, gig workers, and employees of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).
Together, these features help promote career flexibility and resilience in an increasingly dynamic and uncertain labour market (OECD, 2019[6]; Council of the European Union, 2022[7]).
Training voucher schemes targeted at individuals share some of these characteristics, but they differ in design and exist on a spectrum – some voucher schemes closely resemble ILAs, while others differ significantly. While ILAs and voucher schemes are not mutually exclusive but rather complementary, comparative analysis could clarify the emerging characteristics of ILAs. Figure 1.1 illustrates the contexts in which these schemes are commonly discussed, considering their objectives, target populations, ownership, level of autonomy, and approaches to accumulation and preservation.
For illustrative purposes only, as the two mechanisms are not mutually exclusive but rather complementary
Source: Authors’ elaboration.
Both ILAs and education and training vouchers aim to encourage adult participation in learning, support upskilling and reskilling, and promote lifelong learning. However, their design and policy focus often differ. ILAs are typically designed as a preventive measure, enabling individuals to continuously develop their skills before they become obsolete. In contrast, education and training vouchers have historically been more reactive, addressing immediate labour market challenges and closing existing skill gaps.
ILAs are ideally designed to be accessible to all working-age individuals, although their actual availability may depend on budgetary considerations. In contrast, vouchers are typically more targeted, aiming to support specific learner groups – such as disadvantaged individuals or job seekers – and/or to address particular skill shortages.
A fundamental distinction between ILAs and vouchers lies in who controls the learning entitlements. ILAs are owned by individuals, giving them full control over when and how to use their entitlements. By contrast, education and training vouchers are typically administered through public employment services or employers, often requiring prior approval before they can be used.
ILAs are also designed as long-term mechanisms for lifelong learning. Entitlements can be accumulated and remain valid over time, allowing individuals to access training at any stage of their careers. In contrast, voucher schemes tend to be short-term, providing one‑time financial support for specific learning activities within a defined period.
In June 2022, the Council of the EU adopted a Recommendation on Individual Learning Accounts, encouraging Member States to establish ILAs to expand access to training and strengthen individuals’ incentives and motivation to engage in learning.
The Recommendation outlines several key concepts through its definitions of core terms:
Focus on employability: Training entitlements should cover “working-age adults” and support the direct costs of “labour-market-relevant training”.
Ownership and transferability: “Once conferred, [training] entitlements remain in the possession of the individual concerned, including during transitions, such as between jobs, from job to learning, from employment to unemployment, and between activity and inactivity”.
Autonomy, accumulation, and preservation: ILAs should enable individuals to “accumulate and preserve their entitlements over time, for whichever eligible training, guidance or validation opportunity they deem most useful and whenever they want to”.
Enabling framework: A set of supporting measures to promote the effective take‑up of entitlements is defined. These include career guidance and validation services, a national registry of eligible training opportunities, a single national digital portal to access ILAs and the training registry, and paid training leave.
In addition, the Recommendation proposes a series of actions for Member States, in line with national contexts and needs, including:
Establish an individual learning account for every working-age adult, which may complement existing training measures; and
Ensure an adequate annual provision for each account, allowing entitlements to accumulate over time and enabling individuals to undertake more substantial training.
This Recommendation was adopted alongside the Recommendation on a European Approach to Micro-credentials for Lifelong Learning and Employability. Together, these initiatives aim to support the European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan target of ensuring that 60% of all adults participate in training annually by 2030.
Source: Council of the European Union (2022[7]), Council Recommendation of 16 June 2022 on individual learning accounts, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=oj: JOC_2022_243_R_0003 (accessed on 15 May 2025).
To illustrate the conceptual differences between ILAs and voucher schemes, two examples are presented. France’s ILA scheme – Compte Personnel de Formation (CPF) – is designed to support skills maintenance and professional development and is available to all working-age individuals. Employed individuals accumulate training credits annually, up to a defined limit. These credits are stored in their personal online account, Mon Compte Formation, and remain valid until retirement. Through this portal, learners can explore available training options, manage their credits, and enrol in courses independently.
In contrast, Germany’s Bildungsgutschein follows a voucher-based approach, targeting individuals in need of upskilling or reskilling. The scheme focuses on unemployed individuals or those at risk of unemployment. Learners must first consult the Federal Employment Agency (Bundesagentur für Arbeit) and obtain approval before using a voucher.
Establishing ILAs is a complex, resource‑intensive endeavour that demands strategic planning, sustained investment, and ongoing refinement. France offers a notable example: it introduced Droit Individuel à la Formation in 2004. This scheme later evolved into the CPF, which has undergone a series of reforms aimed at continuously improving its functionality. Today, the CPF operates with an annual budget of approximately EUR 2 billion and involves multiple public bodies, illustrating the significant financial and administrative commitment needed to sustain a robust and effective ILA system (European Commission, COWI, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini, and Ockham IPS, 2022[8]; Caisse des Dépôts, 2024[9]).
Building on international experiences, policymakers may follow nine key steps to effectively design, implement, and continuously refine an ILA system (Figure 1.2). These steps are structured into two main phases: design and implementation. The design phase focuses on establishing the scheme’s core elements, while the implementation phase ensures efficient administration, learner participation, quality assurance, and continuous system improvement.
Source: Authors’ elaboration.
The design phase establishes the fundamental aspects of an ILA scheme, including its budget, objectives, target groups, eligible training, and funding allocation. Ideally, objectives should guide the design process, but the availability of funding often determines the scale and scope of an ILA initiative. Therefore, the crucial “step zero” is to identify financial sources and determine the total available budget. Clearly defined objectives help shape the scheme’s target groups, while eligibility criteria – covering skill areas and programme duration – as well as the level of financial support, must also align with these objectives.
The implementation phase focuses on governance, accessibility, training quality, enabling frameworks, and continuous improvement. Establishing clear administrative systems, legal frameworks (where necessary), and a well-designed digital platform enhances accessibility and uptake. Ensuring high-quality training provision requires robust quality assurance mechanisms, including accreditation and evaluation of training providers and programmes. Beyond financial support, enabling measures – such as training leave policies, career guidance, and recognition of prior learning – play a complementary role in supporting the take‑up of ILAs. Lastly, continuous monitoring and evaluation are essential for assessing the impact of ILA schemes and guiding their ongoing refinement, ensuring they remain aligned with their objectives.
This report examines each of the nine key decision-making steps by illustrating concrete examples from OECD countries and beyond. While the concept of ILAs has been discussed for many years, fully realised implementations remain limited due to the significant resources and long-term commitments they require. To account for this, the report draws on six country initiatives that offer valuable insights into ILA development. France and Singapore have longstanding experience with ILA-type schemes and reflect most or all of the ideal features. Czechia, Croatia, and Lithuania have recently launched initiatives that currently resemble voucher schemes but are evolving towards more comprehensive, long-term ILA frameworks. Finally, the Netherlands, which suspended its voucher scheme, is included for the valuable lessons its experience offers to policymakers exploring the development of ILAs (Box 1.2).
France: Compte Personnel de Formation (personal training account)
The CPF is an ILA that is available to all individuals active in the labour market. Funded through a company levy, employed individuals receive an annual allocation of EUR 500‑800, which can be accumulated up to a defined limit and used to develop and validate a wide range of skills. The scheme is managed through Mon Compte Formation, a personal online account that allows users to track their training balance and enrol in eligible programmes. Launched in 2015, the CPF replaced the Droit Individuel à la Formation (Individual Right to Training), which had been in place since 2004 and allocated training rights in hours.
Singapore: SkillsFuture Credit
The SkillsFuture Credit (SFC) is one of the key initiatives under Singapore’s national lifelong learning movement, SkillsFuture. Introduced in 2015, it supports the development of both occupation-specific and transversal skills, as defined in its Skills Framework. All Singaporean citizens receive two tiers of credit payments – SGD 500 (EUR 360) at age 25 and SGD 4 000 (EUR 2 800) at age 40. Most eligible courses are already subsidised by SkillsFuture Singapore, and the SFC can be used by individuals to cover the remaining out-of-pocket costs.
Croatia: Vaučera za Obrazovanje (education vouchers)
Launched in 2022, Croatia’s pilot voucher scheme promotes the development of digital and green skills (and other key skills starting in 2023). Vouchers are available to individuals aged 15‑65 with basic education, with priority given to unemployed and inactive individuals. The level of financial support depends on the type of training programme, and all eligible programmes must align with the Croatian Qualifications Framework. The pilot is co-financed by EU funds, and efforts are currently underway to transition the scheme into an ILA system.
Czechia: Individuální Vzdělávací Účty (individual learning accounts)
The Czech ILA pilot, launched in 2023, supports the development of digital skills in information technology and Industry 4.0. Individuals aged 15 and above can receive up to CZK 50 000 (EUR 2000) in training support, with a required co-financing contribution of 18% from participants. Eligible programmes are listed on the Jsem v kurzu portal, where individuals can request funding and apply for training. The pilot is co-financed by EU funds, and discussions are underway to expand the initiative into a national ILA system beyond the pilot phase.
Lithuania: Individualių Mokymosi Paskyrų (individual learning accounts)
Launched in 2024, Lithuania’s ILA scheme provides employed individuals aged 15‑65 who have completed at least vocational education with financial support for training. Half of the budget is allocated to digital skills development, while the other half supports the acquisition of eight key competencies for lifelong learning, including personal and social development. Individuals can access EUR 500 in funding through the digital platform KURSUOK, which also serves as an aggregator of quality-assured courses. The initial phase is co-financed by EU funds, and efforts are underway to further develop the scheme.
The Netherlands: Stimulering Arbeidsmarkt Positie (stimulus for labour market position)
The Stimulering Arbeidsmarkt Positie (STAP) voucher scheme operated from 2022 to 2023, offering up to EUR 1 000 per year in training support to individuals aged 18 to 67 who were covered by the national insurance system. The scheme aimed to strengthen individuals’ position in the labour market. Initially, it adopted a broad definition of eligible training, which was refined over time during implementation. The number of available places was limited by the overall budget, and entitlements were allocated in a randomised way to those who signed up, given that the demand exceeded the number of places. The scheme was suspended after two years.